1
Aristotle's Regime of the Americans
Introduction
The discovery of ancient texts once thought to have been irretrievably lost is a
rare event. But it does happen. The discovery a few years ago of the works of
Posidippus is a case in point. As far as the texts of Aristotle are concerned, the
most dramatic event in modern times was the discovery, in the 19th
Century,
of his Athenaion Politeia or Regime of the Athenians. Not less dramatic is the
text that follows and that I offer here for the first time both in the original
Greek and in accompanying English translation. How the text came into my
hands is a complex story that would take too long to explain, so let me just say
that it involves a shadowy Hittite book dealer near ancient Scepsis in the
Troad. The text’s title of Amerikanon Politeia, taken from the opening words,
is Aristotelian enough and, as will immediately appear, so is much of its
content. Indeed several sentences and paragraphs can easily be paralleled in
Aristotle’s Politics. This gives us, accordingly, some reason to regard the text
as his or at least as preserving genuinely Aristotelian thought.
What will give us pause, of course, is the seeming anachronism of the
subject matter. The regime of the Americans seems an unlikely, nay, an
impossible topic for Aristotle to have written about. Did he not die millennia
before the regime came into existence? This question, however, betrays an
anachronism of its own. According to Aristotle himself, as we learn from texts
undoubtedly his, the world is eternal and experiences periodic cataclysms
during which human civilization is reduced to primitive savagery whence it
slowly rises, recovering all that was previously lost, until the next cataclysm
destroys everything again. Consequently the regime of the Americans, or
something like it, has already existed many times in the past. Our current
views about the age and origin of the cosmos are not as definite or as complete
as altogether to rule out Aristotle’s speculations. If so, there is no compelling
reason to deny that he could have come to learn about an American-style
regime from ancient tales or records. There is also, therefore, no compelling
reason to deny that he could have described and assessed that regime in the
same way as he did the regimes of the Athenians and Spartans. At all events,
one should judge the text that follows, not by its anachronism (for it has none),
but by its content. And that content seems Aristotelian enough. To aid the
understanding of the content, therefore, I have divided the text into numbered
paragraphs and also marked, in the translation, where the author passes from
description to criticism.
2
1. h( de\ ¡Amerikanw=n politei/a, h(\n sxedo\n e)n pa/saij tai=j po/lesin e)/xontai kai\ e)n t$= summaxi/# t$= pro\j a)llh/louj, ei)j ei)/dh a)rxw=n ma/lista tri/a diane/metai: wÒn de\ plei/staj me\n o( dh=moj ai(rei=tai, ai( de\ tou= tri/tou me/gistai u(po\ tw=n a)/llwn a)rxw=n kaqi/stantai. le/gw de\ tri/a th\n me\n monarxi/an, tou\j de\ ge/ronta/j te kai\ th\n e)kklhsi/an, kai\ tri/ton de\ ta\ dikasth/ria. kai/per me\n ga\r oi¸ ¡Amerikanoi\ to\n mo/narxon th=j au(tw=n mhtropo/lewj w(\j tu/rannon o)/nta dia\ pole/mou e)kbalo/ntej, o(/mwj de\ th\n monarxikh\n a)rxh\n sfo/dra filou=si kai\ mega/laj a)rxa\j mo/naj me\n o)/ntaj kuri/aj de\ pollw=n tw=n koinw=n kate/sthsan pantaxou=: kalou=si de\ proe/drouj h)\ kubernh/taj h)\ kai\\ dhma/rxouj. ou(\j kai\ e)n a)rx$= diame/nein e)w=sin e)/th polla\ kai\ ei)j th\n au)th\n tou\j au)tou\j polla/kij ai(rou=ntai, ou) mh\n a)ll' e)ni/ote to\n au)to\n ei)j th\n au)th\n badi/zein ou)k e)w=sin plh\n a(/pac h)\ di/j. pro\j de\ tou/toij peri\ katasta/seij a)/llwn a)rxw=n poiou=si pollw=n toiou/touj me\n kuri/ouj eiånai, t%= de\ dh/m% tou= tau/taj ai(rei=sqai a)rxa\j e)cousi/an ou) di/dontej ou)demi/an. 2. meta\ de\ th\n monarxi/an ei)si\ d' au)toi=j h( tw=n gero/ntwn a)rxh\ kai\ h( th=j e)kklhsi/aj, a(/sper e)xqra\j pro\j tou\j mona/rxouj kai\ e(te/ran pro\j e(te/ran kate/sthsan:
Description of the Regime
1. The regime of the Americans,
which they have in almost all their
cities and in their alliance with each
other, is divided into three kinds of
office in particular, most of which
are elected by the populace though
the most important ones among the
third kind are appointed by the
other offices. The three offices I
mean are the monarchy, the senate
and assembly, and the courts third.
For though the Americans
overthrew the monarch of their
mother country, whom they
accused of tyranny and fought a
war against, yet they have an
especial love for the office of
monarch and have established
powerful offices everywhere that
are held by one man and are
possessed of control over many
matters of common concern. These
monarchs they call presidents or
governors or mayors. Moreover
they allow them to hold office for
many years and they elect the same
men to the same office many times,
though in some cases they do not
allow the same man to hold the
same office more than once or
twice. In addition they put such
monarchs in control of appointing
many other offices where the
populace are given no power to do
any electing at all.
2. After the monarchy they have
the office of senate and assembly,
which they have set up as hostile
rivals to the monarchs as well as to
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oi¸ ga\r ¡Amerikanoi\ toi=j mona/rxoij kai\ pa=si toi=j e)n a)rxv= ma/lista fqonou=si kai\ w(j ou)k ouåsin i(kanw=j a)gaqoi=j a)ndra/sin a)pistou=sin: ei) kai\ ga\r du/namin au)toi=j dido/asi megi/sthn, a)ei\ qe/lousin au)tou\j u(p¡ a)/llwn kate/xesqai kata\ th\n bou/lhsin. e)/ti de\ tou\j ge/rontaj kai\ tou\j e)kklhsiasta\j ai(rou=ntai pa/ntej oi( poli=tai, o(/per dhmokratiko\n me/n e)sti kai\ toi=j ¡Amerikanoi=j ai)ti/a tou= th\n au)tw=n politei/an kalei=sqai dhmokrati/an: o(/mwj de\ tau/taj ta\j a)rxa\j poiou=si poluxroniwte/raj kata\ du/a h)\ te/ttara h)\ kai\ e(\c e)/th, tou\j au)tou\j ei)j th\n au)th\n ai(rou/menoi polla/kij, o/(per li/an o)ligarxiko/n. e)/ti d¡ ou)k e)k pa/ntwn a)ll¡ e)c e(tairiw=n tinw=n h)\ meri/dwn politikw=n (w(j kalou=sin) u(perplousi/wn ou)/swn ai(rou=ntai mo/non, e)kei=nai d¡ e(tairi/ai dhmagwgou=sin kai\ ta\j e)riqei/aj i(/n¡ ai(reqw=ntai poiou=sin, o(/per dapa/nhj dei=tai pollh=j. 3. ai( me\n ou)½n th=j ai(re/sewj stratei/ai (ta\j ga\r e)riqei/aj ou(/twj kalou=sin oi( ¡Amerikanoi/) pollou\j mh/nouj h)\ kai\ e)niauto\n o(/lon diatei/nontai, e)n aiâj ai( e(tairi/ai politikai\ pro\j e(auta\j stasia/zousin: kai\ tou\j mona/rxouj o(moi/wj ai(rou=ntai stasia/zontej. o( de\ dh=moj t$= o)ligarxi/# toiau/t$ ou) dusxerai/nei dia\ to\ mete/xein me\n e)cei=nai tw=n e(tairiw=n kai\ tw=n mega/lwn a)rxw=n, ma/lista de\ dia\
each other. For the Americans are
very jealous of their monarchs and
of all those who hold office and do
not trust them as being good men,
for even though they give them
great power they want them always
to be checked in their will by others.
The senates and assemblies are
elected by all the citizens, which is
democratic and which is why the
American regime is called a
democracy. But they give these
offices rather long terms, up to two
or four or even six years, and they
elect the same people to the same
office many times over, which is
extremely oligarchic. In addition
they do not elect from among
everyone but only from among
certain overly rich clubs or political
parties, as they are called, and in
order to get elected these clubs
engage in demagoguery and
competing for votes, which involve
great expense.
3. Now these election campaigns,
as the Americans call such
competing for votes, also last many
months and even a whole year, in
which the political clubs engage in
factional fighting with each other.
Their monarchs are chosen in the
same factional way. But the
populace are not displeased at this
sort of oligarchy both because it is
open to them to join the political
clubs and to occupy high office
themselves, and most of all because
4
to\ ta\j a)rxa\j au)to\j ai(rei=sqai: ou(/twj ga\r th=j tw=n e(tairiw=n sta/sewj diaithth/j e)stin o( dh=moj kai\ despo/thj tw=n eu)tuxhma/twn politikw=n: dia\ dh\ tou=t¡ a)ei\ u(po\ tw=n plousi/wn kai\ dunatw=n kolakeu/etai tw=n ta\j yh/fouj o/(pwj a)rxw=sin qhreuo/ntwn. 4. loipo\n de\ tw=n tri/wn ei)pei=n to\ dikastiko/n: e)pi\ de\ kai\ tou/t% mo/narxon a)/llon kaqi/stantai, to\n kalou/menon krith\n h)\ dikaiou=nta, plei/ouj de\ toiou/touj e)ni/ot' e)n t%= au)t%= dikasthri/% poiou=sin. a)ll' ou)k e)w=sin au)tou\j kai/per dunatou\j o)/ntaj kata\ pa/nta kuri/ouj eiÅnai. e)pikalou=si ga\r kai\ to\n dh=mon tw=n dikasthri/wn koinwnei=n, ou)x a/(ma pa/nt' a)lla\ kata\ me/roj e)k katalo/gou sullexqe/nta. ou(/twj dh\ tw=n kri/sewn o( dh=moj sxedo\n pasw=n mete/xei, ma/lista de\ tw=n megi/stwn (le/gw de\ ta\j me/gistaj ta\j peri\ qana/tou kai\ zwh=j kai\ dhmeu/sewj kai\ o(/swn ei\j th\n politei/an fe/rousin). ou) mh\n a)lla\ kri/nei mo/non me\n ei) o( feu/gwn e)/noxoj, th\n de\ zhmi/an kai\ th\n tou= no/mou e(rmhnei/an toi=j mona/rxoij a)fei/j. tou/twn de\ mona/rxwn oi(/ ge plei=stoi ou)x u(po\ tou= dh/mou ai(rou=ntai, ei) mh\ o)li/goi ta\ mikra\ ku/rioi o)/ntej, a)ll' u(po\ tw=n a)/llwn a)rxo/ntwn tw=n te mona/rxwn kai\ gero/ntwn. e)/ti de\ dia\ bi/ou ku/rioi me/nousin ei) mh/ ti kaki/stwj
it is they who elect the offices. For
thus they are arbiters of the factions
between the clubs and master of
these clubs’ political fortunes.
Hence it is that the populace are
always being flattered by the rich
and powerful in their pursuit of
votes to win office.
4. The remaining of the three
offices to speak about is the
judiciary, over which they also set
up another monarch, whom they
call judge or justice, though
sometimes they set up several
monarchs in the same court. But
they do not allow them, despite
their power, to have total control.
For they also require the populace
to take part in the courts, not all in a
mass but according to a selection
by turns from the citizen rolls. Thus
the populace are involved in the
deciding of almost all court cases
and especially of the most
important ones (I mean those
concerning life and death, fines,
and anything to do with the regime),
save that they are only allowed to
decide the question of guilt, while
the matter of punishment as well as
the interpreting of the law they
leave to the monarchs alone. And
about these monarchs, they are for
the most part not elected by the
populace, or only a few with small
powers are, but they are appointed
instead by the other offices, by the
monarchs and the senators.
Furthermore they retain control
throughout life, unless they commit
5
dra/santej u(po\ tw=n au)tou\j kri/qwsi katasthsa/ntwn kai\ e)kba/lwntai. 5. auÂtai me\n ouÅn ei)si\n a)rxai\ th=j politei/aj toi=j 'Amerikanoi=j ai( me/gistai, h(\n dhmokrati/an w(j ei)rh/kamen kalou=sin. o/(ti d' e)n au)t$= polla\ tw=n o)ligarxikw=n u(pa/rxei kai\ tou/twn e)/nia th=j e)sxa/thj o)ligarxi/aj parekba/seij dh=lon. a)lla\ kalo\n tou=to nomi/zousin eiånai kai\ tro/pon tina\ tou= sw/zein th\n dhmokrati/an. h( ga\r dh\ politei/a kata\ du/o ma/lista tro/pouj dhmokratikw=j e)/xei, kaq' e(/na me\n to\ pa/nta to\n dh=mon tou\j mona/rxouj kai\ ge/rontaj kai\ e)kklhsiasta\j ai(rei=sqai, kaq' e(/teron de\ th\n au)tw=n di/aitan. z$= ga\r sxedo\n e(/kastoj tw=n 'Amerikanw=n w(j bou/letai kai\ ‘ei)j o\( xr$/zwn’, w(/j fhsin Eu)ripi/dhj: xrhmatizo/menoi d' ouån diatelou=si dia\ to\ dei=sqai to\ zh=n ou(/twj a)fqo/nou xorhgi/aj: e)/ti de\ toiou/touj sfo/dra timw=sin oiÂoi th\n xrhmatistikh\n e)pitetuxh/kasi poiou=ntej h)\ kai\ tou= pantaxh= ploutei=n e)peceurh/kasi katanoh/mata kaina/. w(j ga\r kai/ tij tw=n mona/rxwn au)tw=n pot' eiÅpen, ‘xrhmatistikh\ xrh=ma toi=j 'Amerikanoi=j’. 6. tosou=to dh\ ouån filou=si to\n xrhmatismo\n w/(ste kai\ ta\j a)rxa\j poiei=sqai w)nhta\j me/n (ou)deni\ ga\r e)/cestin ai(rei=sqai a)/rxonti %Â mh\ polla\ xrh/mat' h)\ kai\ fi/loi
some serious wrong, in which case
those who appointed them can try
them and remove them.
5. These then are the chief offices
in the regime of the Americans,
which, as we said, they call a
democracy. That it has nevertheless
many oligarchic features, with
some of these deviating to extreme
oligarchy, is clear. But they think
this to be a noble thing and even a
way of preserving the democracy.
For the regime is democratic in two
ways in particular, in the electing of
the monarchs and senates and
assemblies by all the populace, and
also in their way of life. For pretty
well every American lives as he
likes or, as Euripides says, “with a
view to what he craves.” So, since
living as they like requires
abundance of resources, they spend
their lives in getting money, and
they especially admire those who
have been successful in business
and have invented new devices for
everywhere acquiring wealth. As
even one of their monarchs once
said, “the business of America is
business.”
6. So great indeed is their love of
making money that they both put
political office up for sale (for no
one can get elected to office who
does not have much money himself,
or rich friends, or belongs to one of
6
plou/sioi h)\ kai\ e(tairi/a tij), misqarnika\j de/: pa/ntej ga\r oi( a)/rxontej mi/sqon e)c a)rxh=j fe/rousi kai\ xrhmati/zousi di' a)rxh=j pollaxw=j, oiÂon dh\ dw=ra a)po\ tw=n eu)po/rwn labo/ntej tw=n xa/ritaj qelo/ntwn sfi/sin au)toi=j ne/mesqai politika/j: e/)ti de\ proso/dwn e)k ei)sfora=j ku/rioi mega/lwn ei)si\ par' wÂn fulattome/nwn toi=j fi/loij kai\ toi=j e)k tou= dh/mou dialabome/noij meri/zontai: w(/st' a)ei\ pa/nta r(ei= ta\ xrh/mata a)/nw te\ kai\ ka/tw, ta\ me\n i)/dia pro\j tou\j a/)rxontaj a)po\ tw=n fi/lwn kai\ tou= dh/mou, ta\ d' a)p' e)kei/nwn pro\j tou/touj koina/. 7. a)lla\ ta\ xrh/mata ou) la/qr# me\n par' e(autoi=j swreu/ousin kaqa/per oi( Lakedaimo/nioi, fanerw=j de\ dapana=sqai nomi/zousi dei=n ei)j eu)hmeri/an: w(ste\ sfo/dra filagora/zontai, mhd' a)\n eu/(roi tij oi)ki/an e)n o(/l$ t$= xw/r# mhdemi/an o(/pou mh\ plh/quei o)/rgana dapanhra\ kai\ xrh/sima. u(pere/xousi ga\r dh\ kth/masi pa/nta ta\ e/)qnh t%= q' eu(rei=n mhxanh/mata pro\j to\ poi=eisqai kai\ pwlei=n kai\ pri/asqai polla\ xrh/sima kai\ h(de/a. tau)ta\ ga\r diwkou=si kai\ oi( pe/nhtej, w(/sq' ouÂtoi me\n dia\ xrhmatistikh=j pantoi/aj a)ei\ eu)/poroi gi/gnontai, plou/sioi de\ dia\ tuxh=j h)\ tou= zh=n a)selgw=j a/)poroi. ou(/twj ga\r dh
the political clubs), and use it as a
source of income. For all
office-holders receive wages for
being in office, and holding office
enables them to make money in
many ways, as especially in
receiving gifts from those of the
rich who want political favors to be
handed out to them. Further these
office-holders have control of large
public funds from taxes which they
guard and hand out to their friends
and followers among the populace.
The result is that everything is in
perpetual flux, monetarily speaking,
both up and down: private funds
coming from friends and populace
to the office-holders and public
funds going from office-holders to
friends and populace.
7. But the Americans do not, like
the Spartans, hoard their money in
secret; rather they think money is
for enjoyment in being spent
openly. So they are in love with
shopping and one cannot find a
single household in the whole land
which is not full of useful and
expensive things. For in fact they
exceed all other nations in their
possessions as well as in
discovering inventive ways of
making and selling and buying a
multitude of things both useful and
pleasant. For even the poor adopt
the same pursuit and are, through
many forms of business, forever
becoming well off just as some of
the rich through chance or riotous
living are forever becoming needy.
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pa/ntej i)/soi le/gousin eiÅnai, t%= pa=sin e)cei=nai xrhmati/zein kai\ megi/staj a)rxa\j a)/rxein ei) bou/lontai kai\ filoponw=sin, e)nanti/wj de\ ei) mh/. 8. polla\ de\ kai\ tw=n e)/qnwn peri\ i(drume/nwn tau)ta\ nomi/zei toi=j 'Amerikanoi=j kai\ tau)ta\ bou/letai kta=sqai, w(/st' a)\n ei)/poi tij tou/touj zhlwtota/touj kai\ mimhtota/touj gegone/nai pa/ntwn tw=n e)n t$= oi)koume/n$. dokei= de\ h( xw/ra au)tw=n kai\ pro\j th\n arxh\n th\n kosmikh\n pefuke/nai kai\ kei=sqai kalw=j: duoi=n ga\r e)pi/keitai tai=j Eu)rw/phj te\ kai\ th=j 'Asi/aj h)pei/roij, tw=n e)/qnwn sxedo\n pa/ntwn e)n tau/taij i(drume/nwn. a)lla\\ dia\ th\n th=j xrhmatistikh=j xrh=sin kai\ e)/rwta ma=llon h)\ dia\ ta\ o(/pla kai\ polemou=ntej a)rxh\n ke/kthntai oi( 'Amerikanoi\ th=j gh=j: prose/rxontai ga\r pro\j pa/nta ta\ e)/qnh xrhmatiso/menoi kai\ kaphleuso/menoi, suzeugnu/asi/ t' au)ta\ su\n e(autoi=j dia\ filauti/an a)mfote/rwqi. e/)ti d' e(/teroi pa/ntej, w(j ei)/pomen, tou\j 'Amerikanou=j tou= plou/tou kai\ kthma/twn zhlou=sin, o(/moioi/ te gene/sqai e)piqumou=sin: w(/st¡ e)kei/nouj mimei=sqai t%= te pro\j t$= xrhmatistik$= prose/xein to\n nou=n kai\ t%= ta\j a)rxa\j ai(reta\j poiei=sqai kai\ ta\j o)ligarxika\j prosde/xesqai e(tairi/aj. pa=si ga\r dokei=, le/gousi/ t¡ au)toi\
For this, they say, is how they all
are equal, that all may make money
and hold high office if they want to
and if they work hard, but the
opposite if they do not.
8. Many of the nations lying round
about agree with the Americans in
this and want to have the same as
the Americans have, so that one
may say that the Americans have
become the most envied and most
imitated people of all on earth. The
land of the Americans seems, in
fact, to be naturally fitted and nobly
situated for world empire, since it
lies opposite the two continents of
Europe and Asia where all nations,
pretty much, are settled. But it is
more through their practice and
love of business than through arms
and wars that the Americans have
won empire over the earth. For they
travel to all nations to do business
and to engage in trade, binding
these nations to themselves by
self-interest on both sides.
Moreover, as we said, all others
envy the Americans for their
wealth and their possessions and
wish to be like them. So these
others imitate them by also putting
their energies into business and by
adopting the practice of elections
and oligarchic clubs, for all think,
and the Americans themselves say,
8
oi( 'Amerikanoi/, ou)x oiÂo/n te xrhmatizome/nouj e)pitu/xein a)/neu toiau/thj t$= politei/# ta/cewj. 9. e)pitimh/seien d' a)/n tij e)n tau/t$ t$= politei/# prw=ton men\ to\ nomi/zein au)th\n dei=n pro\j th=n xrhmatistikh\n ta/ttesqai. me/roj ga\r mo/non h( xrhmatistikh\ th=j oi)konomikh=j kai\ politikh=j, w(j ei)/pomen, kai\ o)/rganon me\n tou= e)/rgou th=j po/lewj kai\ oi)ki/aj, ou) d¡ au)to\ to\ e)/rgon. a)reth\ ga/r e)sti tou=to to\ e)/rgon kai\ ou) xrhmatistikh/. ou) mh\n a)lla\ xrh/simon me\n gnwri/zein ta\ xrhmatistika\ kai\ toi=j politikoi=j: pollai=j ga\r po/lesi dei= xrhmatismou= kai\ toiou/twn po/rwn, w(/sper oi)ki/#, ma=llon de/. dio/per tine\j kai\ politeu/ontai tw=n politeuome/nwn tau=ta mo/non, kai\ ma/lista tw=n 'Amerikanw=n. a)ll' a)/topon nomi/zein tou\j a)nqrw/pouj ei)j th\n politikh\n koinwni/an tou= zh=n e(/neken sune/rxesqai kai\ mh\ ma=llon tou= euÅ zh=n. ti/ de\ le/gomen to\ euÅ zh=n kai o(/pwj pro\j au)to\ kalw=j a\)n h( politei/a kaqistai=to, u(/steron e)rou=men. 10. ei)/ta de\ ta\ peri\ tw=n a)rxw=n ye/goi tij a)/n, kai\ prw=ton me\n h(\n poiou=ntai tw=n tri/wn a)rxw=n diai/resin, th=j monarxi/aj kai\ th=j te gerousi/aj kai\ e)kklhsi/aj kai\ tri/ton tou= dikasthri/ou. sxi/zousi ga\r tau/taj a)p' a)llh/lwn,
that great success in business is not
possible without such a way of
arranging the regime.
Criticism of the Regime
9. The first thing one might
criticize in the regime of the
Americans is this supposition they
have that the regime should be
arranged for business. For, as we
say, business is only a part of the
city and of household-management
and is an instrument for doing the
work of the city and household and
is not itself that work. This work is
virtue and not the making of money.
Of course it is useful for political
rulers to know about these things,
for many cities have need of
business practices and suchlike
revenues, just as households do,
only more so. Hence some
politicians even focus all their
political activity on these matters
alone, and among the Americans
most of all. Yet it is absurd to
suppose that people come together
in political communities for life
alone and not rather for good life.
But what is meant by the good life
and how the regime should be best
arranged to secure it we will
discuss later.
10. The matter of the offices is the
next thing one might criticize, and
first concerning the division the
Americans make of all their offices
into the three of the monarchy, the
senate and assembly, and third the
judiciary. They divide up these
9
tou=to ‘to\n tw=n duna/mewn xwrismo\n’ kalou=ntej: le/gousi de\ kai\ plei/ouj h)\ mi/an tou/twn mh\ dei=n a/(ma to\n au)to\n a)/rxein, o(/per kalo\n me/n: e(\n ga\r u(f' e(no\j e)/rgon a)/rist' a)potelei=tai. dei= d' o(/pwj gi/nhtai tou=q' o(ra=n to\n nomoqe/thn, kai\ mh\ prosta/ttein to\n au)to\n au)lei=n kai\ skutotomei=n. w(/ste politikw/teron plei/onaj mete/xein tw=n a)rxw=n, kai\ dhmotikw/teron: koino/tero/n te ga\r kai\ ka/llion e(/kaston a)potelei=tai tw=n au)tw=n kai\ qa=tton. dh=lon de\ tou=to e)pi\ tw=n polemikw=n kai\ tw=n nautikw=n: e)n tou/toij ga\r a)mfote/roij dia\ pa/ntwn w(j ei)pei=n dielh/luqe to\ a)/rxein kai\ to\ a)/rxesqai. tou=to dh\ kalo\n me\n nomiste/on, to\n de\ tw=n 'Amerikanw=n tro/pon mh/. tou\j ga\r e)n tau)t%= th=j po/lewj me/rei kai\ ta/cei e)w=sin a(/m' a/)rxein pa/saj ta\j a)rxa/j, w(/sq¡ e(\n me/roj e)n t$= po/lei mo/non a)ei\ a/)rxein a)/lla de\ mh/pote. le/gomen de\ me/roj e(\n me\n tou\j plousi/ouj a)/llo de\ tou\j pe/nhtej e)/ti d' a)/llo tou\j spoudai/ouj: fame\n de\ kai\ politei/an a)/llhn eiÅnai tou/twn, oiÂon o)ligarxi/an me\n tw=n plousi/wn kuri/wn o)/ntwn, dhmokrati/an de\ tw=n a)po/rwn, a)ristokrati/an d' h)\ politei/an tw=n spoudai/wn. 11. to\ me\n ouån e)n t$= tw=n 'Amerikanw=n politei/# tou\j plousi/ouj kai\ tou\j e)k tw=n
offices from each other, calling this
the “separation of powers,” and say
that the same persons should not
hold more than one of these offices
at the same time, which is a fine
thing, for one man completes one
work best, and bringing that about
is what the legislator should look to
and not bid the same man both to
play the pipes and be a shoemaker.
Accordingly it is more political and
more popular if more take part in
office since it is more communal
like this and the same things get
completed in a nobler and quicker
way. This is clear in armies and
navies, for in both of these
everyone, so to say, is involved in
ruling and being ruled. But while
this practice must be deemed noble,
the way the Americans do it must
not be. For they allow persons from
the same part or class in the city to
occupy all these offices at the same
time, so that one part alone in the
city is always ruling while the other
parts never do. By a part in the city
we mean the rich as one part and
the poor as another, and also the
virtuous as yet another; and we say
that there is a different regime in
each case, as that there is oligarchy
if the rich are in control, democracy
if the poor are, aristocracy or polity
if the virtuous are.
11. Now it is a base thing that in
the regime of the American they
allow the rich and those from the
political clubs to occupy all the
offices at once. But it is baser still
10
e(tairiw=n e)a=n ta\j a)rxa\j a(/m' a)/rxein pa/saj fau=lon: to\ de\ tou\j e)k th=j au)th=j kai\ mi/aj e(tairi/aj ou(/twj a)/rxein e)a=n (tou=to ga\r sumbai/nei a)\n e(tairi/a tij dunatw/tera ei)/h tw=n a)/llwn) e)/ti faulo/teron. parekba/seij ga\r a)/mfw me\n ei)j o)ligarxi/an, au/(th de\ ma/lista: kai\ dh\ kai\ to\n tw=n duna/mewn xwrismo\n o)ligarxiko\n nomiste/on eiånai so/fisma tw=n eu)po/rwn tw=n di' au(tw=n th\n politei/an boulome/nwn eiÅnai. peiqou=si me\n ga\r to\n dh=mon tou/tou dei=sqai tou= xwrismou= i/(na mh\ dunatw/teroj a)/rxwn tij ge/nhtai kai\ tura/nnida kataskeua/s$, to\ de\ pa/saj a(/ma ke/kthsqai a)rxa\j au)toi/ te kai\ oi¸ e(autw=n fi/loi kru/ptousin. tou/tou d' a)/koj to\ diairei=sqai ta\j a)rxa\j mh\ mo/non a)p' a)llh/lwn a)lla\ kai\ ei)j ta\ th=j po/lewj me/rh, w(/ste mete/xein au)tw=n kai\ tou\j mh\ plousi/ouj kai\ tou\j mh\ e)n tai=j e(tairi/aij. h)/dh ga\r kata\ ta\ dikasth/ria toiau/thn poiou=ntai ta/cin, to\n dh=mon a)ei\ koinwnei=n a)nagka/zontej. tau)ta\ dei= poiei=sqai kai\ kata\ ta\j a/)llaj a)rxa/j, oiÂon kata\ th\n monarxi/an h(\n polloi\ sunio/ntej suna/rxein a)/nq' e(no\j du/naint' a/)n. o(/pou ga\r sune/sthken e)c o(moi/wn kai\ i)/swn h( po/lij, ou) di/kaion tou\j me\n a)/rxein a)ei\ tou\j de\ mh/pote, a)ll' a)na\ me/roj a)/rxesqai kai\ a)/rxein pa/ntaj. nu=n de\ su/mpasai ai( a)rxai\ di' eu)po/rwn me/n ei)sin,
to allow people from one and the
same political club to occupy them
all at once (as does happen if one
club is more influential than the
rest). For these are both deviations
toward oligarchy, and the latter
especially so. The separation of
powers, in fact, must be deemed an
oligarchic sophistry of the rich
wanting to keep the regime to
themselves. For while they impress
upon the populace that this
separation of powers is needed to
prevent any office-holder
becoming too powerful and setting
up a tyranny, they hide the fact that
all these offices are together in the
hands of themselves and their
friends. A remedy for this would be
to divide the offices, not only from
each other, but also among the
different parts in the city, so that
those who are not rich nor members
of the clubs also take part in them.
For the Americans already adopt
this arrangement in their courts
where they require the populace
always to take part. They should do
the same in the other offices as well,
as for instance in their monarchies,
since these could be occupied by
many together ruling jointly instead
of by one man. For where all are
similar and equal, justice requires,
not that some always rule and
others never, but that all take turns
in ruling and being ruled. As things
stand now, however, the offices are
all in the control of the rich and the
poor are excluded.
11
dia\ de\ dh/mou ou)demi/a. 12. e)/sti d' e)piti/mhsij e(te/ra kata\ to\n tw=n duna/mewn xwrismo/n, o(/ti o( nomoqe/thj ai)ti/an sta/sewj kateskeu/asen au)to/n: e)k ga\r tou/tou dh=lon w(j ou)d' au)to\j oi)/etai du/nasqai poiei=n kalou\j ka)gaqou\j tou\j a)/rxontaj, a)lla\ swthri/an nomi/zei t$= po/lei eiÅnai to\ stasia/zein pro\j a)llh/louj: ta\j gou=n trei=j a)rxa\j kaqe/sthken a)ntagwnista/j. ei)w/qasi de\ kai\ oi( dunatoi/, ei)/t' e)n a)rx$= o)/ntej ei)/te mh/, to\n dh=mon kai\ tou\j fi/louj dialamba/nontej monarxi/an poiei=n kai\ stasia/zein kai\ ma/xesqai pro\j a)llh/louj: kai/toi ti/ diafe/rei to\ toiou=ton h)\ dia/ tinoj xro/nou mhke/ti po/lin eiÕnai th\n toiau/thn a)lla\ lu/esqai th\n politikh\n koinwni/an; e)/sti d' e)piki/ndunoj ou(/twj e)/xousa po/lij, tw=n boulome/nwn e)piti/qesqai kai\ duname/nwn. a)lla\ sw/zetai tw=n ¡Amerikanw=n politei/a dia\ to\ plhqu/ein a)nqrw/pwn, kaqa/per e)/legen kai\ tw=n mona/rxwn tij: dia\ ga\r tou=t' ei)si\n e)n au)toi=j a)ei\ sta/seij pollai/, kai\ dialamba/nein me\n a)ei\ to\n dh=mon a/(m¡ o(/lon ou) du/natai e(tairi/a ou)demi/a, sugxwrei=n de\ dei= pa/saj sumbo/laia/ te su\n a)llh/laij kai\ summaxi/an poiei=sqai. sw/zetai de\ kai\ dia\ to\n to/pon h( ¡Amerikh/: cenhlasi/aj ga\r to\ po/rrw pepoi/hken kai\ tou\j a)\n e)pio/ntaj pleistou\j a)pote/trafen. 13. to\ me\n ouån toi=j au)toi=j e)cei=nai
12. Another complaint one might
raise about the separation of
powers is that the legislator
designed it to be a cause of faction.
For from this it is clear that he does
not think he can make the rulers
into gentlemen. Instead he thinks it
safety for the regime if they are
engaged in factional disputes with
each other, for he has set up the
three offices as rivals. Moreover,
the habit of the powerful, whether
in or out of office, is to create rival
followings among the populace and
their friends, to set up monarchies,
to form factions and fight against
each other. Yet what is the
difference between such behavior
and the city periodically ceasing to
exist and the political community
being destroyed? A city in this
condition is in great danger because
those who have the desire to attack
it will also be able to. But the
regime of the Americans is saved
by their great numbers, as even one
of their monarchs said, for thus it is
that there are always many factions
among them and no club can
always win over the whole
populace together to its side but
they must all make compromises
and form deals and alliances with
each other. America is also saved
by its position because its distance
has acted to keep foreigners out and
to deter most who would invade.
13. Now, that the same individuals
12
ta\j au)ta\j a)rxa\j poll' e)/th a)/rxein (poluxroniw/terai ga/r ei)si kai\ du/natai o( au)to\j e)fech=j e)fairei=sqai) fau=lo/n e)stin: th\n ga\r politei/an poiei= o)ligarxikh/n, w(j ei)/rhtai pro/teron. e)/ti de\ kai\ th\n kakourgi/an e)pauca/nei: ou) ga\r o(moi/wj r(#/dion kakourgh=sai o)li/gon xro/non a)/rxontaj kai\ polu/n. fai/nontai de\ ge\ katadwrodokou/menoi kai\ kataxarizo/menoi polla\ tw=n koinw=n toi=j fi/loij te kai\ e(tai/roij oi( kekoinwnhko/tej tw=n a)rxw=n. to\ ga\r polu\n xro/non a)/rxein mei=zo/n e)sti ge/raj th=j a)ci/aj au)toi=j, kai\ to\ mh\ kata\ gra/mmata a)/rxein a)lla\ poll' au)tognw/monaj e)pisfale/j. ma/lista d' e)piki/ndunon to\ e)cei=nai au)toi=j a)rxa\j a)/llaj kai\ mega/laj kata\ bou/lhsin kaqista/nai: ou) ga\r kat' a)reth\n h)\ a)ci/an tw=n kaqestame/nwn tou=to drw=sin, a)lla\ kata\ fili/an: toi=j ga\r e(tai/roij w(j ni/khj aÅqlon tau/taj ta\j a)rxa\j a)podido/asi kai\ w(j a)ntapo/dosin th=j t' w)feli/aj kai\ tw=n xrhma/twn a)p' e)kei/nwn pro\j th\n e)riqei/an lhfqe/ntwn: presbeuta/j ge pollou\j kai\ krita\j ou(/twj kaqi/stantai. tau=ta dh\ pa/nta be/ltion gine/sqai kata\ no/mon h)\ kat' a)nqrw/pwn bou/lhsin: ou) ga\r a)sfalh\j o( kanw/n. 14. be/ltion de\ kai\ tou\j a)/rxontaj
can occupy the same office for
many years (because the terms
themselves are rather long and the
same individual can be re-elected
many times in succession) is a base
thing, since it makes the regime
oligarchic, as was said earlier. But
it also increases crime. For criminal
activity is not as easy for those who
rule a short time as it is for those
who rule a long time. At any rate,
as regards many matters of
common concern those in office
have been conspicuous in taking
bribes and showing favoritism to
friends and followers. Serving for
long periods is a greater privilege
than they deserve and their
exercising rule in many respects by
their own discretion and not by
written rules is not safe. It is
particularly dangerous that they
should be able to appoint other and
powerful offices as they wish. For
they do not do this on the basis of
virtue or worth in those they
appoint but on the basis of
friendship, since they hand over
these offices as a prize of victory to
their companions in the political
clubs and in repayment for the
money or help these companions
gave them for their election
campaign. Many ambassadors and
judges, at any rate, are appointed in
this way. It would be better if all
such things took place according to
law and not human wish which is
no safe standard.
14. It would also be better for the
13
mh\ a)neuqu/nouj eiÅnai: nu=n d' ei)si/n. dei= d' ouån au)tou\j eu)qu/naj dido/nai kata\ no/mon tetagme/naj panto\j e)nw/pion tou= dh/mou. tou=to/ toi poiei=sqw o(po/tan e)k tw=n a)rxw=n e)ce/rxwntai kai\ pri\n ei)j ta\j a)rxa\j badi/zein. tou= de\ mh\ kle/ptesqai ta\ koina\ h( para/dosij gigne/sqw tw=n xrhma/twn paro/ntwn pa/ntwn tw=n politw=n, kai\ tou= de\ a)kerdw=j a)/rxein tima\j eiÅnai dei= nenomoqethme/naj toi=j eu)dokimou=sin. to\ ga\r e)panakre/masqai kai\ mh\ pa=n e)cei=nai poiei=n o(/ ti a)\n do/c$ sumfe/ron e)sti/n: h( ga\r e)cousi/a tou= pra/ttein o(/ ti a)\n e)qe/l$ tij ou) du/natai fula/ttein to\ e)n e(ka/st% tw=n a)nqrw/pwn fau=lon. 15. a)nagkaio/taton me\n ouån e)n t$= tw=n 'Amerikanw=n politei/# to\ tou\j a)/rcontaj eu)porei=n: ou)dei\j ga\r oiÂo/j t' a)/rxwn gi/gnesqai ei) mh\ sxola/zei kai\ t%= dh/m% xari/zei yhfofori/an mnhsteu/wn. a)ll' ou)/k e)stin i(kano\n toi=j eu) a/)rcousin eu)pori/an e)/xein: eu)pori/a ge\ dh\ toiou/toij e)mpo/dio/j e)stin u(perba/llousa. to\ ga\r u(pe/rkalon de\ h)\ u(peri/sxuron h)\ u(pereugenh= h)\ u(perplou/sion xalepo\n t%= lo/g% a)kolouqei=n: gi/gnontai ga\r u(bristai\ kai\ megalopo/nhroi ma=llon. pro\j de\ tou/toij oi( e)n u(peroxai=j eu)tuxhma/twn o)/ntej ( i)sxu/oj kai\ plou/tou kai\ fi/lwn
offices not to go unaudited. Now
they are, however. They should,
then, be subjected to regular audits
according to law and in the
presence of all the populace. So let
this be done at the term of any
office and before anyone takes up
office. And to ensure there is no
theft of common funds let the
handing over of monies be done in
the presence of all the citizens, and
to ensure that rule brings no profit
legislation has to have been passed
giving honors to those of good
repute. For it is of advantage to be
kept always responsible to others
and not to be able to do whatever
one thinks good. The license or
right to do whatever one wishes is
incapable of providing defense
against the base element in each
man.
15. A very necessary thing in the
regime of the Americans is that
anyone who is going to rule must
be well off. For no one can gain
office if he does not have leisure
and can bestow favors on the
populace while soliciting their
votes. But, if one is to rule well,
being well off is not enough. An
excess of means is even an
impediment to good rule. For
whatever is exceedingly beautiful
or strong or well-born or wealthy
finds it hard to follow reason. Such
as these grow rather insolent and
wicked in great matters. In addition
those who are surrounded by an
excess of good fortune (strength,
14
kai\ tw=n a)/llwn tw=n toiou/twn) a)/rxesqai ou)/te bou/lontai ou)/te e)pi/stantai, kai\ tou=t' eu)qu\j oi)/koqen u(pa/rxei paisi\n ouåsin: dia\ ga\r th\n trufh\n ou)d' e)n toi=j didaskalei/oij a)/rxesqai su/nhqej au)toi=j. w(/st' a)/rxein me\n e)pi/stantai mo/non despotikh\n a)rxh/n, kata\ me/roj d' a/)rxesqai kai\ a)/rxein w(j i)/soi mh/. to\ de\ de/omenon toi=j a)/rxousin, ma/lista toi=j e)n tai=j megi/staij a)rxai=j, a)reth/ politikh/: e)c a)rxh=j ouÅn tou=q' o(ra=n e)sti\ tw=n a)nagkaiota/twn, o(/pwj oi( be/ltistoi du/nwntai sxola/zein kai\ mhde\n a)sxhmonei=n, mh\ mo/non a)/rxontej a)lla\ mhd' i)diwteu/ontej. ei) de\ dei= ble/pein kai\ pro\j eu)pori/an xa/rin sxolh=j, fau=lon to\ ta\j megi/staj w)nhta\j eiånai tw=n a)rxw=n, ta\j te proe/drwn kai\ kubernhtw=n. e)/ntimon ga\r o( no/moj ouÒtoj poiei= to\n plou=ton ma=llon th=j a)reth=j, kai\ th\n po/lin o(/lhn filoxrh/maton. o(/ ti d' a)\n u(pola/bh? ti/mion eiånai to\ ku/rion, a)na/gkh kai\ th\n tw=n a)/llwn politw=n do/can a)kolouqei=n tou/toij. o(/pou de\ mh\ ma/lista a)reth\ tima=tai, tau/thn ou)x oiÂo/n te kalw=j e)/xein th\n politei/an. e)qi/zesqai d' eu)/logon kerdai/nein tou\j w)noume/nouj, o(/tan dapanh/santej a)/rxwsin:
wealth, friends, and other things of
the sort) neither wish nor know
how to be ruled, and this is
something that begins immediately
at home when they are still children.
For, because of the luxury they live
in, being ruled is not something
they get used to, even at school. So
they only know how to rule like
masters over inferiors and not to
rule and be ruled in turn like equals.
What is most needed by those who
are to rule, especially in the greatest
offices, is political virtue. Hence
one of the most important matters
right from the beginning is to see to
it that the best are able to be at
leisure and can avoid doing
anything unseemly not only when
in office but also when out of it. For
even if the need for leisure when it
comes to office requires one to pay
attention also to prosperity, still it is
a base thing to put the greatest
offices, president and governor, up
for sale. This law makes wealth
rather than virtue to be the object of
honor, that is, it makes the whole
city to be in love with money. For
the opinion that those in control
have about what is honorable will
inevitably be followed in the
thinking of the other citizens as
well, and a regime in which virtue
is not held in highest honor cannot
be ruled nobly. One can reasonably
expect that those who buy office
will get accustomed to making a
profit out of it, since it is by having
spent money that they are in office.
15
a)/topon ga\r ei) pe/nhj me\n w)\n e)pieikh\j de\ boulh/setai kerdai/nein, faulo/teroj d' w)\n ou) boulh/setai dapanh/saj. dio\ dei= tou\j duname/nouj a)/rist' a)/rxein, tou/touj a)/rxein. nu=n de\ mo/narxoi ou(/toi kai\ oi( a)/lloi a)/rxontej mega/lwn ku/rioi kaqestw=tej, a)\n eu)telei=j wåsi kai\ mh\ spoudai=oi, mega/la bla/ptousi kai\ e)/blayan h)/dh th\n politei/an th\n tw=n 'Amerikanw=n. 16. e)/ti d¡ ei) kai\ ta/x' a)\n ei)/peie/ tij sumfe/rein th=? po/lei ta\j a)rxa\j ta\j tw=n gero/ntwn kai\ e)kklhsiastw=n kai\ kritw=n kai\ mona/rxwn e)pieikw=n o)/ntwn kai\ pepaideume/nwn i(kanw=j pro\j a)ndragaqi/an, kai/toi to/ ge dia\ bi/ou kuri/ouj eiÅnai tw=n megi/stwn (e)a\n sumb$= tou\j au)tou\j e)fech=j e)fairei=sqai) a)mfisbhth/simon: e)/sti ga/r, w(/sper kai\ sw/matoj, kai\ dianoi/aj gh=raj. 17. e)/xei de\ kai\ ta\ peri\ th\n tw=n a)rxw=n ai(/resin fau/lwj. o)ligarxika\ ga/r e)sti dia\ ta\j e)riqei/aj. mo/non gou=n oi( u(perba/llontej pw=j tou= o)/xlou kai\ e)mfanei=j o)/ntej oiÂoi/ te yh/fouj polla\j kta=sqai, o(/per plousi/oij me\n kai\ gnwri/moij r(#/dion, a)po/roij de\ xalepo\n h)\ kai\ nh\ Di/' a)du/naton. be/ltion a)/r' a)\n ei/)h kai\ t%= klh/r% xrh=sqai kai\ mh\ ai(re/sei mo/non.
For if someone respectable but
poor is going to want to make a
profit, it would be strange if a baser
man, already out of pocket, is not
going to. That is why those should
rule who have the ability to do it
best. But as it is, these monarchs
and other offices, being set in
control of important matters, cause
much damage when they are not
virtuous but of a low sort, which is
what they have already done in the
regime of the Americans.
16. In addition, while one might
say that the senates and assemblies,
as well as the judgeships and
monarchs, would be of advantage
to the Americans if their members
were decent men and adequately
educated in manly goodness, yet
even so, allowing them to have
control over the greatest matters
throughout life (if the same
individuals happen to keep getting
re-elected) is a debatable practice.
There is an old age of thought as
well as of the body.
17. The way the offices are elected
is also in a base condition, for
election campaigns make the thing
oligarchic. At any rate only those
who are conspicuous and stand out
from the crowd in some way are
able to win many votes, and this is
easy for the rich and notables but
hard or even, by Zeus, impossible
for the needy. It would be better
therefore if the Americans also
used the device of the lot and not
just that of election. A noble thing
16
kalw=j d' e)/xei mimei=sqai ta\ Taranti/nwn. e)kei=noi ga\r ta\j a)rxa\j pa/saj e)poi/hsan ditta/j, ta\j me\n ai(reta\j ta\j de\ klhrwta/j, ta\j me\n klhrwta\j o(/pwj o( dh=moj au)tw=n mete/x$, ta\j d' ai(reta\j i(/na politeu/wntai be/ltion. e)/sti de\ tou=to poih=sai kai\ th=j au)th=j a)rxh=j meri/zontaj, tou\j me\n klhrwta\j tou\j d' ai(retou/j. tou/t% dh\ tro/p% kai\ toi=j pe/nhsin toi=j t' e)piei/kesi me\n a)po/roij d' e)/cestin a)/rxein. 18. a)lla\ mh\n kai\ ta\\ peri\ ta\j bou/laj, a\(j e)pitropa\j kalou=sin, ou)k e)/xei kalw=j, kai\ ma/lista ta\ peri\ to\n tou/twn pro/edron: auÂtai me\n ga\r t$= gerousi/# kai\ t$= e)kklhsi/# probouleu/ousi ti/na dei= ei)sfe/rein h)\ mh/, o(/per e)/rgon e)sti\ me/giston: o( de\ pro/edroj tou/twn kurieu/ei kata\ to\n 'Amerikano\n tro/pon w(j mo/narxoj. fau=lon ouån tou=ton kai\ tou\j bouleuta\j kata\ th\n du/namin kai\ th\n h(liki/an ai(rei=sqai: le/gw de\ du/namin me\n o(po/souj ge/rontaj h)\ e)kklhsiasta\j e)/xei tij fi/louj, h(liki/an d' o(po/s' e)/th tij e)n a)rx$= diameme/nhken. bou/lai ga\r auÂtai, dunatwte/rwj h)/dh e)/xousai kai\ w(j o)ligarxi/a e)n t$= o)ligarxi/#, e)/ti o)ligarxikw/terai t%=de t%= tro/p% gi/gnontai: w(/ste prw=ton me\n li/an o)li/goi ku/rioi o)/ntej e)pi\ toi=j
is to imitate what the Tarentines do,
for they have made all their offices
double, one set is elected and the
other chosen by lot, so that by
means of the latter the populace get
a share and by means of the former
the government is carried on in a
better way. But it is possible also to
do this by dividing up the selfsame
office and having some of the
members elected and others chosen
by lot. In this way the poor and the
men of quality lacking means can
also rule.
18. Moreover, their councils,
which they call committees, are not
in a noble condition and in
particular as regards the chairman
of them. For, on the one hand, these
councils do the advance
deliberating about what proposals
are to be brought or not brought
before the senate and assembly,
which is a very important job;
while, on the other hand, the
chairman lords it over them in the
American fashion as a monarch. So
it is base for this chairman and the
council members to be chosen
according to power and seniority, I
mean according to how many
friends someone has in the senate
or assembly and to how long he has
remained in office. For in this way
these councils, which are very
powerful and already form a sort of
oligarchy within the oligarchy,
become more oligarchic still and
the result is that, first, an extremely
small number of people get control
17
a)/lloij e)pikratou=sin toi=j e)n t$= gerousi/# kai\ t$= e)kklhsi/#, deu/teron de\ e)p' e)kei/noij despoteu/ei o( eiÒj. tou/tou d' a)/koj h)\ to\ mh\ toiau/taj bou/laj e)/xein, h)\ e)/xein me/n, ei)/per de/on, kuri/aj de\ mh/te tosou=ton eiånai mh/te tou\j bouleuta\j kai\ to\n pro/edron ai(retou/j: klhrwtoi\ de\ ma=llon e)/stwsan e)k pa/ntwn a)ll' ou)k e)c o)li/gwn tw=n kaq' h(liki/an u(perexo/ntwn h)\ du/namin. 19. o)ligarxiko\n d' auå to\ e)cei=nai me\n pa=sin yhfoforei=n a)nagkai=on de\ mh/, w(/ste tw=n me\n eu)po/rwn kai\ tw=n e(tai/rwn plei/stouj mete/xein, tou= de\ dh/mou o)li/gouj. ti/ ga\r diafe/rei to e)cei=nai me\n mh\ e)nergei=n de\ kai\ to\ mh\ e)cei=nai; tau)to ge\ dh\ sumbai/nei. be/ltion ouån a)\n ei)/h to\n dh=mon no/moij a)nagka/zesqai yhfoforei=n h)\ kai\ misqo\n pori/zein. a)lla\ tou=t' ou)k a)re/skei toi=j 'Amerikanoi=j, ou) mh\n ou)de\ t%= dh/m%: th=n ga\r a)na/gkhn u(pena/ntion eiånai t$= e)leuqeri/# tou= zh=n w(j a)\n bou/lhtai/ tij: w(sei\ dh/pou ai(rou/menoi me\n tou\j au(tw=n a)/rxontaj eiåen dou=loi, mh\ ai(rou/menoi d' e)leu/qeroi. kai/toi ou) dei= oi)/esqai doulei/an ge\ to\ zh=n pro\j th\n politei/an, a)lla\ swthri/an. 20. pro\j de\ tou/toij to\ au)to\n ai)tei=sqai to\n a)ciowqhso/menon th=j a)rxh=j ou)k o/rqw=j e)/xei. nu=n de\ dh\ tou=to eu)dokimei= para\ toi=j 'Amerikanoi=j. a)nagka/zontai ga\r
and dominate all the rest in the
senate and assembly and, second,
one man gets to dominate over
them. A cure for this would be
either to have no such councils or,
if they are needed, to have them but
not to make them so powerful nor
to have their members and the
chairman elected. Let them rather
be chosen from all by lot and not
from the few who excel in power
and seniority.
19. Oligarchic too is that everyone
is allowed to vote but not everyone
is required to do so, whence it
results that while most of the rich
and of those in the clubs vote few
of the populace do. For what is the
difference between being able to
vote but not voting and not being
able to vote? The same result
follows. Accordingly it would be
better to compel the populace to
vote by law or even to pay them to
do so. But this does not please the
Americans, not even the populace,
since they say compulsion is
contrary to their freedom to live as
they like—as if, I suppose, they
were slaves when they choose their
rulers and free when they do not.
However, one ought not to think it
slavery but safety to live according
to the regime.
20. Moreover, it is not right that
anyone who is going to be judged
worthy of office should himself
have to ask for it. Yet this practice
is held in high repute among the
Americans. They compel those
18
tou\j a)/rxein qe/lontaj prw=ton me\n e(tairi/an tina\ prospoiei=sqai, eiåta d' ai)tei=sqai th\n yh=fon to\n dh=mon mnhsteu/ontaj. a)lla\ dei= kai\ boulo/menon kai\ mh\ boulo/menon a)/rxein to\n a)/cion th=j a)rxh/j. ou)dei\j ga\r a)\n a)/rxein ai)th/saito mh\ filo/timoj w)/n. kai/toi tw=n g' a)dikhma/twn ta\ plei=sta sumbai/nei sxedo\n dia\ filotimi/an kai\ dia\ filoxrhmati/an toi=j a)nqrw/poij. 21. ei)si\ de\ kai\ par' au)toi=j ai(re/seij dittai/: prw=ton me\n ga\r pro/krisin poiou=ntai ai( e(tairi/ai ouÒper e(ka/sth to\n au(th=j a)gwnisth\n ai(rei=tai, deu/teron d' e)k tou/twn tw=n a)gwnistw=n dei= to\n o)/xlon to\n a)/rconta ai(rei=sqai. a)lla\ to\ e)c ai(retw=n ai(rei=sqai e)piki/ndunon: toi=j ga\r e(tai/roij ma/list' h)\ kai\ mo/non e)/cesti to\n au(tw=n ai(rei=sqai a)gwnisth/n, w(/st' o)li/goi tou\j a)gwnista\j ai(rei=sqai. tou/t% ge\ dh\ t%= tro/p% o)li/goij e/)stin e)c o)li/gwn ta\j a)rxa\j kaqi/stasqai. ei) me\n ga\r e(tairi/a tij para\ t%= dh/m% e)sti/ pou dunatw/tera (tou=to de\ dh\ polla/kij sumbai/nei dia\ to\ kuri/aj eiånai ta\j e(tairi/aj th=j tou= dh/mou ei)j fula\j yhfofo/rouj dianomh=j), a)nagkai=on a)ei\ to\n tau/thj a)gwnisth\n nika=n kai\ ei)j th\n a)rxh\n badi/zein. ei) d' i¹sorro/poi pa=sai, ou)de\n hâtton dei= to\n dh=mon e)k tw=n prokri/twn ai(rei=sqai. w(/st' ei) susth=nai/ tinej qe/lousi kai\ me/trioi to\ plh=qoj,
who want to rule first to get the
support of some political club and
then go out soliciting the populace
for their votes. But if a man is
worthy of office he should rule
whether he wants to or not. No one
would ask to rule who was not in
love with honor. Yet men commit
most voluntary wrongs more or less
from love of honor and money.
21. The Americans also have
double electing. For the political
clubs first have a primary election
in which each chooses its candidate,
and then afterwards the crowd
elects from among these candidates
which one will hold office. But it is
dangerous to elect from those
already elected. For those who elect
the candidates for the clubs are
mainly or even only those who
belong to the clubs, and thus a few
elect the candidates. In this way,
indeed, the offices can be set up by
a few people from a few people.
For if one club somewhere has
more influence among the populace
(which happens often enough
because the clubs have control over
the division of the populace into
their voting tribes), its candidate
must always win and come to hold
office. And if the clubs are all equal,
nevertheless the populace must
elect from those already elected.
The result is that if even a few are
willing to band together those
19
ai)ei\ kata\ th\n tou/twn ai(reqh/sontai bou/lhsin a)/rxontej. 22. a)/llwj te kai\ e)pitimh/seien a)/n tij th\n e)n t$= tw=n 'Amerikanw=n politei/# dhmagwgi/an. pa/ntaj ga\r dei= tou\j a)/rxein spouda/zontaj to\n o)/xlon dhmagw/gein, oiâon e)n Lari/s$ oi( politofu/lakej e)dhmagw/goun dia\ to\ ai(rei=sqai au)tou\j to\n o)/xlon. dhmagw/gousi/ ge dh\ e)n o(/saij politei/aij ou)x ouâtoi ai(rou=ntai ta\j a)rxa\j e)c wÒn oi( a)/rxonte/j ei)sin, a)ll' ai( me\n a)rxai\ e)k timhma/twn mega/lwn ei)si\n h)\ e(tairiw=n, ai(rou=ntai d' oi( me/soi h)\ o( dh=moj, o(/per e)n 'Abu/d% me\n sune/bainen nu=n de\ ma/list' e)n 'Amerik$=. 23. e)/ti de\ dhmagwgi/an ai( dittai\ ai(re/seij e)pauca/nousin dia\ to\ dei=n tou\j a)/rcein qe/lontaj to\n dh=mon di\j mnhsteu/ein. tou/touj ge\ xrh= to\n dh=mon paragge/lontaj a)ei\ periie/nai kai\ ti/nej ei)si\n khru/ttein kai\ ti/noj e(tairi/aj kai\ pw=j e)n a)rx$= o)/ntej w)felh/sousin: w(/ste ma/xontai pro\j a)llh/louj t%= dh/m% xari/zontej pa/ntej. filo/neikoi d' ouån gi/gnontai polla\ t%= dh/m% u(pisxnou/menoi. pro\j de\ tou/toij a)llh/lwn kathgorou=sin kai\ me/mfontai ei)/t' a)lhqw=j ei/)te mh/, o(/per kaq' au(to\ me\n ai)sxro/n (ti/j ga\r e)pieikh=j toiau=t' a)\n e(/kwn dra/seien;), t$= de\ politei/# blabero/n. 24. kai\ dh\ kai\ tou\j plousi/ouj mnhsteu/ousi no/misma
elected to office will always be the
ones they want.
22. Above all one might blame the
demagoguery in the regime of the
Americans. All those eager for
office must become demagogues to
the crowd, as the regime guardians
used to do in Larissa, because it is
the crowd that elects them. The
same is true of all regimes where
those who provide the rulers are not
those who elect to office but the
offices are filled from high
property qualifications or from
political clubs, and those possessed
of moderate wealth or the populace
do the electing. This used to happen
in Abydos and happens now
especially in America.
23. The double electing also
increases the demagoguery,
because those who want to be in
office must solicit the populace
twice. At any rate they must go out
and about summoning the populace
and telling them who they are and
which club they belong to and what
they will do for them if they are
elected. So they must all fight each
other for the favor of the populace.
They compete, therefore, in
multiplying promises to the
populace. In addition they blame
and accuse each other, whether
truthfully or not, and this is both
base in itself (for what decent man
could willingly do such things?)
and harmful to the regime.
24. They also solicit the rich for
money to cover the costs they incur
20
ai)thso/menoi pro\j to\ ti/nein ta dapanh/mata a(/per o)fliska/nousi ta\j do/caj pantaxou= khru/ttontej to/n te dh=mon a)p' a/)llwn pro\j e(autou\j protre/pontej: e)/ti d' e)kei/noij a)/rxonte/j g' a)ntwfelh/sein u(pisxnou=ntai. w(/sq' h( politei/a e)pi\ tou/toij gi/gnetai oiâj a)nagkai=on prw=ton me\n ta\j a)rxa\j pwlei=n i(/n' e)/peita pri/wntai: pw=j d' a)\n toiou=toi tou= a)/rxein eiåen a/)cioi; ei) kai\ h)/dh plou/t% u(pere/xousin e)/nioi w(/ste pri/asqai ta\j a)rxa\j a)/neu tou= prw=ton pwlei=n (tou=to ga\r poiei=n tine\j du/nantai), pw=j e)sti\ be/ltion; ou)de\n ga\r hÂtton o)ligarxi/a, kai\ tosou/t% xei/rwn o(/s% spaniw/teroi kai\ plousiw/teroi oi( a)/rxontej. ai( gou=n pleoneci/ai tw=n plousi/wn ma=llon a)pollu/ousi th\n politei/an h)\ ai( tou= dh/mou. 25 o)ligarxikh=j d' ou)/shj th=j politei/aj a)/rista e)kfeu/gousin, w(j ei)/pomen, t%= to\n dh=mon a)ei\ ploutei=n du/nasqai. ou) ga\r mo/non to\ ploutei=n oi( 'Amerikanoi\ diw/kousin tou/j t' a)/llouj e)p' au)to\ parakalou=sin (w(/ste meta/dosij gi/gnetai t%= plh/qei tou= politeu/matoj), a)lla\ kai\ koinwnei=n tw=n e(tairiw=n e)w=si to\n tuxo/nta tou= t' a)/rxein a)gwnisth\n gi/gnesqai qelo/menon kai\ duna/menon. e)/ti d' o(milei=n su\n a)llh/loij sfo/dr' e)piqumou=sin a)/lloi kat' a)/lla (oiÒon kata\ ta\j gnw/maj ta\j th=j eu)sebei/aj
in advertising their opinions
everywhere and in turning the
populace away from others towards
themselves. They then in addition
make promises to these rich of
what they will do for them when
they possess office. The result is
that the regime falls into the hands
of those who must buy their office
by first selling it, and how can such
persons be fit to rule? Even if some
already have an excess of wealth of
their own and can buy office
without first selling it (for there are
certain people who can do this),
how is that better? For it is
oligarchy all the same and so much
the worse an oligarchy the fewer
and wealthier the office-holders.
The graspings of the rich, at any
rate, do more to ruin the regime
than those of the populace.
25. But though the regime is
oligarchic, they have, as we said, a
very good way of escaping the
consequences by the populace
always being able to get rich. For
not only do the Americans pursue
wealth and encourage others to do
the same (so that the multitude are
given a share in the regime), but
they also allow anyone at all to join
the political clubs and even, if he
wants to and has the ability, to
become a candidate for office. In
addition they have a great love of
forming associations with each
other, some for this reason and
others for that (as for example their
opinions in religion or economics
21
h)\ th=j xrhmatistikh=j h)\ th=j politikh=j h)\ tw=n toiou/twn), kai\ e(tairi/aj kaqi/stasqai pro\j to\ koino\n au(toi=j a)gaqo/n, o(\n ‘ i)/dion sumfe/ron’ kalou=sin. tou=to de\ poiei=sqai kai\ toi=j a)po/roij e)/cestin, oi(\ sunelqo/ntej e)ni/ote plousiw/teroi kai\ dunatw/teroi tw=n eu)po/rwn me\n o)ligwte/rwn de\ gi/gnontai. ou(/twj ge\ dh\ sumbai/nei tou\j pe/nhtaj w(j plousi/ouj pro\j plousi/ouj a)ntagwni/zesqai kai\ ta\ th=j politei/aj o)ligarxika\ ei)j e(autou/j pwj periista/nai. 26. kai/per ouån ouåsan ma/list' o)ligarxikh\n th\n politei/an ou)k e)pi\ li/an o)li/goij e)pitei/nwsin, a)lla/ tinwn me\n a)pelqo/ntwn ei)se/rxontai d' a)ei\ a)/lloi, w(/ste mhde/na a)ganaktei=n mh\ koinwnou=nta: gnwri/zei ga\r e(/kastoj au)t%= qe/lonti koinwnei=n e)cei=nai kai\ plou=ton pro\j to\ tou=to dra=n kta=sqai: dei= me\n ouån pa=sin e)cei=nai, w/(j fasi/ ge, ploutei=n kai\ a)/rxein, mh\ mo/non de\ toi=j h)/dh ploutou=sin h)\ ge/nwn tinw=n h)\ oi)kiw=n gego/nosin. tou/t% ga\r i)w=ntai kai\ poiou=si mo/nimon th\n politei/an. a)lla\ to\ xw/ran eu)porwta/thn eiånai th\n 'Amerikh\n kai\ pro\j th/n te xrhmatistikh\n kai\ th\n kaphlikh\n kei=sqai kalw=j tu/xhj e)sti\n e)/rgon, dei= de\ a)stasia/stouj tou\j pollou\j eiånai dia\ to\n nomoqe/thn. nu=n de/, a)\n a)tuxi/a ge/nhtai/ tij kai\ to\ plh=qoj a)post$= tw=n a)rxome/nwn, ou)de/n e)sti fa/rmakon dia\ tw=n no/mwn th=j
or politics or the like), and of
setting up clubs to further their
common good, which they term a
“special interest”. Even the poor
can do this, and the poor, when
united, may sometimes be richer
and more powerful than a few who
are well off. Hence it comes about,
indeed, that the poor can compete
as rich against rich and turn the
oligarchic elements in the regime in
some way to their own advantage.
26. Accordingly, although the
regime is very oligarchic, yet the
oligarchy is not narrow but people
are forever entering it or leaving it.
So no one is upset to be excluded
for everyone knows he can share in
it if he wishes, and accumulate
wealth for this purpose too. For, as
they say at any rate, everyone
should have the right to become
rich and hold office and not just
those who are already rich or come
from certain clans or families. In
this way they effect a cure and give
stability to the regime. But that
America is a rich land and nobly
adapted to business and trade is the
work of chance, whereas the
legislator should be the one
responsible for making the many
free of faction. As it is, if some
misfortune happens and the
multitude of the ruled revolt, there
is no cure in the laws for restoring
22
h(suxi/aj. 27. peri\ me\n ouån th=j 'Amerikanw=n politei/aj e)pi\ tosou=ton ei)rh/sqw: tau=ta ga/r e)stin a(/ ma/list' a)/n tij e)pitimh/seien.
calm.
27. Let so much then be said about
the regime of the Americans. For
these are the things that one might
most of all criticize.