The Role of Shapers in Virtual The Role of Shapers in Virtual Firm-based Practice Networks Firm-based Practice Networks using Wikis: Implications for using Wikis: Implications for
Systems EngineeringSystems Engineering
Ann Majchrzak, Ann Majchrzak, Professor of Information SystemsProfessor of Information SystemsUniversity of Southern CaliforniaUniversity of Southern California
[email protected]@usc.edu
Background: What is a Wiki?Background: What is a Wiki?
Wikis = “Fast” Website: Wikis = “Fast” Website: Example Example Katrina Wiki Katrina Wiki
OpenOpen
Wiki Way: Wiki content not owned by individual authors; focus on community ; everyone can contribute and change content easily, if given access to page
Wiki Way: content maintenance principles. Simplified mark-up (language), rules for modifying and integrating other authors’ pages (“refactoring rules”), as well as page design standards (templates).
SimpleSimple
Wiki Way: Incremental growth. Links to missing pages permitted and rendered as open questions for someone else to address. Hyperlink automatically created when a missing page is added.
IncrementalIncremental
Wiki Way: observability of all content, past and present leads to broad reviews and better quality.
ObservableObservable
Wiki Way: Organic growth. A wiki structure can be changed by any wiki author, as the need arises.
OrganicOrganic
““Sweet Spots”:CSweet Spots”:Collaboration ollaboration and Coordinationand Coordination
Coordination across time zones
same
different
Collaboratorsfew many
Group-ware
Chat room
E-mail / Listserv
Discussion Forum
CMS Portal
Weblog
Wiki
““Sweet Spots”: Sweet Spots”: Dispersion of Dispersion of KnowledgeKnowledge
Knowledge Sources
few
many
Knowledge Recipientsfew many
Discussion Forum
E-mail / Listserv
CMS Portal
Group-ware
Wiki
Weblog
““Sweet Spots”: Sweet Spots”: Knowledge Knowledge MaintenanceMaintenance
Ease of Knowledge Maintenance
low
high
Knowledge Organizationlow high
Discussion Forum
E-mail / Listserv
CMS
Portal
Group-ware
Enterprise KMS
Community KMS
WikiWeblog
Systems Engineering Uses of Wiki Systems Engineering Uses of Wiki ApplicationsApplications
• Company, project, or department intranet with collaboratively editing pages on new technologies, project status, customer information (as a CRM with dashboards), bug tracking, competitor information (with RSS feeds)
• Fast problem identification and resolution mechanism
• Project management (meeting minutes, task status, repository, workflow automation)
• Solutions sharing (FAQ, best practice)• Distributed meeting coordination
Corporate DirectoryCorporate Directory
Summary of Wiki’s Potential for Summary of Wiki’s Potential for Systems EngineeringSystems Engineering
• Encourages people to share knowledge by project, practice area, function, problem, or issue within firms emergently
• Allows for organizing knowledge as it evolves
• The opportunity of a ‘shaping’ role emerges
*Wasko & Faraj 2005
ShapingShaping• Contributing by integrating, distilling,
organizing & rewriting contributions of others
• Shaping is a practice-based role*• Facilitates knowledge transformation by
helping community to exchange & combine its knowledge to refine its perspective & to take new perspectives**
* Brown & Duguid 2001, Feldman & Pentland 2003, Orlikowski 2002** Boland & Tenkasi 1995, Dougherty 1992, Carlile 2004, Nahapiet & Ghoshal 1998
Example of a Shaper: HowardExample of a Shaper: Howard
• 75-person software engineering group at a multi-billion dollar tech company
• “I spend up to two hours a day working on the wiki. Much of this time I reorganize other people’s materials, rename pages, create new links on the home page, or restructure the home page. Benefits aren’t to mean personally, but they help the group collaborate more effectively. They can find things easier”
Motivation for ResearchMotivation for Research• Prior research focused on why people
contribute personal content knowledge to networks & repositories*
• Shapers relatively ignored**• Shapers & Personal Knowledge
Contributors (PKCs) have different barriers to overcome: “some edit others work, & some don’ts”
* Fulk et al 1996, 2004; Bagozzi & Dholakia 2006, Bock et al 2005, Kalman et al 2005, Roberst et sl 2006, Wasko & Faraj 2005 **Butler et al in press is an exception
Research QuestionsResearch Questions
• Are there unique characteristics of participants in virtual practice networks who a) primarily shape vs b) primarily contribute personal knowledge?
• Are the factors explaining the level of participation in each role different?
Hyp 1: Unique Chars?Hyp 1: Unique Chars?PKCs
Lose sole claim to knowledge
Deep task expertise*- self-proclaimed- relative to others in network (network perceived to have well-developed transactive memory)
Shapers
Reactions of others to edits (especially if converging on domain)
Focus on divergence in domain**(new business opportunities)
More general expertise
Barriers:
H1: Predicted profile to overcome barriers
*Gray 2001, Kankanhalli et al 2005, Bock et al 2005, Menon et al 2006**Boland & Tenkasi 1995
Hyp 2: Explain Level of Hyp 2: Explain Level of Participation in Each Role?Participation in Each Role?
PKCs
Lose sole claim to knowledge
Social Exchange: Benefits > Costs
ShapersReactions of others
to edits (especially if converging on domain)
Social Capital: Combination Process to foster new intellectual capital
Barriers:
H2: Diff theories to explain level of participation
*Gray 2001, Kankanhalli et al 2005, Bock et al 2005, Menon et al 2006**Boland & Tenkasi 1995
Hyp 2 (cont):Hyp 2 (cont):Predictors to Level of ParticipationPredictors to Level of Participation
Costs in time
Benefits for indiv work
Benefits for group work (member of core group)
Benefits to orgztn
Exchange/Combo Opportunity - # accesses by community
Anticipation of new knowledge creation - perceived novelty of task
Motivation to combine/exchange - worth to organization
Combination capability - Received reputation
PKCs ShapersSocial Exchange Theory Social Capital Theory
Research Methods: Survey of firm Research Methods: Survey of firm wiki users that protects firm & wiki users that protects firm &
personal identity personal identity • Solicitation on 10 listservers likely visited
by firm-based wiki participants• Followed accepted recs for decreasing
response bias• Identified Shapers & PKCs within sample:
factor analysis of types of contributions, then median splits on two types
Means for Shaper vs PKC Contributions
A.Entire Sample Mean (1=never,
7=all the time), (Sd)N=168
B.Shaper Sub sample
Mean(Sd)N=47
C.PKC Sub-sample
Mean(Sd)N=47
How often have your contributions to the wiki been:
Adding new pages 5.0(1.4) 3.9(1.1) 5.7(1.3)
Adding content to existing pages 5.4(1.1) 4.5(1.0) 6.0(0.9)
Rewriting whole paragraphs 2.3(1.3) 2.5(1.2) 1.7(0.9)
Reorganizing a set of pages 2.8(1.5) 2.9(1.3) 2.3(1.3)
Integrating ideas already posted onto existing pages 3.5(1.5) 3.8(1.3) 2.6(1.4)
H1 Confirmed: Profiles Different for H1 Confirmed: Profiles Different for Shapers vs. PKCs Shapers vs. PKCs
Mean Difference Between Subgroups
Independent Variables B S.E. Wald Sig. eB
PKC Shaper 4.70 4.17 Expertise Depth -.488 .232 4.439 .035 .614 t = 2.31, p< .05 .79 .41 Transactive Memory
System -.977 .460 4.499 .034 .377
t = 2.76, p< .01 2.0 2.57 Use of Wiki to
Identify Bus. Opportunities
.495 .201 6.034 .014 1.64
t = 2.31, p< .05
Control Variables 32.62 21.83 Months Individual
Using Wikis -.033 .014 5.576 .018 .967
t = 2.35, p< .05 4.81 4.77 Months Organization
Using Wikis .246 .277 .784 .376
t = .11, p= .91 4.43 4.34 Months Wiki in
Existence -.086 .285 .091 .763
t = .22, p= .83
78.5% classification accuracy
H2 & H3 TestH2 & H3 Test
• Moderator Regressions
2-Tiered Regression Results on Level of 2-Tiered Regression Results on Level of Participation for Shapers and Personal Participation for Shapers and Personal
Knowledge Contributors Combined Knowledge Contributors Combined Variables Entered Model 1 Model 2 Constant Freq. Wiki Access .24** .27*** Task novelty .13 .21** Use of Wiki to Improve Org. Processes
.34*** .33***
Reputation Received .03 .03 Costs in Time -.18* -.18* Benefits to Indiv. Work .30*** .25* Membership in core group .13 .09 Sub-group .16 .14 Grp X Freq. Access .00 Grp x Task Novelty .25* Grp X Costs in Time .16* Grp X Benefits to Indiv. -.07 Grp x Member Core Grp -.26*** Grp X Reputation Rec’d .19* Adjusted R2 .37*** .51*** Change in R2 .29*** .16***
***=p<.001; **p<.01, *p<.05
Interaction EffectsInteraction Effects
Interaction EffectsInteraction Effects
Regressions of Level of Regressions of Level of Participation for Each Group Participation for Each Group
a. Personal Knowledge Contributors only (n=47) Variables Entered Standardized B Coefficient Main Effects: Costs in Time -.32** Benefit to Individuals’ Work .25* Membership in Core Group .30* Use of Wiki to Improve Work Processes
.35**
Adjusted R2 .40*** b. Shapers only (n=47) Variables Entered Standardized B Coefficient Main Effects: Freq. of wiki accesses .30** Task Novelty .38** Reputation Received .29* Use of Wiki to Improve Work Processes
.33**
Adjusted R2 .53*** **p<.01, *p<.05
Implications for Systems Implications for Systems EngineeringEngineering
• Seed networks with technology and technology norms that encourage collaborative editing
• Encourage networks to take on novel tasks, encourage benefits at multiple levels in organization, promote network to increase frequency of accesses
• DON’T assume that deep task expertise is needed for each network or need to assign formal rolesGive network the seeds; allow it to bloom