Chapter 1
Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
Topics and Questions
The history and growth of psychology
The big question: Nature vs. Nurture
Biopsychosocial levels of analysis
Psychology’s subfields Avoiding three
“common sense” thinking errors
How do I explain dreams? Anxiety? The abilities and funny behavior of babies?
The Scientific Attitude: Curiosity, Skepticism, Humility
The Scientific Method Description, Correlation,
and Experimentation Frequently Asked Questions
about Psychology Applying psychology to
learning the text: SQ3R
From speculation to science: The Birth of Modern Psychology
Aristotle (4th century BCE) had ideas about how the body and mind work.His method: making guesses.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) added two key elements to help make psychology a science:1. carefully measured observations2. experiments
Push a button when a ball dropped (based on when they heard the ball hit a platform): 1/10th of a second.
Push a button when consciously aware of hearing the ball hit the platform: 2/10ths of a second.
Wilhelm Wundt’s 1879 experimentmeasured the time it took for people to:
Why were the times different?
Structuralism
Edward Titchener, like his teacher Wundt, used data from introspection, reporting on sensations and other elements of experience.
Structuralism: Using these introspective reports to build a view of the mind’s structure
Functionalism: The school of thought that Psychological processes have a function: helping us survive as individuals, adapt as a species
The developer of functionalism, William James (1842-1910), asked: How did the human style of thinking and behavior enable our ancestors to live long enough to reproduce?
James mentored another pioneer
William James
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) became a memory researcher and the first female president of the APA.
She studied with William James but was denied a Harvard PhD. Why?
Because of her gender.
Psychology Pioneers
Mary Whiton Calkins
Psychology Pioneers
Margaret Floy Washburn,
PhD
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939): The first female to earn a
Psychology PhD The second female APA
president Author of The Animal
Mind.
Shifting definitions of “psychology”
Wilhelm Wundt and
Edward Titchener,
around 1900: “The science
of mental life.”
John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner,
behaviorists, 1920’s: “The
scientific study of
observable behavior.”
Cognitive psychologists,
1960’s, studied
internal mental processes, helped by
neuroscience.
Now we combine these definitions: “The science of behavior and mental
processes.”
Behaviorists study and experiment with observable behavior.
Watson experimented with conditioned responses.
Skinner studied the way consequences shape behavior.
Like other behaviorists, he saw little value in introspection.
Trends in Psychological Science: Behaviorism
John B. Watson
B. F. Skinner
Sigmund Freud, founder of psychoanalysis: He studied and helped people with a
variety of mental disorders. More about Freud when we study
personality and therapy
Sigmund Freud
Trends in Psychology: Freudian/Psychoanalytic Psychology
Humanists: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (1960s): studied people who were thriving rather
than those who had psychological problems.
developed theories and treatments to help people to feel accepted and to reach their full potential.
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Trends in Psychology: Humanism
The Growth of Psychology
Psychology’s pioneers have come from many fields: physiology, philosophy, medicine, and biology.
Advances in psychology also have been made in many countries
Psychology has spread rapidly; there are 71 member nations in the IUPS.
The subjects studied in psychology have
multiplied too… as we shall see in this course.
The Big Issue in Psychology: N-N
To what extent are our traits already set in place at birth (our “Nature”)?
And to what extent do our traits develop in response to our environment/ experience (our “Nurture”)?
The Nature-Nurture Question:
vs. Nature Nurtur
e
Plato: Ideas such
as “the good” and “beauty”
are inborn. Descartes:
Some ideas are innate.
Charles Darwin: Some traits become part of our nature through
natural selection: they help us survive long
enough to pass the traits to the next generation.
Aristotle:All knowledge
comes through the senses.
John Locke:The mind is a
blank slate (blank chalkboard or
screen) “written on” by experience.
Nature Nurture
We have differences
that are shaped by our environment.
We share a common
origin that gives us an
inborn human nature in common.
+
“Nurture works on what Nature endows.”
The Roles of Nature and
Nurture:
Biology Plus Environment..are part of
psychology’s three “biopsychosocial” levels of analysis.
The deep level, Biology:
genes, brain, neuro-
transmitters, survival, reflexes,
sensation
The outer level, Environment:
social Influences, culture,
education, relationshipsIn the middle,
Psychology: thoughts, emotions,
moods, choices, behaviors, traits,
motivations, knowledge, perceptions
The three levels as influences on some psychological phenomenon
Example: DepressionExample: IntelligenceExample: Enjoying SoccerExample: Shyness
Cognitive perspective
Social-cultural
Behavioral genetics
Neuroscience
Psychodynamic
Behaviorist
Evolutionary
There are many perspectives for
describing psychological phenomena: From different angles, you ask different questions:
How reliable is memory? How can we improve our thinking?
Could our behavior, skills, and attitudes be “downloads” from our culture?
Could our behavior, skills, and attitudes be genetically programmed instincts?What role do our bodies and brains play in emotions? How is pain inhibited? Can we trust our senses?
Do inner childhood conflicts still plague me and affect my behavior?How are our problematic behaviors reinforced? How do our fears become conditioned? What can we do to change these fears and behaviors?Why are humans prone to panic, anger, and making irrational judgments?
Different perspectives on a single issue: Six Blind Men and an Elephant
Let’s play: “What’s my perspective?”
“Obsessive-compulsive disorder is a
problem in the orbital cortex.”
“No, it’s a sign of unresolved
childhood issues.” “No, OCD is
an inherited
condition.”
“Compulsions start as habits and are rewarded by the
anxiety relief they bring.”
“OCD comes from our
natural instinct to control our
environment.”
“OCD thinking and behavior is a reaction to our fast-paced, out-
of-control lifestyles.”
“No, OCD is a matter of mental habits and
errors that can be corrected.”
Psychology’s Subfields
AppliedClinical Psychology
Counseling Psychology
Educational Psychology
Industrial-Organizational
Community Psychology
Clinical Psychology
Basic researchBiological
Developmental
Cognitive
Personality
Social
Positive Psychology
Psychology’s Subfields Research Examples
Type of researchBiological
Developmental
Cognitive
Personality
Social
Positive Psychology
Study how the stages of cognitive and emotional development vary in autism
Explore the structural problems in the brain that may be part of autism
Clarify the difficulties autistic children have with understanding sarcasmDecide whether traits like neuroticism need to be measured differently in autismFind how autistic children can learn social skills as procedures if not by intuitionExplore what motivates people and contributes to life satisfaction
AppliedClinical Psychology
Counseling Psychology
Educational Psychology
Industrial-Organizational
Community Psychology
Clinical Psychology
Psychology’s SubfieldsApplied
Help someone achieve career goals despite family conflict and self-doubt
Use exposure therapy to decrease phobic reactions in a traumatized client
Evaluate aptitudes and achievement to plan for a student with learning problemsFigure out how a factory can improve coordination of tasks, roles, and personalitiesHelp coordinate a city’s efforts to understand and prevent elder abuseUse exposure therapy to decrease phobic reactions in a traumatized client
Psychology in context with other professions
Psychiatrists are physicians, M.D.s or
D.O.s. They can prescribe medication.
In addition to psychologists,
professionals in social work, counseling, and marriage and family
therapy may be trained to do psychotherapy.
The Need for Psychological Science: Overview
Typical errors in hindsight, overconfidence, and coincidence
The scientific attitude and critical thinking The scientific method: theories and hypotheses Gathering psychological data: description,
correlation, and experimentation/causation Describing data: significant differences Issues in psychology: laboratory vs. life, culture
and gender, values and ethics
When our natural thinking style fails:
Hindsight bias:“I knew it all
along.”
Overconfidence error:
“I am sure I am correct.”
The coincidence error, ormistakenly perceiving
order in random events: “The dice must be fixed
because you rolled three sixes in a row.”
Hindsight bias is like a crystal ball that we use to predict…
the past.
I knew this would happen…
You were accepted into this
college/university
Classic example: after watching a
competition (sports, cooking), if you don’t
make a prediction ahead of time, you
might make a “postdiction”: “I
figured that team/person would
win because…”
When you see most results of
psychological research, you might
say, “that was obvious…”
Hindsight Bias
These sayings all seem to make
sense, in hindsight, after we read them.
Out of sight, out of mind
S/He who hesitates is lost
No [wo]man is an island
Actions speak louder than words
You’re never too old to learn
Curiosity killed the cat Opposites attract
There’s no place like home
Absence makes the heart grow fonder
Look before you leap
Good fences make good neighbors
The pen is mightier than the sword
You can’t teach an old dog new tricks
The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence
Seek and ye shall findBirds of a feather flock together
But then why do these other
phrases also seem to make sense?
Hindsight “Bias”
The mind builds its current wisdom around what we have already been told. We are “biased” in favor of old information.
For example, we may stay in a bad relationship because it has lasted this far and thus was “meant to be.”
Why call it “bias”?
Overconfidence Error:
Predicting performance We overestimate our
performance, our rate of work, our skills, and our degree of self-control.
Overconfidence Error:
Judging our accuracy
When stating that we “know” something, our level of confidence is usually much higher than our level of accuracy.
Overconfidence is a problem in preparing for tests. Familiarity is not understanding
If you feel confident that you know a concept, try explaining it to someone else.
Test for this: “how long do you think it takes you to…” (e.g. “just finish this one thing I’m doing on the computer before I get to work”)?
How fast can you unscramble words? Guess, then try these:
ERSEGAHEGOUN
Result of this error:
reacting to coincidence as if it has meaning
Perceiving order in random events:
Example: The coin tosses that “look wrong” if
there are five heads in a
row.
Danger: thinking you can make a prediction from a random series. If there have been five heads in a row, you can not predict that “it’s time for tails” on the next flip
Why this error happens: because we have the wrong idea about what randomness looks like.
If one poker player at a table got pocket aces twice in a row, is the game rigged?
Making our ideas more accurate bybeing scientific
What did “Amazing Randi” do about the claim of seeing auras? He developed a testable prediction, which would support the theory if it succeeded.
Which it did not.
The aura-readers were unable to locate the aura around Randi’s body without seeing Randi’s body itself, so their claim was not supported.
Scientific Attitude Part 1: Curiosity
Hypothesis: Curiosity, if not
guided by caution, can lead to the death of felines
and perhaps humans.
Definition: always asking new
questions
“That behavior I’m noticing in that guy… is that common to all people? Or is it more common when under stress? Or only common for males?”
Scientific Attitude Part 2: Skepticism
Definition: not accepting a ‘fact’ as true without
challenging it; seeing if ‘facts’ can withstand attempts to disprove them
Skepticism, like curiosity, generates questions: “Is there another explanation for the behavior I am seeing? Is there a problem with how I measured it, or how I set up my experiment? Do I need to change my theory to fit the evidence?”
Scientific Attitude Part 3: Humility
Humility refers to seeking the truth
rather than trying to be right; a scientist needs to be able to
accept being wrong.
“What matters is not my opinion or
yours, but the truth nature
reveals in response to our questioning.” David Myers
Critical thinking refers to a more careful style of forming and evaluating knowledge than simply using intuition.
Along with the scientific method, critical thinking will help us develop more effective and accurate ways to figure out what makes people do, think, and feel the things they do.
“Think critically” with psychological science… does this mean “criticize”?
Why do I need to work on my thinking? Can’t you just tell me facts about psychology?
• The brain is designed for surviving and reproducing, but it is not the best tool for seeing ‘reality’ clearly.
Critical thinking: analyzing
information, arguments, and conclusions, to
decide if they make sense, rather than
simply accepting it.
Look for hidden
assumptions and decide if
you agree.Look for
hidden bias, politics,
values, or personal
connections.
Put aside your own
assumptions and biases, and look at
the evidence.
See if there was a flaw in
how the information
was collected.
Consider if there are
other possible
explanations for the facts or results.
How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions:The Scientific MethodThe scientific method is the process of testing our ideas about the world by:
Turning our theories into testable predictions.
Gather information related to our predictions.
analyzing whether the data fits with our ideas.
If the data doesn’t fit our ideas, then we modify our hypotheses, set up a study or experiment, and try
again to see if the world fits our predictions.
Scientific Method: Tools and Goals
Some research findings revealed by the scientific method:
The brain can recover from massive early childhood brain damage.
Sleepwalkers are not acting out dreams.
Our brains do not have accurate memories locked inside like video files.
There is no “hidden and unused 90 percent” of our brain.
People often change their opinions to fit their actions.
The basics: Theory Hypothesis Operational
Definitions Replication
Research goals/types: Description Correlation Prediction Causation Experiments
Theory: the big picture
Example of a theory: “All ADHD symptoms are a reaction to eating sugar.”
A theory, in the language of
science, is a set of principles, built on observations and other verifiable
facts, that explains some phenomenon
and predicts its future behavior.
Hypotheses: informed predictions
“Testable” means that the hypothesis is stated in a way that we could make observations to find out if it is true.
A hypothesis is a testable prediction
consistent with our theory.
What would be a prediction from the “All ADHD is about sugar” theory?
One hypothesis: “If a kid gets sugar, the kid will act more distracted, impulsive, and hyper.”To test the “All” part of the theory: “ADHD symptoms will continue for some kids even after sugar is removed from the diet.”
Danger when testing hypotheses:theories can bias our observations
We might select only the data, or the interpretations of the data, that support what we already believe. There are safeguards against this: Hypotheses designed to
disconfirm Operational definitions
Guide for making useful observations: How can we measure
“ADHD symptoms” in the previous example in observable terms? Impulsivity = # of
times/hour calling out without raising hand.
Hyperactivity = # of times/hour out of seat
Inattention = # minutes continuously on task before becoming distracted
The next/final step in the scientific method:Replication
You could introduce a small change in the study, e.g. trying the ADHD/sugar test on college students instead of elementary students.
Replicating research means trying the methods of a study again, but with different participants or situations, to see if the same results happen.
Research Process: an example
Scientific Method: Tools and Goals
The basics: Theory Hypothesis Operational Definitions Replication
Research goals/types: Description Correlation Prediction Causation Experiments
Now that we’ve covered this
We can move on to this
Research goal and strategy: Description
Strategies for gathering this information: Case Study: observing
and gathering information to compile an in-depth study of one individual
Naturalistic Observation: gathering data about behavior; watching but not intervening
Surveys and Interviews: having other people report on their own attitudes and behavior
Descriptive research is a systematic, objective
observation of people.
The goal is to provide a
clear, accurate picture of people’s
behaviors, thoughts, and
attributes.
Case StudyExamining one individual in depth Benefit: can be a source
of ideas about human nature in general
Example: cases of brain damage have suggested the function of different parts of the brain (e.g. Phineas Gage seen here)
Danger: overgeneralization from one example; “Joe got better after tapping his foot, so tapping must be the key to health!”
Observing “natural” behavior means just watching (and taking notes), and not trying to change anything.
This method can be used to study more than one individual, and to find truths that apply to a broader population.
Naturalistic Observation
The Survey Definition: A method of
gathering information about many people’s thoughts or behaviors through self-report rather than observation.
Keys to getting useful information: Be careful about the
wording of questions Only question randomly
sampled people
Wording effectsthe results you get from a survey can be changed by your word selection.
Example:
Q: Do you have motivation to study hard for this course?
Q: Do you feel a desire to study hard for this course?
What psychology science mistake was made here?
Hint #1: Harry Truman won.
Hint #2: The Chicago Tribune interviewed people about whom they would vote for.
Hint #3: in 1948.
Hint #4: by phone.
Random Sampling• If you want to find out
something about men, you can’t interview every single man on earth.
• Sampling saves time. You can find the ratio of colors in this jar by making sure they are well mixed (randomized) and then taking a sample. population sample
Random sampling is a technique for making
sure that every individual in a population has an
equal chance of being in your sample.
“Random” means that your selection of participants is driven only by chance, not by any characteristic.
CorrelationGeneral Definition: an observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other (thus, they are “co”-related) Scientific definition: a measure of how closely two factors vary together, or how well you can predict a change in one from observing a change in the other
In a case study: The fewer hours the boy
was allowed to sleep, the more episodes of
aggression he displayed.
A possible result of many descriptive studies:discovering a correlation
In a naturalistic observation: Children in a
classroom who were dressed in heavier clothes were more likely to fall asleep than those wearing
lighter clothes.
In a survey: The greater the number of Facebook friends,
the less time was spent studying.
Correlation Coefficient• The correlation coefficient is a number representing how closely
and in what way two variables correlate (change together).• The direction of the correlation can be positive (direct relationship;
both variables increase together) or negative (inverse relationship: as one increases, the other decreases).
• The strength of the relationship, how tightly, predictably they vary together, is measured in a number that varies from 0.00 to +/- 1.00.
Close to +1.0
(strong negative correlation)
(no relationship,no correlation)
Guess the Correlation Coefficients
(strong positive correlation)
Height vs. shoe size
Years in school vs. years in jail
Height vs. intelligence
Close to 0.0
Close to -1.0
If we find a correlation, what conclusions can
we draw from it?
Let’s say we find the following result: there is a positive correlation between two variables, ice cream sales, and rates of violent crime How do we explain this?
Correlation is not Causation!
“People who floss more regularly have less risk of heart disease.”
“People with bigger feet tend to be taller.”
If this data is from a survey, can we conclude that flossing might prevent heart disease? Or that people with heart-healthy habits also floss regularly?
Does that mean having bigger feet causes height?
If self-esteem correlates with depression,there are still numerous possible causal links:
So how do we find out about causation? By experimentation
Testing the theory that ADHD = sugar: removing sugar from the diet of children with ADHD to see if it makes a difference
The depression/self-esteem example: trying interventions that improve self-esteem to see if they cause a reduction in depression
Experimentation: manipulating one factor in a
situation to determine its
effect
The Control Group• If we manipulate a variable in an experimental group
of people, and then we see an effect, how do we know the change wouldn’t have happened anyway?
• We solve this problem by comparing this group to a control group, a group that is the same in every way except the one variable we are changing.
Example: two groups of children have ADHD, but only one group stops eating refined sugar.
By using random assignment:
randomly selecting some study
participants to be assigned to the
control group or the experimental group.
How do make sure the control group is really identical in every way to the experimental group?
To clarify two similar-sounding terms…
First you sample, then you sort
(assign)
Random assignment of participants to
control or experimental groups is how you control all
variables except the one you’re manipulating.
Random sampling is how you get a pool of
research participants that represents the
population you’re trying to
learn about.
Placebo effect
Placebo effect: experimental effects that are caused by expectations about
the intervention
How do we make sure that the experimental group doesn’t experience an effect because they expect to experience it?
How can we make sure both groups expect to get better, but only one gets the real intervention being studied?
Working with the placebo effect:Control groups may be given a placebo – an inactive substance or other fake treatment in place of the experimental treatment. The control group is
ideally “blind” to whether they are getting real or fake treatment.
Many studies are double-blind – neither participants nor research staff knows which participants are in the experimental or control groups.
The variable we are able to manipulate independently of what the other variables are doing is called the independent variable (IV).
• If we test the ADHD/sugar hypothesis: • Sugar = Cause = Independent Variable• ADHD = Effect = Dependent Variable
The variable we expect to experience a change which depends on the manipulation we’re doing is called the dependent variable (DV).
• Did more hyper kids get to choose to be in the sugar group? Then their preference for sugar would be a confounding variable. (preventing this problem: random assignment).
The other variables that might have an effect on the dependent variable are confounding variables.
Naming the variables
An experiment is a type of research in which the researcher carefully
manipulates a limited number of factors (IVs) and measures the impact on other factors
(DVs).*in psychology, you would be looking at
the effect of the experimental change (IV) on a behavior or mental process (DV).
Filling in our definition of experimentation
Correlation vs. causation:the breastfeeding/intelligence question
• Studies have found that children who were breastfed score higher on intelligence tests, on average, than those who were bottle-fed.
• Can we conclude that breast feeding CAUSES higher intelligence?
• Not necessarily. There is at least one confounding variable: genes. The intelligence test scores of the mothers might be higher in those who choose breastfeeding.
• So how do we deal with this confounding variable? Hint: experiment.
Ruling out confounding variables:experiment with random assignment
An actual study in the text: women were randomly selected to be in a group in which breastfeeding was promoted
+6 points
Comparing Research MethodsResearch Method
Basic Purpose How Conducted
What is Manipulated
Weaknesses
Summary of the types of Research
Descriptive To observe and record behavior
Perform case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations
Nothing No control of variables; single cases may be misleading
Correlational To detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another
Compute statistical association, sometimes among survey responses
Nothing Does not specify cause-effect; one variable predicts another but this does not mean one causes the other
Experimental To explore cause-effect
Manipulate one or more factors; randomly assign some to control group
The independent variable(s)
Sometimes not possible for practical or ethical reasons; results may not generalize to other contexts
Drawing conclusions from data: are the results useful?After finding a pattern in our data that shows a difference between one group and another, we can ask more questions. Is the difference
reliable: can we use this result to generalize or to predict the future behavior of the broader population?
Is the difference significant: could the result have been caused by random/ chance variation between the groups?
How to achieve reliability: Nonbiased sampling: Make sure the
sample that you studied is a good representation of the population you are trying to learn about.
Consistency: Check that the data (responses, observations) is not too widely varied to show a clear pattern.
Many data points: Don’t try to generalize from just a few cases, instances, or responses.
When have you found statistically significant difference (e.g. between experimental and control groups)? When your data is reliable AND When the difference between the groups
is large (e.g. the data’s distribution curves do not overlap too much).
Question: How can a result from an experiment, possibly simplified and performed in a laboratory, give us any insight into real life?
FAQ about PsychologyLaboratory vs.
Life
Diversity
Answer: By isolating variables and studying them carefully, we can discover general principles that might apply to all people.
Question: Do the insights from research really apply to all people, or do the factors of culture and gender override these “general” principles of behavior?
Answer: Research can discover human universals AND study how culture and gender influence behavior. However, we must be careful not to generalize too much from studies done with subjects who do not represent the general population.
Question: Why study animals? Is it possible to protect the safety and dignity of animal research subjects?
FAQ about PsychologyEthics
Ethics
Answer: Sometimes, biologically related creatures are less complex than humans and thus easier to study. In some cases, harm to animals generates important insights to help all creatures. The value of animal research remains extremely controversial.
Question: How do we protect the safety and dignity of human subjects? Answer: People in experiments may experience discomfort; deceiving people sometimes yields insights into human behavior. Human research subjects are supposedly protected by guidelines for non-harmful treatment, confidentiality, informed consent, and debriefing (explaining the purpose of the study).
Question: How do the values of psychologists affect their work? Is it possible to perform value-free research?
FAQ about PsychologyThe impact of
Values
Answer: Researchers’ values affect their choices of topics, their interpretations, their labels for what they see, and the advice they generate from their results. Value-free research remains an impossible ideal.
An Application of Psychology:Improving your test performance
Scientific studies show us that:
• The retrieval practice effect/testing effect
Testing yourself boosts retention of material.
• Put it in your own words, make connections
Actively processing material helps master it.
• Spread studying over multiple days
Spaced rehearsal, interspaced with other subjects, is more efficient than cramming.
• If the concept looks familiar… not good enough
People tend to overestimate their mastery.
Applying this knowledge: Use SQ3R to master a textbook
SurveyScan/Skim what you are about to read, especially chapter outlines and section heads.
Question Ask questions that the text might answer; write guesses.
ReadLook for the answer to your questions, reading a manageable amount at a time.
RehearseRecall what you’ve read in your own words. Test yourself with quizzes.
ReviewLook over text and notes and quickly review the main ideas of the whole chapter.