Assessment & mitigation of impacts from icebreaking
vessels on ice-breeding pinnipeds in the Holarctic
Wilson, SC., Trukhanova, I, Crawford, I, Dolgova, E, Dmitrieva, L & Goodman, SJ
University of Leeds, UK
• Thinning polar ice, O&G exploration and more powerful icebreaking
vessels resulting in increasing shipping in Arctic waters
• Multiple anthropogenic impacts (including oil pollution, acoustic
disturbance of cetaceans)
• This presentation dedicated to the physical impact of vessels
transiting the habitat of ice-breeding pinnipeds
Principal Arctic and sub-
arctic sea routes for
industrial shipping
Review of past studies of
shipping impacts on ice breeding
seals and ice breeding seal
ecology and behaviour can help
inform risk assessments (Hӓrkӧnen
et al 2008; Wilson et al 2008, Vorontsova et
al. 2008).
NWP NSR TSR ABR Baltic Caspian
P groenlandica X X X X
P hispida X X X X X
E barbatus X X X X
O rosmarus X X X X
C cristata X X X
H fasciata X
P largha X
H grypus X X
P vitulina X
P caspica X
Overlap between principal Arctic and sub-arctic sea routes
and ice-associated seal distribution
All routes overlap with seals and 5 species are overlapped by several main
sea routes
Oil & Gas and other industrial requirements may also result
in increased localised vessel traffic
Pechora Sea
White Sea (Vorontsova et al 2008)
O rosmarus
P hispida
E barbatus
P groenlandica
Oil & gas development in the Barents Sea region
• potential impact of icebreakers on walrus and 3 seal
species
N. Okhotsk Sea
NE Sakhalin
H fasciata
P hispida
P largha
Oil and Gas development in the N. Okhotsk Sea
• potential impact of icebreakers on 3 species of seals
• collisions with seals - fatal
• separation of pups from mothers
• displacement of mother-pup pairs
from natal site
• pupping site breakage
• flushing of pups into the water
• stampeding (walrus)
• habitat fragmentation
direct mortality
stress, reduced lactation
hypothermia (pups)
energy deficit
disorientation (habitat breakage)
indirect mortality
Vessel impact (Vorontsova et al 2008; Hӓrkӧnen et al 2008; Wilson et al 2008; Anon 1990)
Characteristics predisposing species to greatest
vulnerability to vessel passage
• Creation of semi-permanent whelping sites
(pupping lairs, mother-pup grouping beside ice features with
breathing hole network)
– pup remains close to whelping site until weaned
– seals disoriented if whelping site ice broken by vessel passage
• Establishing whelping sites along shipping channel edges
• Giving birth to small-bodied white-coat pups unable to survive entry to water
• Short flight distance or freeze response to vessel approach
Species giving birth –
• on mobile ice
• with no fixed nursery site
• with larger-bodied, mobile pups able to enter water
may be less vulnerable to vessel disturbance
P. caspica
P. groenlandica
C. cristata
P. hispida
Photo: B. Kelly
Photo: IFAW (SCS) Photo: S. Wilson
Photo: DFO Newfoundland
adult flight distance 0–100m (Hӓrkӧnen et al 2008; Wilson et al 2008)
may freeze (Lydersen & Kovacs 1995)
adult flight distance ~230m (Brueggeman et al 1992)
Sedentary pupping species on stable ice
• Relatively stable pupping sites on land-fast or pack ice, or large areas of drift ice
Sedentary pupping species would be particularly affected
by icebreaker channelling
• May cut through seal breeding areas,
destroying habitat
• Seals may establish nursery sites along
channel – vulnerable to subsequent ships
H. grypus
Photo: H.Olssen & M.Jϋssi
H. fasciata
Photo: NOAA
P. largha
Photo: DFO Quebec
Little flight response to vessels (Burkanov & Lowry 2008)
Sedentary species on less stable ice • relatively stable pupping sites on edge of fast ice, pack ice, unstable drift
ice, smaller floes
P. vitulina (Alaska, Svalbard) O. rosmarus
Photo: sciencebuzz.org
Photo: Alamy-wildography.co.uk
E. barbatus
Photo: consoglobe.com
Flight response >230m; stampede possible (Anon 1990; Brueggeman et al 1991)
Flight response at 300–500m (Jansen et al 2010)
Mobile pupping species - pup not tied to fixed location
• Pups not in lanugo, able to enter water but may suffer thermal stress
Seal avoidance vessel route planning
First priority in the hierarchy of mitigation measures
Aims of route planning: 1. Advance logistics planning to reduce need for vessel transits
through seal areas during pupping and moulting seasons 2. Plan vessel routes to avoid passing through seal areas 3. If transiting potential seal areas is unavoidable, micro-plan
route to maintain Safe Distance between vessel path and seals
(Safe Distance = seals do not react to vessel)
Pupping season Pupping habitat Duration of
lactation
P groenlandica Late –Feb to early
March
stable pack ice 12 days
P hispida March–April landfast or stable
pack ice
6 weeks
E barbatus Mid –March to early
May
mobile ice floes 18-24 days
O rosmarus Mid-April to early
June
pack ice 2 years
C cristata Mid-March to early
April
centre of large ice
floe
3-5 days
P fasciata Early April to early
May
pack ice 3-4 weeks
P largha Mid Feb to April southern edge of
pack ice
3-4 weeks
H grypus Mid-Feb to mid-
March
pack ice & larger
floes
17 days
P caspica Late Jan to early
march
landfast or stable
pack ice
4–5 weeks
P vitulina Mid-June to July Pack ice and floes 3–4 weeks
Aerial surveys of vessel corridors
Deploy ice buoys Drawing: JCOMMOPS
Potential methods onboard vessel
for seal-avoidance path-finding
Large vessels: helicopter fly ahead
with camera
Smaller
vessels:
drone or
balloon with
cameras
Because of poor visibility ahead, barges should always travel in
coordinated convoy behind a lead icebreaker
convoy
This mitigation measure has been adopted in NE Caspian since 2011
(Agip KCO and NCPOC)
• Barges follow lead vessel
Vessel mitigation
Restrict speed in likely seal areas
Determine safe speeds for different classes of
vessels in seal areas for
• Stopping distance
• Manoeuvering
P. caspica
>150m
Keep vessels at ‘safe distance’ from seals
(Hӓrkӧnen et al 2008; Wilson et al 2008)
>250–1000m
(Brueggeman et al 1991)
O. rosmarus
500m
Photo: j.Womble
P. vitulina on ice floes
100 yard
(voluntary advisory)
(Jansen et al 2010)
Manoeuvering around seals ahead of vessel
This is only possible if vessels going at slow cruising speed
The new ‘oblique’ icebreakers will increase risk of collision
Avoid oblique channelling in seal areas
Risk of collision is greater at night –
• Seals may be slow to react
• Seals are difficult to spot, even with vessel
headlights
IR cameras essential
Use IR cameras at night
Develop an MMO (Marine Mammal Observer)
programme specialised for vessels and ice-
breeding seals
• Mitigation measures on pathfinding, speed, safe distance, manoeuvering, use of IR at night unlikely to be followed consistently without independent monitoring
• MMOs report on impact and mitigation measures at end of
each vessel transit to Company and to Regulatory authorities
• The MMO programme will involve specialised training and
should be recognised by the regulatory authorities in each
State
Research needed for evidence-based mitigation
• identify species, areas and seasons where seals most at risk
• determine seal behaviour response to vessel approach
• determine and quantify disturbance and impact
• determine Safe Distance for each species – breeding, moulting, non-
breeding
Marine mammal biologists should travel onboard vessels to carry
out this research
• To be required by regulatory authorities
• Cooperation between all Arctic & sub-arctic littoral States
Regulatory Issues
• Consistency of species protection status among countries
• Variation in environmental protection standards and allowable
operating procedures
• Responsibility for reporting, oversight, enforcement and accountability
can be unclear
• Development of clear regulatory frameworks, legal status for MMOs
What does this mean for Companies requiring vessel
transit through potential seal ice areas?
• Cooperating with regulatory authorities in all littoral States
• Supporting the necessary basic research on species
• Avoiding where possible travel near seal areas during
breeding season
• Commissioning vessel-route planning surveys
• Supporting seal-avoidance path-finding systems (UAVs etc)
• Equipping vessels with IR cameras
• Contracting independent MMOs for work onboard
• Factoring into transit times potential for reduced speed
or detours in seal areas
Thank you for your attention
Tara Seal Research
Anon. 1990. Beaufort Sea Planning Area Oil and Gas Lease sale 124. Draft Environmental Impact Statement Vol. 1.
US Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, Alaska OCS region. Feb 1990.
Brueggemann J.J., Volsen D.P., Grotefendt R.A., Green G.A., Burns J.J. and Klungblad D.K. 1991. 1990 Walrus
monitoring program: the Popcorn, Burger and Crackerjack Prospects in the Chukchi Sea. Final report for Shell
Western E&P Inc.
REFERENCES
Hӓrkӧnen T., Jϋssi M., Baimukanov M., Bignert A., Dmitrieva L., Kasimbekov Y., Verevkin M., Wilson S. & Goodman
S.J. 2008. Pup production and breeding distribution of the Caspian seal (Phoca caspica) in relation to human
impacts. Ambio 37(5): 356–361.
Vorontsova M.N., Chernook V.I., Glazov D.M. and Filipova A.V. 2008. Current threats to the survival of the harp seal
(Phoca groenlandica) White Sea population. In Proceedings of the Marine Mammals of the Holarctic, Odessa,
October 2008, 586–592.
Wilson S., Kasimbekov Y., Ismailov N. and Goodman S. 2008. Response of mothers and pups of the Caspian
seal, Phoca caspica, to the passage of icebreaker traffic. In Proceedings of the Marine Mammals of the
Holarctic, Odessa, October 2008, 593–595.
Jansen J.K., Boveng P., Dahle S.P. and Bengtson J.L. 2010. Reaction of harbour seals to cruise ships. J.
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Lydersen C. and Kovacs K.M. 1995. Paralysis as a defence response to threatening stimuli in harp seals (Phoca
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Brueggemann J.J., Green G.A., Grotefendt R.A., Smultea M.A., Volsen D.P., Rowlett R.A. and Swanson C.C.
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Burkanov V. and Lowry L. 2008. Histriophoca fasciata. In. IUCN 2014. IUCN Red List of threatened species,
Version 2014. 1. www.iucnredlist.org