THE
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
BY <„<•
FEED W#ATKINSONFirst General Superintendent of Education in the
Philippine Islands
GINN & COMPANYBOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON
COPYKIGHT, 1905
By FRED W. ATKINSON
ALL KIGHTS RESERVED
55.8
GINN .V CoMl'AN'l' • I'Kii.
PRlliTDKS • HOSTDN • USA.
PEEFACE
Abundant has been the crop of magazine articles and
even more formal treatises on the Philippine Islands
since our war with Spain ; yet superabundant have
been the showers of inquiries which the writer has
encountered time and again since his return from the
Islands, in connection both with a series of lectures
recently delivered upon the subject and with informal
talks from time to time. The existence of so much
available material and at the same time the lack of
precise information concerning the Philippines in those
who show a real interest in the matter have by the
very incompatibility thus suggested engaged his atten-
tion and seemed significant. The explanation which
alone seems possible, assuming that the interest is as
sincere and active as he has been led to believe, is that
this material has not been prepared and presented in
such a way as to attract the ordinary reader and enable
him easily to get an accurate and substantial knowledgeof the situation.
In the administration of his duties as general super-
intendent of education the writer was given abun-
dant opportunity of learning the actual conditions byvisits to practically every part of the archipelago, by
conferences, interviews, and personal association with111
iv PREFACE
prominent Filipinos and naturally with American offi-
cials both civil and military, and by corresijondence
with assistants in every part of the field. Furthermore,
trips to such countries as Java, China, Japan, and India
have aided him, by the possil^ility of comparison thus
afforded, in his study of conditions in the Philijjpines.
To present the results of this observation in such a
way as to give an accurate and comprehensive idea of
just what our Philippine possessions are; to show the
real conditions, geographical, economic, social, and
political; to picture the people and their characteristics,
the different phases of this problem of tropical coloni-
zation, the possibilities and the prospects,— such is
the writer's endeavor.FRED W. ATKINSON
Brooklyn, 1905
CONTENTS
Chapter Page
Introduction 1
I. General Geography 19
ir. History 45
III. From the Death ok Lkgaspi through the Intf.r-
VENiNG Period to the Uprising of 1896 .... 03
IV. From the Insurrection of 1806 to the Present
Time 99
y. Climate . 122
YI. Public Health 143
VII. Commercial Geography 163
VIII. Manila 203
IX. People 227
X. People (continued) 256
XI. People (continued) 286
XII. Superstitions and Religion 296
XIII. Government 337
XIV. Education 373
INDEX 413
THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
INTRODUCTION
Of the few countries to-day where the old order still
continues with but slight modification, where virgin
fields have awaited the student of politics, economics,
sociology, philology, ethnology, where such a diversity
of conditions, interests, and languages exists as to make
the problem bewildering in the infinity of its phases,
the Philippine Islands are among the foremost;while
in us Americans who have assumed the tutelage of
these oriental islanders, who have taken upon ourselves
the solution of a problem that is unique, this general
interest becomes merged in the feeling of serious respon-
sibility which rests upon us for the ultimate successful
accomplishment of the task.
Opportunities for research are ample, and the Insular
Government through the employment of experts is
carrying on many lines of investigation, the result of
which will be valuable. What the conditions were
before Spain's influence began to be felt, and how much
the Spaniards did for the Filipinos it is difficult to say;
it depends, as all things Philippine depend, on the point
of view. The question is primarily one for the trained
2 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
philologist, who, by a study of the dialects and their
acquisitions from the Spanish language, may learn
much concerning the early history and customs of the
Filipino people. It was of absorbing interest to the
writer while there in the Islands, bearing in mind
always what the past had been, to watch and study
the kaleidoscopic happenings, and to speculate on what
course the current will take in coming years. Such
events were likewise watched with a similar interest
by our thoughtful citizens at home, w^ho were supplied
with a comparatively small amount of information,
which was essentially conflicting.
There seems to be a dearth of accm-ate, whole-truth
information on the Philippine situation. The testi-
mony of an army officer on the one hand and that of
a civil official on the other, based upon different points
of view and perhaps a knowledge of entirely different
parts of the archipelago, could not be other than con-
tradictory ;and similarly with any reports which did
not first look beyond the immediate vicinity to confirm
impressions there gained, for the inaccuracy of anysuch information varied directly with the distance from
the particular place in which the conditions were ob-
served. In short, it was unsafe to note the existence of
any peculiar practice, habit, or dialect without labeling
it with the exact locality where found, for such mightbe Ijut a far-removed, modified specimen of a most
diversified family ;and the error lay in assuming that
to be the generic which was merely the specific,— an
INTRODU(^TION 3
error which has led to a most unfortunate difference
of conceptions as to what the problem really is, and
what the solution ought to be.
The Philippines should not properly be a party issue;
and the inclination of Americans generally to refrain
from reviewing the story of our acquisition of them,
and rather to center their attention upon the one pos-
sible phase of the question open to discussion,— the
speed with w^hich we can grant the inhabitants larger
powers of self-government, is cause for a feeling of
satisfaction. The Islands are a part of our country;
as a nation we have become responsible for their
external relations and their internal administration.
To the world, to the Filipino people, and to ourselves
we have a duty to perform, however unpleasant and
unpalatable it may be. The executive department of
our government took cognizance of this duty as soon
as the treaty of peace with Spain was ratified in
February, 1899; Congress later recognized our respon-
sibility by prescribing a form of government ;and our
Supreme Court has established the status of the Islands
as a part of the United States. The problem is thus
larger than any party ;and hence, even with a change
of party, a material variation from our present policy
would not be possible. In facing the situation to-day,
tliouo;hts of what misrht have been will be rather a
hindrance than a help. A work, the very immensity
of which is just beginning to be perceived by us, has
been undertaken without any prospect of immediate.
4 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
satisfactory completion ;but it is our task, and we have
made an encouraging start.
It would be well, indeed, if all here at home could be
led to join in the opinion of Americans in the Philip-
pines, of whatever party, that democratic principles of
government must be considerably modified when the
people to be governed have the racial qualities, tradi-
tions, and history of the Filipinos. Unless there be a
unity of sentiment among the American people, an eager-
ness of spirit to solve the problem in the best possible
way with the sole view of the welfare of the Filipino, the
experiment now inaugurated will fail. The difficulties
of the problem we are only now learning to appreciate ;
until the conditions are better known, we should suspend
judgment and certainly be less prone to destructive
criticism of the pioneer service now being performed.
No amount of books, magazine articles, and lectures
can transport the American at home to the Philippines,
nor adequately supply the results of a practical acquaint-
ance with the Islands. It is impossible for our legisla-
tors in Washington who have not been on the groundto realize that this group is not the United States sim-
ply a few centuries younger ;and hence, in the present
discussion of the question of independence, comparisons
with conditions which existed just before our own Revo-
lutionary War are apt to be misleading. Vain specula-
tion without knowledge of facts is useless ; what did
happen in tlie Pliilip})ines could not have been pre-
vented from happening.
INTRODUCTION 5
The Filipinos are incapable of self-government; in
their affairs they are managed by few ambitious leaders.
They have not yet cultivated a sense of fair play and
tolerance for those vv^ho differ in opinion. Although the
gift of self-government in full measure was not possi-
ble, yet to a degree it was bestowed by granting prac-
tical autonomy in provincial and municipal affairs.
Independence is a cherished ideal of the Filipinos, and
that they may ultimately realize this ideal is, the writer
believes, the unexpressed purpose of those who have
undertaken the tutelage of these peoples. How far
removed is this realization, it is beyond his power to
predict ; the proximity or distance of it must remain
a matter of opinion. Certainty that these peoples will
or will not become an independent nation is equally
out of the question. For some time to come the politi-
cal dependence of the Islands upon the United States
must be very real. Granting independence in any near
future would be a great error sure to result in serious
harm;and in the policy of not attempting to fix the
day when the connection between the two countries
shall be merely nominal, we are pursuing a wise course.
The doctrine of the consent of the governed is indeed in-
cluded in om- scheme of administration in these Islands
to the fullest extent to which it ever laid claim in the
minds of those who first propounded it, namely, the
granting of self-government to all who were compe-tent to exercise it for their own benefit and that of soci-
ety. The question of the right of a higher civilization
6 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
to dominate a lower is one capable of much discussion;
the only justification, surely, for such an extension of
sovereignty is the material improvement and the intel-
lectual and moral elevation of the weaker race.
The United States Philippine Commissioners have
erred, if in any direction, in giving too great a degree
of self-government in both provincial and municipal
affairs. It is an open secret that they went farther
in bestowing local self-government than the Filipino
leaders themselves advised; in fact, as President Roose-
velt expressed it in a message, they reached the danger
point. Only, indeed, by our belief that the privilege of
voting is in itself an educative force in the state and
that it constantly increases the self-respect of the voter
can we justify the establishment of the present form
of civil government in the Philippines.
The Filipino people, taken as a body, are children
and, childlike, do not know what is best for them.
That they possess ideals and ideas creates a faith and
a hope that ultimately they may be able to institute a
republic modeled on the American lines. In the ideal
spirit of preparing them for the work of governing
themselves finally, their American guardianship has
begun. Our political sway has not been imposed upon
the people to any greater extent than was necessary;
and by the very fact of our superiority of civilization
and our greater capacity for industrial activity we are
bound to exercise over them a profound social influ-
ence. In speaking of the future of this country, the
INTRODUCTION
one tiling to be emphasized throughout is that all de-
pends upon the temper we exercise in the work which
is mapped out for us. What is best for the Filipinos is
the foremost consideration;and this desire to put their
The Taft Philippine Commission
Commissioner Worcester is not present
interests first rather than to foster American exploita-
tion has animated the United States Philippine Com-
mission in all its legislative and administrative acts.
The solution of the Philippine problem is in the hands
of men of large and generous sympathies, whose abili-
ties as practical statesmen have been shown. Governor
Taft's has been a brilliant career in which success is
attributable in no small degree to a personality that
won the love and admiration of the natives and the
8 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
support of all thoughtful persons. Besides the five
Americans on the Commission are three Filipino mem-
bers, who from the beginning have Ijeen left free to do
all they could do effectively. The details of the organ-
ization of civil government will be taken up fully
later; suthce it here to say that by formulating civil
and criminal codes, and organizing on a comprehen-
sive scale departments and bureaus of government
which are modern and efficient, the Commission has
done much in the matter of paving the way to ultimate
success.
As a result of our general policy there are signs
of an increased friendliness between Americans and
Filipinos, and much now appears in the situation to
create a feeling of cheerfulness. Bitter memories of
what has been naturally still exist;
blood has been
poured out and money contributed;
and there are
Filipinos who view our j)resence with a feeling of dis-
like, the predominant reason for which is the natural
idea that through the Americans they have lost an
independence all but attained. Yet there is reason for
soundiu"; a cheerful note in the fact, that in spite of all,
the large body of the people tolerate us even though
somewhat half-heartedly ;and without overrating the
intensity and permanence of the manifestations of good
will which have greeted our efforts, we may feel that
the leading Filipinos, whether from expediency or real
appreciation, are cooperating witli tlie Commissioners
and their subordinates. As we shall see, the danger
INTRODUCTION 9
lies in the conservatism of these people, who want to
do as they have always done, and in the dissimilarity
oi the racial qualities, traditions, history, and manners
of the two peoples.
From a purely scientific point of view the experiment
is interesting as an attempt to do what has never been
done before with an oriental race of Malay origin in
the tropics. The Filipinos will become Americanized
only in the sense that they will speak English and
adopt American innovations as they are introduced;the
character of the people and their stronger, more in-
dividual characteristics will be retained. What is goodin Philippine civilization must not be handled roughly ;
the Filipino himself will always remain such as he
was under the Latinizing process of the Spaniards.
With such considerations in mind, those in authority
have been very careful not to go too far in the attempt
to introduce American ideas and institutions, in spite of
the demand by the press and public opinion at home
for a wholesale clearance of the native customs and
beliefs. Sweeping administrative reforms were found
necessary ; yet our government has not met with as
much to change that is Malay as that which is Spanish.
The Commission has attempted to establish a firm and
strong government as a condition precedent to the
country's political future; but, on the other hand, it
has interfered just as little as possible with the cus-
toms, manners, ceremonials, and beliefs which go to
make up the individuality of a people.
10 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
For nearly five years now our government lias
been operating a free public-school system, the cardinal
point of which is the introduction of English, which the
Filipino wanted, and in teaching which not the slightest
attempt has been made to stamp out any of the native
dialects. Our educational efforts have possibly done
more to give these people a true conception of the bene-
fits of civilization and good government than all the
other influences we have brought to bear upon them;
indeed, in this work is to be found the solution for a
large part of the problem. Ujd to the present time it
has hardly advanced beyond the teachings of the rudi-
ments of English, though considerable progress is now
being made in arithmetic, geography, and the other
elementary branches, while in the various centers work
of an advanced nature is carried on. Thus popular
education, on which naturallv the whole structure in
this field must ultimately rest, has been strengthenedand broadened, steps have been taken in the direction
of higher training, and for the future, when the time
is ripe, a university has been planned as an apex of
the school system. Among the greatest difficulties that
the promoters of free education have to contend with
are the apathy of the lowest class and the antagonismof the highest. In democratic United States it has been
possible to advance popular education raj)idly duringthe past century because those who had influence were
men who themselves possessed a true conception of
its benefits and were able to see the whole question
INTIIODUCTION 11
in the proper perspective ;in the Philippines the masses
have learned little else than the catechism, and the
higher classes have acquired hardly more than a veneer.
Education is now desired apparently with the greatest
eagerness, but when the novelty wears off and hard
work is required the attendance decreases. Through
Spanish misteaching education has come to have a false
meaning there. Scarcely a Filipino understands its
significance ;his view is a narrow, social one, possibly
tinged with ecclesiasticism. To turn out facile penmen,
glib talkers, or formal observers of the faith will not
satisfy us. For the present, at least, a purely utilitarian
view of education must be accepted ; yet to the Ameri-
can teacher now and to the Filipino reformer of the
future the ideal must be a higher one, namely, develop-
ment of physical and intellectual powers, formation and
strengthening of moral character, widening of the sym-
pathies, and, incidentally, preparation for citizenship.
Frequently in the press of the Dutch and English colo-
nies of the Orient, and occasionally in our American
papers, opinions have been put forth to the effect that
the institution of popular education in the Philippines
is likely to do more harm than good, and that the peo-
ple would remain better and happier without it. With
this view it is impossible to agree. The writer's liking
for the people and knowledge of their character arouses
the hope, sincere Ijelief in the ability, tact, and courage
of the American teacher creates the faith, and personal
observation and judgment confirm in him the conviction,
12 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
that the popular education of the Filipino, if not unduly
hurried and if conducted along practical lines, will prove
an ultimate success.
We have not only made an encouraging start in gov-
erning this distant group of sixteen hundred islands
properly and efficiently and in furnishing an adequate
system of education, but we have already attempted
to develop their rich resources. The economic aspect
of the question is by no means the least interesting.
Since the writer's return, the question whether the
Philippines will continue a great expense to the United
States without any corresponding profit has been fre-
quently asked, and has invariably revealed ignorance
of a fact which was supposed to be generally known,
namely, that the United States government pays only
for the expenses of the American army of occupation
and the Insular Government maintains itself from its
custom and revenue receipts. The Islands are exceed-
ingly fertile and productive, and yet the writer must
confess that he is not optimistic in his belief that the
Philippines will immediately pay largely in a commer-
cial way. This question depends upon many factors.
It involves a labor problem of exceeding seriousness;
the probability of American colonization in the Islands ;
the investment of American capital ;the need of new
markets for American products, and the increase of Fil-
ipino wants;the character of later congressional and
iusulai- legislation ;the development of means of land and
interisland transportation ;and such kindred matters.
INTRODUCTION. 13
Among the resources timber is the richest, and yet
owing to the condition of the country, tlie difficulty in
getting the wood out, and the hick of hibor, nearly all
the lumber used for the past three years in the Islands
has been Oregon pine. It would, indeed, be far easier
to prove to an academic reformer that in the Philippines
we have a great national duty to observe and an oppor-
tunity for individual service of trying pioneer character,
than to convince a practical business man that they will
pay. The wealth of this rich country may or may not
under American enterprise amount to as much as san-
guine Americans think, but there can be little doubt
that it is being governed with a consciousness of the
trust which has been assumed.
By accident the United States found itself in the
Philippines. Can any one question the advantage of
the change from Spanish domination to American pro-
tection ? First had to come war with the rifle, then
military commission with the rope, and finally civil
government with the benefits of American sovereignty,
—separation of church and state
;division and coordi-
nation of judicial, legislative, and executive powers ;
rights of suffrage, writs of hal^eas corpus, assembly,
and free speech ; abrogation of obligatory military
service and abolition of the practice of banishment.
Spain justified her conquest here only on religious
grounds and failed because she did not take upon her-
self in addition just that moral obligation which we
have accepted.
14 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Thirty-nine years have now passed since the close of
the Civil War and the negro problem is still unsolved;
at the end of a like period of time we shall be strug-
gling with the Philippine question. In trying to solve
it we must leave the time element out of consideration;
and we shall be gravely disappointed if we do not look
the facts in the face and thus keep from building our
hopes too high. This is not saying that we must be
discouraged or that we have not done much;a careful
consideration of the real difficulties and complexities
will show us how much has really been accomplished.
One of our leading thinkers writes of American civili-
zation in a recent work :
^ " Our people are too impatient
for peerless fruitage from the slow-growing tree of lib-
erty ;we all expect sudden miracles of material and
moral welfare— we get only a slow development and
a halting progress." If this is true, how much less
should we expect in the way of fruitage if this verytree is torn up and transplanted in the Philippines,
—a foreign soil where local government has hardly taken
root, and where the sanctions of order and justice which
promote industrial development are scarcely understood.
It is a huge and novel work— this training some six
or eight millions of tropical, indolent people for self-
government.
Social or rather political trustworthiness, respect for
the minority, and freedom from everything resembling
castes or insurmountable social or political barriers are
1 President Eliot, More Money fur the rublic Schools, p. 56.
Relief JNIap of the Philippine Islands
15
16 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
requisite conditions for ca democratic form of govern-
ment;and these are lacking. In the past under Span-
ish domination these people were restricted by numerous
social limitations, with an ecclesiastical atmosiDhere per-
vading all. In our work we must assure to the Filipino
everywhere free and prompt justice and security of
property in the interior, and must instill in him such
moral restraint and ideal standards as will help him
through the perds of an unknown freedom.
Although it is impossible in a day or in a generation
even to enable these people to raise themselves from
the condition of semicivilization to the rank of a civ-
ilized nation, the difficulties of our task are not insu-
perable. The question is a national one, and to the
extent of his opportunities every citizen should do his
part in assisting by encouragement those to whom has
been assigned this difficult pioneer service. To judge
intelligently the results, one needs to be acquainted
with the situation;to possess a knowledge of the cli-
mate and other geographical conditions, especially their
influence on Philippine character and civilization ; to
be acquainted with the history and life of the different
peoples ;and to know the ethnological constitution of
the Ishmds. A clearer understanding of certain elements
of native character also will lead to saner expectations
as to the results of the American protectorate. Unless
we inform ourselves on these matters, there is bound to
be disappointment in the future. And yet how is the
person at home to obtain this clearer understanding
INTllODUCTION 17
from the mass of conflicting opinions which he hears ?
This is a dithcult question to answer. To one the Fili-
pino is ahnost inhuman, detestable in his col(l-l)looded
warfare;
to another he appears Western-wise, child-
like, gentle. A maze of contradiction is encountered
by one who studies the Filipinos. To one man our
endeavor to govern and educate him is to oppress
him, to uncreate him;to another it is to teach him
really to live.
With a view toward helping to gain this better
understanding of the true situation these chapters
are written. The plan of presentation is what has
seemed to the writer simple and natural : first, a con-
sideration of the general geography, treating of the
location, size, and physical features of the various
islands, mountain and river systems, volcanoes and
earthquakes ;and next, such a treatment of the dis-
covery, settlement, and history of the Islands as to
give a background of information sufficiently substan-
tial for a proper setting for later developments. Then
follows a consideration of these later developments,—the
end of Spanish dominion, the beginning of American
rule, and events under American sovereignty to date;
a discussion of the commercial geography, products,
resources, and possibilities ;of the climate, meteoro-
logical conditions, and storms;the question of public
health;and a description of Manila itself. Attention
is later directed to a study of the people, their charac-
teristics and capacities, then- superstitions and religion ;
18 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
an examination is made into the former method of
government and administration, native and Spanish,
together with a survey of our own work of establishing
and operating the present systems, insular, provincial,
and municipal ;and finally, an account is given of the
educational work, the justification for introducing Eng-
lish, the kind of training needed, the results and pros-
pects, with a concluding estimate of w^hat we have
already done and what the outlook is.
CHAPTER I
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY
This group of more than sixteen hundred islands
forming the Philippine archipelago is situated almost
precisely on the opposite side of the globe to our Atlantic
coast, eleven thousand miles distant from and thirteen
hours four minutes earlier than New York, southwest
of Japan and Korea, some six hundred miles southeast
of China, and a few miles northeast of Borneo. It is
washed on the north and west by the China sea, on the
east by the Pacific, and on the south by the Celebes sea.
With its southern extremity less than 5° and its north-
ern limit 21° north of the equator, it is situated wholly
within the tropics and extends some eleven hundred
miles over a latitudinal expanse equal to that between
the southern shore of lake Superior and the northern
coast of the gulf of Mexico;while the extreme breadth,
between 116° and 126° east, nearly seven hundred miles,
is greater than the longitudinal distance between Phil-
adelphia and Indianapolis.
The total area is 127,853 square miles, seven thousand
square miles greater than that of the British Isles; or,
to use an American standard, larger than the combined
areas of the New England states with New York and19
20 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
New Jersey. And taken together with the waters which
surround and are included within the treaty lines of
boundary, the Islands extend over a space embracing
roughly 800.000 square miles of the earth's surface.
rillLll'I'INE Vk(;KTATI()N
Of the total land area it is computed that the combined
extent of 1588 of the IGOO islands is less than 0000
square miles, thus leaving almost the entire land por-
tion distributed among the comparatively few large
islands. Beginning at the north, the eleven islands
with an area of 1000 square miles or more are Luzon
(43,075), Miudoro (4050), Masbate (3872), Samar (5198),
Panay (4752), Leyte (3872), Palawan (4839), Negros
(4839), Cebu (1G88), Bohol (1400), Mindanao (45,559).
Mindanao is a little larger, and Luzon a little smaller,
than Pennsylvania ; Samar, Negros, Panay, and Pala-
wan are each about the size of Connecticut; Mindoro,
GENERAL GEOGllAPHY 21
Masbate, and Leyte are each of the same area as Porto
Rico;while the remaining two, Bohol and Cebu, are
eacli the size of Rhode Island.
The country is everywhere very mountainous, the
chief ranges running along the greater axis of each
island, generally speaking, with several arms branching
therefrom. Thus tlieir general direction is from north
to south, with more or less inclination to the east or
west, according to the general direction of the largest
islands of the archipelago.
The mountain system of Luzon comprises principally
three large ranges, the nucleus of which is the Caraballo
COCOANLT GkoVE
Sur. They are (1) Caraballos Occidentales, which form
the Pacific-China sea watershed of northern Luzon and
extend north for a distance of about 150 miles, dividing
22 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
into two branches, the Cordillera Central and Cordillera
Norte, the northernmost peak of which, Mt. Irada in
the Babuyan island, is only ninety-three miles from
Formosa; (2) Sierra Madre, or Pacific coast range, which
forms a continuous chain of mountains from the Cara-
ballos de Baler to cape Engaiio, the extreme northeast-
ern point of Luzon, and is the longest continuous range
in the archipelago ; (3) and a third range starting from
the common point, the Caraballos Sur, and extending
south, one branch traversing Tayabas province, the
other the provinces of Camarines, Albay, and Sorsogtni,
and terminating in the spurs of the volcano of Bulusan.
Besides these three j^rincipal ones are two other
ranges worthy of mention,— the Zambales range,
which, starting at cape Bolinao, the extreme north-
west point of Luzon, follows closely the China sea
coast to the end of the Bataan peninsula, fronting Cor-
regidor, the promontory at the entrance of Manila bay ;
and the Tagaytay range, which forms the boundarybetween Cavite and Batangas provinces and contains
the Taal volcano.
While the larger islands have defined systems of
their own, these are brought by means of submarine
ranges into harmony with the general scheme of the
archipelago. The mountains of Marinduque, Burias,
Masbate, Romblon, and Ticao are simply elevated por-
tions of the hidden ranges connecting Luzon with the
systems of the Yisayan group of islands, including
Panay, Negros, Cebu, Leyte, and Samar, which in turn
>
:^
•^
-5
<
O<
23
24 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
are continued in the lofty Cordilleras of Mindanao to the
southeast, and with less elevation in the hills of Basilan
and the larger islands of the Suhi archipelago to the
southwest. From Luzon, too, through Mindoro, the
Calaniianes, and the long narrow island of Palawan,
extends another system, terminating with the peakof Balabac in the Sierra Empinada in the extreme
northwestern part of our possessions, less than fifty
miles distant from the northernmost point of Borneo.
The island of Panay has a single range extendingfrom the northern to the southern coast, separating the
province of Antique from Capiz and Iloilo and reachingan altitude of more than seven thousand feet. About
midway it sends a spur to the east which forms the
boundary between Capiz and Iloilo. Various peaks of an
elevation of four thousand feet and upwards are to be
found in this chain.
Negros is traversed by a high range from the north-
west to southeast, dividing it into two parts so com-
pletely as to form naturally two narrow provinces. Tn
this system the volcano Canlaon or Malaspina is a
conspicuous feature.
Cebu has a spinelike chain similar to that of Negros,almost parallel to it, and dividing the island likewise
into the eastern and western halves.
Bohol has no single well-defined range, but several
short ones traversing the island from the northeast to
the southwest and giving a general mountainous char-
acter to the surface.
Tropical Vegetation on the Fagsanjax Kiver
25
26 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Leyte and Sjimar are traversed similarly by ranges,
continuations of the system of southern Luzon, runningthe length of the islands from northwest to southeast,
with numerous spurs sent off on both sides, making the
land surface distinctly a broken one.
The system of Mindanao comprises four distinct
chains : the eastern in Surigao, which forms a Pacific
coast range running the entire length of the island;the
central eastern, which extends north from Butuan and
constitutes the watershed of the great river systems of
Agusan on the east and Pulangui on the west, and is the
l)oundary between Surigao and the provinces of Misamis
and Lanao;the central western, which branches from
the latter range at the lofty volcano of Apo, 10,312
feet high, and, following the northern boundary of Cota-
bato province from southeast to northwest, intersects
the western range and travels the entire length of tlie
Zamboanga peninsula to the Basilan strait, where it
ends, to rise again in the larger islands of Sulu; and,
lastly, the western, which starts at the head of Iligan
bay on the north and, cutting across the island to the
south, traverses the peninsula inclosing Illana bay.
The Philippines, it is worthy of note, are united with
the Asiatic archipelago at three different points where
the straits filled with islands reach but little depth,
namely, north of Borneo by the islands of Balabac and
Palawan, on the northeast of Borneo by the island of
Jolo, and on the northeast of the Celebes by the islands
of Sanquin and Talut. The whole Philippine group.
GENEllAL GEOGRAPHY 27
without doubt, therefore, belongs to the same geograph-
ical region as Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and the other
members of this extensive archipelago, and hence to Asia
rather than to Oceanica. In bearing out this view, the
analogy between the situation of the Sunda islands, the
Celebes, the Moluccas, and the Philippines with reference
to Asia, and that of the Antilles to America, is evident.
Banyan Tree
The unique connection that exists between the various
islands which lie in the waters separating Asia and
Australasia has been shown by a writer who has treated
the subject in a most interesting manner.^ The greater
part of the PhiUppines, as is true of Java and other
islands of this general group, has been formed by vol-
canic action;and a semielliptical volcanic belt may
1Wallace, Malay Archipelago, Chap. I.
28 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
be traced in this Asiatic archipelago, passing through
Sumatra, Java, and the neighboring area, and then
up through the Philippines. These tropical islands of
volcanic origin all enjoy a uniform and very similar
climate, are covered with luxuriant vegetation, and are
subject to earthquakes, which recur continually with
slight shocks at intervals of a few weeks or months.
On the Imus River
and more severe ones, shaking down whole villages
and destroying life and property, sure to liappen in
some part of the volcanic Ijelt during the year. The
Pliilippines, which agree in many respects witli Asia
and the Asiatic archipelago, present on the other hand
certain anomalies which seem to indicate that they
were separated from the mainland at an early period
and have since become subject to various revolutions in
their physical geography.
GENERAL (iEOGRAPHY 29
Nowhere is there a more interesting, ahnost entirely
unexplored field for the geologist than here. Judgingfrom the distribution of igneous rocks in the archi-
pelago, volcanoes dynamically powerful have exercised
a marked influence. As to the number of them there
is considerable diversity of opinion, some putting it as
A Country Road near Dagupan
high as fifty,—
twenty of wdiich are more or less active,
and thirty extinct and dormant. But in the absence
of data from accurate surveys, it seems wise to accept
the more conservative estimate of the Jesuit fathers
connected v/ith that admiral:)le institution, the Manila
Observatory, now the seat of the Philippine Weather
Bureau, who state that there are twenty-three volcanoes
in the group, eleven of them more or less active.
30 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
In the islands north of Luzon and only a short dis-
tance south of Formosa, are two active volcanoes, which
are known among mariners and natives as "smoking
mountains"; and similarly named is the well-defined
cone near cape Engaiio, the extreme northeastern point
of Luzon, which, however, has not been observed
smoking since 1860. Farther south, near Manila, is the
symmetrically conical Arayat, now dormant, in sight of
which most of the Philippine insurrections took place ;
and the magnificent Banajao, also dormant, which looms
up over the lake of Bay ;and still farther south, in
the extreme southeastern part of the island, is Bulusan,
the culmination of the third great mountain range of
Luzon, a second Vesuvius with its double cone. The two
most important active volcanoes in the island remain,— Mayon, in Albay province, just north of Bulusan and
in the same range, and Taal, situated in lake Bombonin the Tagaytay system, readily accessible from Manila.
Mayon is the most beautiful specimen of the volcanic
cone on a large scale that it has ever been the writer's
privilege to see;
it is the realization of that ideal
schoolboy conception of what a volcano ought to be, as
it rises majestically with perfect symmetry from the
center of a great plane to the height of nine thousand
feet, its lofty crater enveloped in and covered by a
great cloud of vapor. Frequent emissions of ashes
accompanied by lava flows occur, and the eruptions
with severe shocks associated with tliem at times have
been very serious. One of deadly character took place
o
<
Gy
r'
31
32 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
in 1814, which Ijuried practically whole towns under its
streams of lava and ashes, and destro^'ed twelve hun-
dred lives. During the last decade of the preceding
century there were light eruptions; and in June, 1897,
a violent eruption lasting twenty-four hours caused the
loss of three hundred and fifty lives and much property.
Largest C'iiater, Taal Volcano
Taal is also remarkal)le, witli its once comparatively
laru'e crater and several other small extinct ones near
by, forming in the lake an island of some two hundred
and twenty square miles. The crater is oxiA in form
with a major axis of a mile and a half; its walls are
steep, and on the crater floor are several small cones,
only one of whicli, however, is active, and this simply
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 33
to the extent of emitting great quantities of vapor.
There are within the crater also three boiling lakes con-
taining metallic oxides and salts in solution, which give
to the waters of the smaller lakes a pure emerald green
color, and to those of the larger a reddish-yellow tint.
Though this volcano has been in an active state from
time immemorial, no serious eruption has occurred since
1754.
Concerning the remaining volcanoes little is known.
Mt. Apo in Mindanao, which towers to a height of ten
thousand feet or more, gives evidence of its activity bynumerous jets of sulphurous vapors that tower cloudlike
over the summit. Its name, Apo, signifies in the Tagalog
language both air and God, and its appearance bespeaks
the real appropriateness of such an appellation. Veryfew have ever ascended it
;
^ and among the difficulties in
attempting an ascent is the unwillingness of the natives
to act as guides, for they believe it is the abode of an
evil spirit.
Seismology is a subject of very special interest in
the Philippines and one that has received during the
past twenty years careful attention at the hands of
the Jesuits connected with the Observatory; the result
of which systematic study has been the collection of a
large amount of suggestive and valuable scientific data
on tliis matter of earthquakes. Certain laws as to the
1 A Frenchman in 1880, two German scientists in 1882, an Englishman in
1884, and two Americans in 1900 have, it seems, been the only white peopleto make the ascent.
34 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
modification of the direction in wliicli seismological dis-
turbances travel as the result of local peculiarities of
conformation have been deduced;the influence particu-
larly of mountain ranges has been shown, and the results
of other observers engaged in the same work in different
parts of the world confirmed. Under American rule this
study has been officially recognized, provision has been
made for better instruments, and some ninety official
earthquake stations have been established.
Manila is so situated that it experiences almost afl the
shocks radiating from the different centers of Luzon,
being no more than thirty-five miles north of the active
volcano Taal and a little farther from the extinct ones,
Baniijao and Aniyat. The ground of the capital is low
and soft and, in addition to the Pasig river, traversed
by a network of creeks or esteros. The total number
of earthquakes registered there during the eighteen
years between 1880 and 1897 is two liundred and
twenty-one, an average annual number of twelve. The
most serious one within the previous century occurred
in 1863, the shock of which lasted lialf a minute, and
by the falling buildings caused four hundred deaths and
injuries to two thousand others. The ruins from this
and other earthquakes are still to be seen within the city.
For the purpose of the seismo-meteorological service
now organized under our government the archipelago
is divided into four districts.
The first includes Luzon, except the southern prov-
inces, and Mindoro, and may be characterized as the
Gorge on the Pagsanjan River
36 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Taal district. This region was visited by many destruc-
tive earthquakes in the seventeenth century, one lasting
for the extraordinary period of seven minutes. In 1645
a severe earth(|uake laid almost the entire city of Manila
in ruins; and a subsequent one in 1658 destroyed those
buildings which survived the preceding shock. During
the eighteenth century several churches were thrown
down;and cracks in the walls surrounding old Manila,
caused by these disturbances, may still be seen. In the
last century, previous to the active period of 1880-1897,
already mentioned, there were several isolated disturb-
ances, one in 1852 particularly serious, which did great
damage throughout Luzon. A point of interest is that
nearly all of these accompanied eruptions of Taal
volcano.
The second district includes the southern provinces
of Luzon, certain adjacent islands, Masbate, and the
northern part of Samar, and may be characterized as
the Mayon district. Here are grouped nearly all of the
most important seismic centers of the archipelago, and
here, too, have occurred numerous serious disturbances.
The third district comprises tlie islands of Negros
and Panay and the western part of Mindanao. Com-
paratively few earthquakes have occurred in this region.
The fourtli district embraces the southern i)art of
Samar, the islands of Leyte, Cebu, Bohol, and the
greater part of Mindanao, and may l)e designated as
the Apo district, though there are various other vol-
canic centers in this region. Numerous destructive and
37
38 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
AVatkkkai.ls, Luzon
violent shocks have occurred here at various times, but
accurate data, particularly as to the Mindanao portion,
are lacking;.
As we should expect to find in a country of volcanic
origin, the islands abound in mineral springs, the waters
})eing medicinal in character and ranging in temperature
GENERAL GEOGKAPHY 39
from cold through various intermediate degrees to
boiling. By the deposits upon the rock surfaces adjoin-
ing, evidence is to be had of the existence of iron,
copper, and other minerals in solution in these springs.
The best known, perhaps, are Los Baiios, on the lake
of Bay, close to Manila, an analysis of the waters of
which shows the composition to be very similar to that
of the Carlsbad products.
To understand the rough mountainous character of
the interior of most of the larger islands is of prime
importance in paving the way toward an intelligent
A River Canyon
discussion of the physical aspects of the Philippines,
and particularly of the political and industrial phases,
for these rugged natural features have taken an impor-
tant part in creating conditions which have exercised
40 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
a direct and powerful influence upon the very life of
these Filipino people. But there are also broad plains,
narrow valleys, and swamps, through all of which
innumeraljle streams take their course. In a tropical
country where roads are
expensive to build and
more so to maintain, on
account of the heavy rain-
fall, the water courses
form the hisi;hwavs of
commerce. Yet few of
the rivers here are navi-
gable by seagoing vessels;
others can be used bysmaller craft only during
the rainy season, when
there is sufficient water;
and otliers again merely
in the dry season, when
they have ceased being
torrents.
Four principal river
systems effect the drain-
aije of Luzon :
The Cagayan, whicli has its source in the soutli Cara-
ballo mountains in the center of the island and, running
in a tortuous stream to the northern coast, drains with
its tributaries the entire northeastern half of tlie island,
an area of sixteen thousand square miles,—
equal to
Along thk Government RoadTO Benguet
H
O
-1"
41
42 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
that of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.
Like the Nile, this river overflows its banks annually,
thus fertilizing the Cagayan valley and making it the
Rice Terraces
richest tobacco district in the Philippines ; yet the sand
shoals at the mouth, constantly shifting, frequently close
the entrance to navigation.
The Agno, which rises in a mountainous range nearer
the west coast and some fifty miles from the source of
the Cagayan, drains the narrow intermountain areas of
Benguet and the central valleys of Nueva Ecija, Pan-
gasinan, and Tarlac, and empties by two mouths into
the gulf of Lingayen.The Abra, which starts in the Cordilleras of Lepanto-
Bontoc and Abra, courses across the narrow intervening
strip of Ilocos Sur to empty into the China sea.
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 43
The Pampanga, which has its Ijeginning in the same
range as the Cagayan, flows in the opposite direction,
northward, through an extensive fertile ^^lain dotted
with populous villages, and empties hy some twentymouths into Manila bay.
The island of Luzon is further drained by the lake
of Ba}', which has its sea outlet through the Pasig to
Manila bay.
Mindoro, Samar, Cebu, and Letye have each from ten
to sixty rivers, which aside from the matter of drainage
are not important.
Panay has two important streams,— the Panay and
the Jalaur ; the former, one of the most majestic in the
A River Scene
archif)elago, with a volume equal to that of the Caga-
yan, drains the northern portion of the island, while
the latter, also of great size, drains Iloilo province.
44 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Negros has only one river of appreciable magnitude,
the Danao, which rises in the central range and, flowing
east to the sea, drains the eastern slope.
Mindanao has two great rivers,—the Rio Grande and
the Agusan ;the former, slightly longer than the Caga-
yjin of Luzon and exceeding it in volume, rises in the
center of the island, drains this central portion, and
empties on the west coast hy five mouths;while the
latter, the third in size in the archipelago, rises at a
distance of some twenty-five miles from the southern
coast and has its outlet on the northern coast. This
island is famous for its lakes, particularly Lanao, which
is the center of a large Moro population and is histori-
cally associated with the struggles between Christians
and Moslems during the period of tlie Spanish contest,
and between these Moslems and our American troops
of recent date.
CHAPTER II
HISTORY
Just cas many important discoveries have from time
to time been incidental to the real purposes which ani-
mated the explorers in the efforts to realize their theo-
ries, and just as our own country accidentally became
known to the European navigator in searcli of oriental
riches, so were the Philippines unexpectedly found
lying in the path of that skillful, fearless explorer,
Magellan, while on an expedition in the interest of
the Spanish crown. Portuguese by birth, he lost favor
at the court of his own sovereign hj reason of the
jealousies of certain influential men of the realm, and
becoming a naturalized Spaniard, he thus gained for
Spain the group of islands which l^oth by their geo-
graphical position, in accordance with an agreement
between the two countries, and by the nationality of
the discoverer should have become the possession of
Portucral.
At the end of the fifteentli century one great source
of wealth in the Orient attracted the attention of
Europe. Merchants by a few successful ventures had
realized fabulous profits ;shrewd masters of vessels
which made the journey for these same traders had45
46 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
themselves received handsome returns on their private
investments, and had spread reports of the existence of
an eastern El Dorado;and various adventurous spirits
had already started upon a search which offered so manyinducements, while others Avere hastening to follow.
The objective point of all these voyages was the Spice
islands, the center of the spice trade, of which the
profits had now become so widely known and so gen-
erally coveted.
But although the attractions were great, yet the
difficulties attending voyages to the East Indies were
increasing, for obstructions in Egypt were becomingserious and the ascendency of the Turks after their con-
quest of Constantinople in 1493 menaced the security
of goods sent hy this eastern route. A heavy premiumwas thus held out for the discovery of an all-sea course
to these islands.
Efforts under such incentives were numerous and, as
Ave know, successful in discovering a western route, and
coincidently western lands. Diaz and da Gama accom-
plished this for Portugal, and Columbus in endeavor-
ing to do so for Spain found America itself. These
unexpected developments in the search for an all-water
route to the spice center naturally distracted the interest
which had concentrated upon this particular industry
itself, and led to the broader speculations as to the
possibilities and significance of the recent discoveries
of extensive lands hitherto unknown. The desire
to push these enterprises further and to define more
HISTOKY 47
accurately the limits of the new lands, to seek for addi-
tional territory which might perhaps exist, and to add
all this potential wealth to the mother country, while at
the same time reaping the apparently enormous private
harvests, became general ;and concessions to search for
unknown lands were freely granted.
Simultaneously with the birth of this new interest
in discovery, however, and by the very reason thereof,
arose the solicitude on the part of tlie two great mari-
time nations of the day, Spain and Portugal, as to their
respective rights in the new dominions; the former
desired a clear title for the foundation of her colonial
missions, and the latter was jealous of retaining the
valuable possessions in the East which she had already
acquired by right of discovery. Pope Alexander VI was
consequently appealed to as arbitrator, and he, desirous
of avoiding any trouble between the two great Catho-
lic countries, freely granted in the Demarcation Bull
of May 4, 1493, the right to Ferdinand and Isabella
to explore and take possession of all unknown and
heathen lands west of a certain meridian line in the
Atlantic, and to King John the title to all newly dis-
covered territory east of that line. This definition of
the field for discovery and the location of the dividing
line as a hundred leagues (approximately four hundred
miles) west of the Azores, nevertheless, failed to meet
with the approval of the Portuguese king, who claimed
the right by a previous treaty with Spain in 1479 to
a larger field for exploration; and as a result of his
48 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
objections the line of division was fixed at a distance of
three hundred and seventy leagues from the Cape Verde
islands, and the general agreement as tluis modified
was embodied in the Treaty of Tordesillas, June 7, 1494.
The real significance of Alexander's decision, however,
was not perceived at the time, and it remained for
Magellan in his explanations to King Charles of Spain,
when he was seeking aid from this monarch to fit out
an expedition in search of the western route to the
Moluccas and the home of the spices, to show that the
world had thus l)een divided into hemispheres, with
Spanish rights of exploration and accession supreme in
one, and Portuguese in the other. Thus it followed that
Spanish expeditions sailed to the west and Portuguese
to the east on their tours of discovery, and conquests
were made in these respective fields.
On a previous expedition in loll, Magellan had been
present at the taking of Malacca, in the Malay penin-
sula, and heard of the islands near ))y^ "where they
gather cloves and nutmegs"
;and later he received
from his intimate friend, Serrano, wlio was leader of
the expedition sent out by Portugal in search of these
islands and who died on the return voyage, a full
account of the discovery of the Moluccas. In liis letters
Serrano douljled the distance from Malacca to the Si)ice
islands in order to add to his reputation as a navigator
and increase his reward from the king ;and Magellan,
1 Antonio (le Morga, The Philippine Islawls, MolaccdS, Siam, Ciunhodia,
Japan, and China, p. 12 et seq. Cited liereafter as Morga.
HISTORY 49
certain of his ability to prove his theory as to the
existence of a route by the west, and relying upon the
information and distances as given in his friend's letters,
proved to the Spanish king that the Moluccas were
within the areas granted by the pope to the crown of
Castile for exploration, and that the right of conquest
Route of Magellan's Fleet in the Philippines
of tlieni was his in accordance with the decision of
Alexander. Conscious of the possibilities of this ven-
ture, strongly desirous of making these rich islands his
own, and willingly persuaded 1)y a man of such enthusi-
asm and confidence, King Charles assured Magellan of
the necessary aid. A contract was entered into, by
which the kina; was to have a certain share of the trade
50 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
profits, according to the number of islands discovered,
and also title to the lands, with Magellan as governor;
and a fleet of five vessels, the largest of which was only
one hundred and thirty tons burden, with a crew of two
hundred and thirty-four men, was fitted out.
The little fleet, composed of the La Trinidad, com-
manded by Magellan himself, the San Antonio, Vic-
toria, Santiago, and Concepcion, left San Lucas, the port
of Seville, on August 10, 1519, and mapping a course
along the African coast and past the Canary islands,
reached Sierra Leone. Following then the South Amer-
ican coast, it arrived at Rio Janeiro in December, four
months out from Spain. Severe cold now compelled
Magellan to winter in the San Julian river, and here
he remained five months. From the beginning diffi-
culties similar to those which Columbus had experi-
enced had beset his path ; jealousies, discouragement,
superstitions, and mutinies among the sailors coupled
with shipwrecks combined to dismay him. One ship
was lost in a storm and another deserted, so with only
three vessels he followed the labyrinthine course be-
tween the islands at the extremity of South America,
discovering; here the straits which bear his name, and
passed on to the broad Pacific, which he reached still
early in the year 1520.
Plain sailing was now before him, and some three
months later he reached the group afterward named the
Ladrones by Legaspi, owing to the tliievish character of
the natives. But without lingering Magellan continued
HISTORY 51
westward and in March readied Butiian, on the northern
shore of Mmdanao, wliere he landed and, raismg a cross
on a small hill near by and celebrating the first mass in
the Philippines, took
possession of the island
in the name of the king
of Spain, and began to
win over the people to
Spanish sovereignty.
Hardly had he be-
come acquainted with
the place, however, be-
fore he was convinced,
from the glowing ac-
counts given him of the
wealth and fertility of
an island called by the
natives Sabo, that
fairer lands lay to the
northward;and accord-
ingly, setting out with
a native chief and some
of his Spanish follow-
ers, Magellan proceedednorth and entered Cebii
harbor in April, 1521.
Hostility was at first shown the newcomers by the
Cebuans, who gathered to prevent their coming ashore,
but through the good offices of the Butuan chief
Magellan Monument on MactanIsland
52 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
friendliness replaced ill-feeling, formal oaths of good will
with, drinkincr of blood each from the other's breast were
exchanged between Magellan and the native king, and
a treaty made in the name of Charles I of Spain. The
friars of Magellan's party began at once to teach the
people, and many, among them the king himself, were
baptized.
In his zeal to cement the friendship of these natives
Magellan promised them aid in carrying on tlieir war
against the inhabitants of the neighboring island of
Mactan, and for the purpose of impressing upon them
the superiority of the Spanish soldiers resolved to make
the expedition accompanied only by a few of his own
men. Arrangements were quickly completed, and less
than three weeks after his arrival at Cebii he started
on an enterprise which was to prove disastrous;for in
his eagerness he had not reckoned on the size of the
enemy. A landing by night was effected, but at day-
break the natives swarmed the shores and by force of
numbers repulsed the little group and killed many,
among them Magellan. As a completion to the catas-
trophe, Barbosa, who succeeded to the command, and
a number of his officers, upon their return to Cel)u,
were treacherously put t(j death by the Christian king,
who had invited them to a feast.^
So few Spanish soldiers now remained that the Con-
cepcioii, the poorest of the three vessels, was sunk in
the harbor, and the lono; return vovao;e from the San
1 Morga, p. 14.
Statle tu Magellan
53
54 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Lazarus islands, as Magellan had named this group, to
Spain was begun. On the \ray Portuguese in the island
of Ternate were encountered and difficulties experi-
enced;
but continuing their route by way of India
in one vessel, the Victoria, under the command of del
Cafio, the survivors of the famous expedition reached
Seville in 1522, three
years from their de-
parture, after having
accomplished the first
circumnavigation of
the globe.
Various later expe-
ditions were then fitted
out at intervals, some
from Spain, others
from Mexico, one of
which, in command of
Villalobos, is of espe-
cial interest from the
fact that the island
which he reached —Samar, or Leyte, as other authorities claim— he called
'^Filipina" in honor of Prince Philip; and from this
the name was extended to the whole group shortly
afterward by Legaspi, a Spanish nobleman residing in
Mexico, whose name was to become associated with
the establishment of Spain's dominion in these "Philip-
pines." For Philip, soon after ascending the throne,
King riiiLU' H of Spain
HISTORY 55
sent out an expedition to settle this country named in
liis honor and selected Legaspi as leader.
An expedition capable of withstanding hardship,
including some four hundred soldiers and a few of the
Augustinian friars, was accordingly fitted out, and
sailed from Navidad, Mexico, November 21, 1564, to
found the rule of Spain in the new possessions,
Leyte, Bohol, and Mindanao were visited, and later,
contrary to the warning of his advisers, Legaspi dropped
Old Wall, City of Cebu
anchor in Cebii harbor. Tlie date was April 27, 15G5,
and the Spaniards were met with distrust and signs of
hostility on the part of the natives. In a few hours,
however, Legaspi succeeded in forcing his way to the
city and capturing it, and within a few months he had
won the people over and brought about complete peace.
For years all went well; but Spain's fierce rival in
all these early discoveries, Portugal, gave trouble. As
56 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
we know, the archipelago by the decision of PopeAlexander was in the Portuguese field of exploration ;
yet Spain was unwilling to relinquish control, claim-
ing her right by discovery and expressing her determi-
nation to uphold this claim, if necessary, by force of
arms. Legaspi was later put to such necessity and was
successful;and though the Portuguese continued to be
troublesome, their claim was never realized.
Cebu was made the first seat of the general govern-
ment, which was transferred in 1569 by Legaspi to
Iloilo. Here he became governor general and started the
work of further exploration and pacification. Rumors
reached him of the existence of a great, rich island
to the north, and to verify them he sent his grand-
son Salcedo with another officer to investigate. Upontheir arrival in what is now ]SIanila the two were well
received Ijy jjoth native rajahs, though later an unsuc-
cessful attempt at resistance was made by one of them;
and Salcedo, after visiting other parts of the island,
sent word to Legaspi, who during this period was
administering affairs in the central Visayan islands in
a way that enlisted the confidence of the natives, to
come north. Leaving; affairs in the hands of the native
chiefs now ruling for Spain, he proceeded to Luzon
and founded, in 1571, JLiijnila, later Manila, the present
capital.
From the new center, Legaspi carried on the work
of pacification in the provinces of Luzon and surround-
ing islands, sometimes l)y peaceful means, often aided
'^^jrr:
Legaspi-Ukdaxeta Monument
57
58 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
by the industry of the monks, and again by force. The
lands were apportioned to those who had pacified and
settled them; governing heads of provinces and towns
which were founded were appointed in the name of
the crown;and bodies were chosen to provide for exi-
gencies and raise money for the royal treasury. The
rate of tribute for all the islands was fixed by Legaspi ;
arrangements for yearly voyages to New Spain for sup-
plies were completed ;and various other matters relating
to the conversion of the people to Christianity and the
administration of their affairs determined. In the
midst of this important work Legaspi died, in 1574;
his death marks an era in the history of the Islands,
for through liim Spanish rule first became established
there and of his efforts permanent results remained.
Without infringing upon the subject of later chap-
ters treating of the different peoples of the Philippines,
we may pause here for a brief study of the inhabit-
ants as they existed previous to the period of Spanish
domination, which will be of aid in determining later
the character of this rule and its effect. The Filipinos
to-day belong to two distinct families at least, tlie
Negrito and the Mala3^an, and possibly a third, the
Indonesian, may be added. ^
During this first stage
the several racial components which later merged are
clearly distinguishable ; they have not yet been mixed
1 Authorities differ as to the former existence of this people ;the weight
of opinion, however, tends to a confirmation of tlie view that the Indonesians
were a component family.
HISTORY 59
in the mortar of Spanish conquest. Our earliest glimpse,
indeed, reveals a race of very low type populating the
entire archipelago, from which are descended the Negri-
tos, or little negroes,—
small, Ijlack, extremely shy, and
without fixed abodes, with closely curling hair, flat
noses, thick lips, and clumsy feet. These aboriginal
savages, after a long period of undisturbed existence,
were later either killed or forced into the mountains by
the Malayan invaders, who form an important ethno-
loorical element.
Others again, fewer in number, which the writer,
with the better authority, is inclined to accept as
Indonesian descendants, are confined to the single large
island of Mindanao and are not so well known. They
are physically superior to both the Negritos and the
numerous Malayans, and are fairer skinned, taller, and
better developed, with higher foreheads, larger noses,
more regular features, and often full beards. Many of
them are clever and intelligent; some fierce and war-
like; others, with happier environment, peaceful and
industrious. Compared with the Negritos, who are
dwarfs averaging about four feet in height, these Indo-
nesians are giants, often six feet tall.
The large majority of the people are unquestionably
Malayan ;Ijut to-day the race is not found pure in any
island, and even at this earlier time intermarriage with
Negritos, Indonesians, Chinese, Japanese, Arabs, and, to
an extent, with the Spaniards themselves, had begun.
Three invasions by the Malays are supposed by some
UU THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
to have occurred :
^tlie first, of people resembling the
Dyaks of Borneo (particularly in barbarous practices
such as head hunting), from whom the present powerful
heathen Igorot tribes of northern Luzon may be de-
scended;the second, similar to the previous one before
the arrival of the Spaniards, bringing the stock of the
existing Tagalog, Visayan, Bicol, Ilocano, and allied
tribes;and the third, of Mohammedan Malays or Moros,
probably an immigration from Borneo, which was inter-
rupted by the coming of the Spanish, All the Filipinos
of Malayan extraction are brown in color, of medium
stature, and have straight black hair;
in complexion
they are darker than the Indonesians and lighter than
the Negritos.
Essential race characteristics do not change in a dayeven though modification takes place as time goes on
;
and the Malay race in the Islands to-day, while in manycases far removed from the savage state, still retains
much that was associated with this primitive condition
of existence. The same qualities evident now— unrelia-
bility, suspiciousness, treachery, craftiness, and super-
stition— are mentioned in the early Spanish analyses of
native character; indeed, the colonists' first opinion of
the Malay may be pretty accurately stated in the terms
of a more recent epigrammatic characterization as "half
child and half devil." Yet, if such they were, all the
more effective and careful must have been the early work
of the Spanish trainers, civil and ecclesiastical, who
1Blumentritt, Die Philippinen.
HISTORY 61
accomplished, as we shall later see, truly wonderful results
hi the next half century following the death of Legaspi.
The natives, when the Spaniards first became ac-
quainted with them, had no strong political or social
organizations ;there were no well-constituted native
states, but rather a system of clans and nomadic tribes,
the heads of which were despotic and the offices heredi-
tary. Classes existed, including the nobility, composedof the chiefs of these groups, or haranrjays, their kins-
men, and descendants; the free natives made up the
middle class; and the slaves and serfs belonging to
both nobles and plebeians constituted the lowest class.
Intermarriage between the classes was to an extent
possible, but was not common. A crude system of jus-
tice was in operation, by wdiich disputes were decided
by representatives chosen from the harangays concerned,
on the basis of their unwritten usages ;and crimes of a
serious nature, especially robbery, were severely punished,
sometimes by reduction to slavery, again by death. ^
The natives were familiar with primitive methods of
gold, silver, and copper mining ; they understood the
manufacture of simple articles of ornament, swords, and
crude agricultural implements ;and had acquired the
art of weaving cotton, silk, and pineapple fiber. Writing
was early known in the different islands, according
to the Arabic fashion from right to left, in characters
which expressed the meaning intended " as fully and as
easily as is done with our Spanish alphabet."^
iMorga, p. 20(3 et seq. ^Ihid., p. 294.
62 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Small boats hewn from trees, and larger sailing craft
were used on the numerous streams and water bodies;
and trading was carried on jjetween the natives and
the Bornese, Japanese, and Chinese. Money in a dis-
tinctive form was not yet known to them, and gold dust
was used as a medium of exchano;e.^
Agriculture was an industry followed by some, and
rice, sugar cane, cocoanuts, native potatoes, and the like
were produced. Water buffaloes, goats and deer, dogs
and cats were the domestic animals;horses and cows
there were none. Fishing and hunting were carried on,
and bows, arrows, and spears were commonly used both
in the chase and against the enemy .^
Family life was of low standard, and the sanctity of
the matrimonial relation was hardly understood;un-
morality, however, rather than immorality, perhaps,
existed.
Except in Sulu, Mindanao, and Manila, where Moham-
medanism had already gained a footing, heathenism held
sway. The sun and the moon, different creatures, and
various objects were worshiped. No common temples or
public places for prayer were known, for each had his
household gods ;
"
superstition reigned supreme.
Such is the picture painted by old chroniclers and
travelers of the conditions previous to the advent of
the Spanish ;the influence of the latter and the changes
they effected will be later seen.
1 Montero y Viilal, llisturia de Filipinas, Vol. I, p. 03 ct scq.2Morga, pp. 305, 306.
CHAPTER III
FROM THE DEATH OF LEGASPI THROUGH THEINTERVENING PERIOD TO THE
UPRISING OF 1896
On the death of Legaspi a sealed dispatch from the
High Court of Mexico was found among his papers
naming Lavezares as successor to the governorsliip.
Mexico, or New Spain as it was called, really governed
the Philippines during this earlier period, and hence we
must conceive of the Islands then as a dependency of a
dependency, governed only indirectly by distant Spain.
Particularly in a legislative and a commercial way did
this group become closely connected with Mexico rather
than with the mother country, and we shall see the ill
effects of such an unwise scheme of administration.
With the advent of the new governor general
various events of importance began to take place. AChinese invasion first demanded the serious attention
of Lavezares, and by its threatening proportions caused
deep concern among the Filipinos. The Chinese people
had acquired dominion over certain parts of the archi-
pelago some time previous to the Spanish conquest, but
later had relinquished their control either voluntarily
or necessarily. They continued to carry on trade withr.3
64 THE PHILIPPINE ISLA:^DS
the Islands, however, and it was by the capture of one
of the junks returning from Manihi that a certain
Chinese buccaneer, Limahong, learned of the Philip-
pines and the ease with which the Spaniards had taken
possession of the Islands, and determiued to wrest them
from the latter. A fleet of sixty or more war junks
was accordingly fitted out, carrying some four thousand
Old Fort at Zamboax(;a
fighting men, fifteen hundred women, a number of
artisans, and necessary food and other supplies which
might aid in this expedition of conquest.' It reached
the northern coast of Luzon in November, 1574, and
after a short stay turned southward, making the capital
its objective point.
On account of their cruel treatment of the natives in
the north, however, the arrival of the Chinese soon
1 Moutero y Vidal, p. 72 ct seq.
FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 189G G5
became known in Manila and preparations were made
to repel them. The fleet proceeded down along the coast
toward Manila, and had almost reached the bay wlien a
severe typhoon overtook it and destroyed several of the
junks and men. Limahong, nevertheless, confident of
Walleu Church built for Defense against Moro
Pirates, Cuyo
Numerous churches of this kind are found on this ishmd
victory, pushed on to the capital, landed a force of some
fifteen hundred men, and marched against the city.
An entrance was soon gained, and Goiti, the com-
manding ofiicer, and others at his quarters were killed;
but the pirates were repulsed in their attack on the
fortress by a small body of Spaniards, 'who fought
courageously and compelled their enemies to retreat
to the shore. A second attack soon afterward was led
by Limahong himself;
and native troops having in
66 THE PHILIPPINE 18LANUS
the meantime been mustered, the Chinese were again
defeated. After this the fleet sailed away to the mouth
of the Agno river, and the pirate leader established
his kingdom in what is now Pangasinan province.
Houses and temples were built, crops were planted,
and in general steps were taken to make the place one
of permanent abode, so secure did these strangers feel
in their new home.
They had failed to reckon with the host, however,
for Salcedo, under orders from the governor general,
set out the following March, 1575, to mete out the
punishment which was their due. With some two hun-
dred and fifty Spanish and fifteen hundred native
troops, aided by a small fleet which included a war
junk sent by the emperor of China to capture Lima-
hong, this able grandson of Legaspi led the attack
successfully, and after a decisive victory pursued the
retreating Chinese into the mountains. Limahong him-
self, who had from the outset considered personal safety
of paramount importance, had been watching for the
opportunity to separate from the main body of his
troops and escape. The moment came when the Span-
iards started in pursuit of the routed pirates, and the
leader then slipped away to his fleet and left his follow-
ers to do as best they could.^ These latter took refuge
in the mountains and, it is claimed by some, became
the ancestors of the mixed Chinese-Filipino peoples of
these northern provinces to-day.
1 Montero y Vidal, p. 7(5.
y.
(17
68 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
During the next fifteen years important events are
chronicled. Salcedo died;the first body of Franciscans,
Jesuits, and Dominicans, and the first bishop of Manila
arrived; Spanish expeditions were made to Borneo, to
which Mindanao and Suhi were tributary, and to the
Moluccas against the Dutch. Two tliirds of the city
of Manila, furthermore, was destroyed by fire; certain
towns revolted against the excesses of the military
commander, and a conspiracy provoked l)y the thievish
Moros was discovered among the natives of Pampangaand Manila
;the Santa Ami en route from Acapulco in
1585 laden with a valuable cargo was captured by an
English Ijuccaneer; and, perhaps most important of all
happenings during this period, a suj)reme court was
establislied.
The inadvisability of legislating for the Philippines
by way of Mexico became more and more evident as time
went on;and the reason for the growing discontent on
the part of the natives was therefore not far to seek.
The Mexican code of laws was naturally unsuited to
these eastern islands, for the conditions and the people
there were almost as different from those in Mexico
then as they are from those in America now; and, fur-
ther, the men who framed the laws for the Philippines,
first in Mexico and afterward in Spain, had no })recise
knowledge of such conditions. Dissatisfaction, there-
fore, must have been inevitable.
Legaspi's followers were not as liberal and unselfish as
he himself ; tliey were far less considerate of the natives
69
70 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
aud their forms of government. After him, as we shall
see, the tendency was to centralize too much authority
in tlie governor general and hence deprive the people
of their former degree of independence. Legaspi had
recoornized and retained the ancient communal form of
government by wisely adopting the group of one hun-
dred as the unit of his administration, the body itself
being known as the haranr/ay, and the chief, the cabeza
de harangay. His successors, however, did away grad-
ually l)ut surely with the native rule;tribal councils,
in which the people could be heard, disappeared, also
the native rulers;and thus the inhabitants lost their
representation, and arbitrary power became concen-
trated in the chief executive alone. The office of caheza
de harangay lost its honorable character and, soon trans-
formed into an instrument for collecting revenues, was
shunned by respectable Filipinos.
Even at this early day strife between the Spanish
officials themselves, civil, military, and ecclesiastical,
which in later years became so serious, was evident.
Misunderstanding between church and state arose
almost at the outset, and the royal court of justice later
became a party to the controversy. The tension soon
increased to such a degree that in 158G the bishop of
Manila sent an ambassador,^ Alonzo Sanchez by name,
to lay matters before King Philip. The latter proved an
interested listener, and as a result of the mission a royal
decree was published in 1589 defining the respective
1 Morga, p. 31.
FROM LEdASri TO THE UriilSiNG OF 1806 71
fields of activity of churcli and state, doing away with
slavery, providing for the collection of a tribute to be
distributed in certain proportions to the civil, military,
and ecclesiastical departments ; provision was also made
for the maintenance of a fixed nmnber of troops, the
erection of a hospital, the abolition of the SupremeCourt established such a short time previous, and the
appointment of a new governor general, Gomez Perez
Dasmarinas, besides treating of other matters relating
to administration.
In the midst of these domestic activities, toward the
close of the year 1591 came an ambassador, Kiemon
by name, from the emperor of Japan, who had heard
of the colonization of the Islands by Europeans, demand-
ing allegiance to his ruler. The coming of this aml^as-
sador caused much anxiety, yet the governor general,
while treating him with every consideration, was firm
in his refusal to recognize the new sovereign. Kiemon
was told of Spain and its people, and soon became so
favorably impressed that he assented to the plan pro-
posed by the Spanish governor to make a treaty with
Japan for the purpose of furthering trade and friendly
interests. Representatives were accordingly sent to the
emperor, and the negotiations were soon agreeably con-
cluded. On the return voyage of the envoys to Manila,
however, it was their misfortune to become wrecked,
and the treaty was lost with them.
Steps were taken toward signing a second treaty;
and in May, 1593, two other envoys, Bautista and Ruiz,
72 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Franciscans, accompanied by San Miguel and Garcia, lay
brothers of the same order, dej)arted with the Japaneseambassador for Japan, where the new treaty was drawn
up. A copy was sent to Manila, and Bautista himself
remained in the country to carry on religious work.
Negotiations with Japan had hardly been completedwhen the governor general was visited by the native
king of Siao, one of the Molucca islands, which w^ere
under Dutch rule, who professed allegiance to Spainand besought Dasmarinas to aid him in his efforts
against the hostile Dutch sailors and some of the native
tribes of Ternate. The Spanish governor, ready to
extend Spain's dominion, particularly over the rich
Moluccas, promised help and set to work preparing an
expedition. In October of this same year, 1593, the
fleet set sail, composed of Spanish and native troops
and Chinese crews for the galleys. All seemed to promisewell when, a few days out from Manila, some of the
Chinese mutinied, killed the governor general, and took
his shi}) across to Cochin China as a prize.
This unfortunate turn of affairs put an end to the
expedition, and the fleet returned home. In the papers
of the dead governor was found the express wish that
his son be his successor, and Luis Perez Dasmariiias
was accordingly appointed to the office and became
governor general in December, 1593.
During his incumljency Manila was improved, new
Intildings erected, and a home for orphans and desti-
tutes established. In 1595 an expedition to Nueva
FROM LEGA.SPI TO THE UP1U81NG OF 18'JG 73
Viscaya, Isabela, and Cagayaii resulted in the subjuga-
tion of these regions. During tliis year also, by virtue
of a royal cedula brought by Antonio de Morga, appointed
lieutenant governor, each religious order had assigned to
it the province in which it might exercise administration
over spiritual affairs. Expeditions to Cambodia to help
in quelling a struggle against the king of Spain, and to
Mindanao, were sent out, but with indecisive results.
DasmariHas was succeeded in 150G hy Francisco
Tello de Juzman, who assumed the office of governor
general under conditions that were hardly indicative
of a peaceful administration. The trouble with Japanreached a climax in 1597 in the massacre of a number
of Spanish priests who had gone over to this country
from Manila to carry on their missionary work;the
difficulties in Mindanao and Sulu were only beginning ;
and the Chinese and the ever-hostile Dutch were a con-
stant source of concern. The story of this period of
Philippine history is one of frequent conflict with some
one of these warlike peoples. Events not of a military
nature which were considered important enough to be
fully chronicled during this time were rare; works of
peace, it is true, continued;the royal court of justice
was reestablished in 1508 with a jurisdiction extending
to the southern Mohammedan islands, Cambodia, parts
of the Moluccas, and the China coast;and the College
of San Jose was founded in IGOO; yet the attention of
the people was distracted from matters of internal im-
provement by the threatening dangers from without.
74 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
An expedition against the Moros in 1G02 and further
conflict with the Chinese in the following year, due to
the arrival of two envoys from the emperor of China
charged with investigating the report as to the exist-
ence of a mountain of real gold in Cavite, served
only to aggravate the hostility which the natives en-
tertained for these foreigners. And of equal serious-
ness with these troubles were the frequent encounters
with Spain's old foe, the Dutch. Under the state of
war that existed between these two rivals until after
the middle of the eighteenth century the Islands fared
ill, for the galleons carrying valuable cargoes between
Mexico and the Philippines, and trading vessels from
Japan and China, were frequently seized as prizes, and
the Islands thus reduced to the sorest straits from want
of supplies, not to mention the heavy financial losses
incurred. The evil effects of this enmity on the part of
Holland were not finally averted until the restoration
of peace between the two countries in 1763.
Internal conditions during this first half of the seven-
teenth century were taking a similarly unsatisfactory
turn, and as soon as outside dangers had grown less im-
minent the efforts of the later governors were directed
largely toward quelling domestic revolts. Uprisings in
Luzon, Bohol, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao, and Sulu, and
trouble with the Igorot tribes followed in close succession,
and in general only a temporary adjustment of the
difliculties was reached. In Cebu it w;is needful, always,
for Spain to keep a strong armed force.
FKOM LEGASPI TO THE UPlllSINCI OF 1890 75
As we pass over these years ajDproaching the middle
of the century we find records, too, of crop failures
and consequent famines, volcanic eruptions, and severe
earthquakes. One of the latter in the year 1645 is
especially noteworthy from the fact that it witnessed
the j^assing of old Manila, the beauty of which had
secured for it the name of Pearl of the Orient. So
serious was the shock that practically the entire city
was destroyed ;and in rebuilding it, convenience rather
than magnificence was the prime consideration.
A revolt in 1649, that sj)read from its source in
Samar throughout many of the provinces of the Visa-
yas and Luzon, of chief importance to us perhapsbecause it was the first outbreak assuming; such o-en-
eral proportions, caused genuine alarm in the minds of
Governor General Fajardo and his associates. The prox-
imate cause seems to have been the severe methods
used by the governor general in forcing the natives
of Samar into the insular military service. The action
was resented, and under the leadership of a native,
Sumoroy by name, the uprising was ushered in by
putting to death a priest and sacking the churches
along the east coast. Various battles were fought before
the native leader was driven into the mountains, and
then efforts were directed against the sympathetic in-
surrections in neighboring islands. Peace was secured,
but not until the real nature of a spirit of revolt that
was more than local had revealed itself. As an after-
math came an outbreak in Pampanga (which had
7G THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
liitherto been first in its loyalty to Spain) and Pangasi-
ntin that spread to other parts of Lnzon. The imme-
diate results were not important, for dissension amongthe insurgents themselves put an end to this revolt
without bloodshed; yet, as in the case of the previous
rebellion, and to an extent in confirmation of what was
then forecast, signs of a popular dissatisfaction with the
character of the existing administration were immis-
takable.
As we pass beyond the middle of the century we
find recurrences of troubles with which we have already
become acquainted, particularly with the Moros, and
again with the Chinese in 1662, when a threatened
invasion by a Mongolian horde was prevented only bythe death of its leader, Kue-sing. We should remember,
nevertheless, that wars and internal strife formed only
one part of the history of these earlier years of Spanish
control,— an important part, it is true,
— so numerous
and strono; were outside enemies and so recalcitrant
were some of the native tribes; yet during the whole
period religious activity of a most wholesome kind con-
tinued to increase, and through the friar missionaries
and their native lieutenants converted to the Christian
faith the work of educating the people was seriously
begun. Those accepting Christianity as their new creed
were constantly growing in niunloers, and the friars
were ever pushing farther into the interior, establishing
missions in the very midst of heathendom and utterly
indifferent to their own comfort and safety, carrying on
FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1S9G 77
the work of God, in a manner that was at once most
praiseworthy and inspiring.
Conflicts between tlie monastic orders and the clmrch
occnrred, it is true, as might have been expected ;the
Jesuits were particularly active in asserting their rights
and maintaining their independent status, and the
Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, and Recoletos,
representatives of all of which orders had by this time
become established in the Islands, voiced similar senti-
ments. Yet these misunderstandings in ecclesiastical
circles were comparatively unimportant at the time
as far as the religious work was concerned, for all
interests were working toward a single general object,— the conversion of the natives to Christianity and the
education of them in a religious-academic way ;and in
this a remarkaljle degree of success was attained.
As a part of this system of education, schools and
so-called colleges were founded, which, though neces-
sarily crude and meagerly equipped from our modern
standpoint, nevertheless did a most valuable work in
these earlier centuries. The mere existence of these at
this time, without inquiry into their efficiency, bespoke
for the friar founders, many of whom were martyrs in
the cause, a noteworthy energy and an appreciation of
what was needed. The establishment of educational^
and charitable institutions, as well as hospitals,^ con-
tinued on a more pretentious scale, and side by side
1 See chapter on education.
2 Notably the Hospital of San Juan de Dies, erected in Manila in 1656.
78 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
witli these were erected smaller ones in the several
localities.
Turning for a moment now to questions of trade,
we find that the same close connection between the
Philipijines and Mexico in an administrative way held
also commercially, for the Islands were limited, by leg-
islation that became more and more restrictive, to deal-
ing exclusively with New Spain. Free trade even with
the ports of China and Japan was nearly under the ban,
and absolute restriction seemed the tendency.
This traffic with Mexico was carried on by galleons,
the regular departure of which from Acapulco was
established in 1G64. Yearly trips were made between
the two countries, and annually was the year's product
of the archipelago subjected to the danger of loss by
storm, pirate, or enemy. When such losses occurred—and they were rather frequent when these causes were
active— much hardship resulted in the Islands;and
yet, unsatisfactory as such an arrangement was, it con-
tinued without material modification as late as the first
part of the nineteenth century.
The story of the one hundred jesivs following 1G64
may for our purpose be passed over even more rapidly
than that of the previous period. Internal improve-
ment and religious activities of increased scope on
the one hand, and distress from crop failures and epi-
demics, Mohammedan and Chinese incursions, and pop-
ular uneasiness on the otlier are perhaps the chief
characteristics. Shortly after the beginning of the new
FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1806 79
century, in 1719, ca serious rebellion in which the gov-
ernor general^ and his son were assassinated, served as
an index of the hostile turn which relations between
church and state had taken. The beginning of the con-
troversy dated far back, and the refusal of the arch-
bishop at this time to deliver over criminals who had
evaded civil autliority by taking advantage of church
asylum brought matters to a crisis. The archbishop^
Sentry Box on Walls, Manila
was imprisoned and thereupon the flames of revolt
broke out. Mobs gathered, stormed the prison, freed
the prelate and many others, and hunted down the gov-
ernor and his unfortunate associates. The archbishop
then assinned the office of governor and retained his
position for nine years, after which period he was trans-
ferred to Mexico. Different investigations from this latter
country were made, but with rather questionable results.
1 Fernando Manuel de Bnstamente of Bustillo, 2genor Cuesta.
80 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
As the century progressed a firmer control of the
situation in many respects was gained by the Spanish
officials; aggressive steps were taken against the Moros
;
the Chinese were forced to receive baptism if they wished
to remain in the Islands;domestic quiet was in large
measure secured,— for the time being, as it proved ;
and
the works of peace advanced in proportionate degree ;
yet the need for certain changes in the scheme of
administration was becoming evident to the Spaniards
themselves.
In the midst of these conditions, which were becom-
ing favorable from many points of view, an event hap-
pened that threatened to displace permanently Spanish
sovereignty in the Philippines, and though it turned
out to be of only a temporary nature, still its influence
was undoubtedly felt in later developments; this was
the occupation of the Islands hy the British.
In Europe at this time had come a temporary lull
in the long-standing contentions between England and
France. It was the beginning of the reign of George
III, who ascended the throne in 1761, and peace
accompanied liis rule for a short time. But the time
was indeed short, for the "Family Compact," the alli-
ance entered into by France and Spain for the purpose
of mutual support against England, fanned the old
embers and the flame broke out anew. War was
declared the following year, 1762, against France and
Spain, and the campaign was vigorously pushed on the
part of England.
XI
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81
82 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Blows were struck at the Spanish possessions in both
the New World and the Orient almost immediately, and
were successful in both places. Havana and the Carib-
bean islands in the west were taken, and a British
squadron of thirteen ships was then dispatched to
Manila. It arrived September 22, and the following
day the surrender of the city was demanded and
refused. A landing followed and preparations for a
siege began.
At the time of the arrival of the squadron there
were only six hundred Spanish soldiers garrisoned in
the city to oppose a force of some six thousand British
and Indian troops. Native regiments from the prov-
inces, however, were soon hurried in, and the city held
out under a severe bombardment until the liftli of
October. The victorious troops then crowded in, the
British flag was hoisted on Fort Santiago, and the city
given over to such reckless pillage that Draper, the
commanding general, on the third day put a stop to
all u2)on the earnest petition of the archbishop. The
former assumed control of the government, aided by a
council, and then returned to Europe leaving civil and
military matters in charge of his subordinates;and until
January 30, 1764, when news of the Peace of Paris
reached Manila, the Philippines remained under British
sovereignty. By this treaty, concluded February 10,
1763, the war l)etween England and Spain was termi-
nated, and as one of the conditions the Philippines
were restored to Spanish dominion.
FROM LEGASPi TO THE LTiUSlNG UE 18'JG 83
Peace restored, the civil machine was put into opera-
tion again and new energy applied. Under Governor
General Vargas, in 1778, an innovation was made in
the way of awakening an interest in systematic agri-
culture. He was a man able to see the profits that
might be realized from scientific methods of working a
soil so fertile, and accordingly he caused every induce-
ment to be held out toward careful husbandry, the
result of which would be a healthier condition of the
royal treasury. Fresh tobacco seeds from other coun-
tries were secured and attempts made to introduce the
silk industry ;and in general a premium was put upon
conspicuously successful results in this work. Yet little
permanent good came of these plans.
Tobacco cultivation had by this time become impor-
tant, and in 1781 the growing and selling of this com-
modity was made a government monopoly, which lasted
for an even century until terminated by a decree of
Alfonso XII.
With the beginning of the new century renewed
efforts to subvert Spanish authority followed closely
upon one another, but failed to meet with success. In
the tobacco districts uprisings occurred in 1807 and
again in 1814. Manila itself was the scene of a later
one in 1823, and Cebu and Bohol were in a state of
revolt four years later. In Luzon, again, in Tayabas
province, a more serious outbreak took place in 1841
under the leadership of the "King of the Tagalogs," as
he was hailed by his followers, who attributed to him
84 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
supernatural powers ;and three years later a rel^elliou
in Negros, in which the governor general was killed, gave
much trouljle. The last phase of the troublesome Moro
situation was also now approaching. Throughout these
years the Mohammedan pirates had carried on their
depredations fearlessly, and not until 1861, when steel
gunljoats of light draught arrived, were the Spaniards
able to cope with them successfully. From eight hun-
dred to fifteen hundred persons had been annually carried
away by these marauders from Mindanao and Sulu, and
great property losses inflicted;hence the decisive blow
dealt them at this v.ime was of no little importance.
Conditions, however, were becoming less and less
favorable from the Spanish point of view, and relations
between the natives and Spaniards were growing so
irremediably hostile as to lead inevital^ly to such formi-
dable insurrections as soon took place in Cavite in 1872
and in Manila and vicinity in 1890. The former was a
daring attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke, led by
the distinguished Filipino, Dr. Burgos. The origin of
the trouble was native opposition to the Spanish friars,
particularly to their practice of rctjiining parochial ben-
efices to the exclusion of tlie secular priests ;whicli
was claimed to be illegal Ijecause contrary to the pro-
visions of the Council of Trent, and no longer within
the permission oi the papal bidls granting to friars tlie
right to hold these church offices temporarily untd there
should be native or Spanish secular priests to assume
them, since this condition had already been realized.
FROM LEGASPl TO THE UPKISINO Ol^^ 1S96 85
Plans had been carefully laid and friends of the
movement in Manila were to begin action in the capital
simultaneously with the forces of Cavite. Tlie latter,
however, mistook the signal agreed upon and started
action independently. The arsenal was seized and a
determined resistance made, in which some of the
native troops took sides with the revolters. The regu-
lar troops after sharp fighting recaptured the arsenal
and soon had things in control. All who escaped death
were taken prisoners, and some of the leaders, includ-
ing Burgos himself, were executed, while others were
transported. The revolt itself was stamped out, but
the spirit remained and, nourished by influences which
then began to be felt in the Islands, appeared in for-
midable proportions in the revolution of 1 89G.
The character of Spanish legislation for the Islands
undoubtedly contributed much to increase the feeling
against the mother country, for it was often unnecessa-
rily harsh and inappropriate, and again it was unsatis-
factory in its provision for representation in the home
legislature. As late as the beginning of the nineteenth
century, for example, when other nations were seeking
trade and new opportunities for prosperity, Spain passed
a law forbidding foreigners to live in the Islands.
By 1812, however, a change in the right direction
had been made when, due to pressure brought to bear
by the Liberal party then in power, the so-called" Con-
stitution of 1812"was passed, giving to each colony the
right to send one or more representatives to the Spanish
86 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Cortes. Yet this measure proved a fleeting benefit, for
it was destined to go through a series of suspensions
and renewals, granting representation to the Filipinos
then recalling it, until the opening of the legislature in
1837, when it was voted finally to exclude the Filipino
members. Tliis year is memorable also from the fact
that then, for the first time in the history of the church
in the Islands, the people demanded the substitution of
native priests for the Spanish friars.
The condition of affairs in a political way, which
resulted from the exclusion of representatives from the
Spanish parliament, was a trifle relieved the next year
by the establishment in Spain of a consulting committee
having in charge the business of the Islands. A royal
delegate, furthermore, was sent to the Philippines some-
what later, in 1862, to study the various phases of the
question of administration, and the following year the
position of minister for the colonies was created by
Spain. During all these years the slow mails were
the only means of comnumication between colony and
mother country, and herein lay a serious handicap to
the work of government,— one that continued until
1880, when cable comnumication between Manila and
Spain was effected.
The old-time tribute, the cause of so many earlier
revolts among the people, Avas finally replaced in 1883
by the cedula jjersonal, or identification paper, which
every inlialjitant above tlie age of eighteen was com-
pelled to have.
FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPlllSING OF 1896 87
Thus in the second half of the last century certain
improvements were brought about by Spain ;but the
spirit of independence that was now becoming firmly
rooted in the minds of the Filipinos, seeking not so
much perhaps absolute separation from Spain as au-
tonomy in their own affairs, was hardly thus to be
appeased. An uneasiness was perceptible among the
natives and the symptoms of a general insurrection
were besrinnins!: to be discernible. Before we discuss
this last phase of Spanish dominion let us consider
briefly the nature and general results of this rule.
When the Spaniards first came to the Islands, as we
have seen in a previous chapter, some of the natives
had already begun to understand a few of the arts of
civilized people, but Spain it was, as the careful student
of history must admit, however critical lie may be of
the character of Sj)anish leadership, who rescued the
Filipinos from barbarism and raised them to the condi-
tion of comparative civilization. Largely through the
instrumentality of the church was this elevation of the
people as a whole brought about;the Christian religion
became practically universal among those of Malayan
blood; and from superstitious idolaters, worshiping
the powers of nature and trembling at the rustle of
every leaf, they became followers of Christ. These for-
eign tutors, further, taught their charges the restraints
of civilized society and established schools for their
instruction. They admitted them to a share, though a
small one, in the offices of the government, and advanced
88 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
them in the domestic and textile arts, bringing to them
the comforts of the household. As a traveler in the
Islands, writing in 1860, says of the Filipinos :
^
They have adopted the religion, the manners, and the customs
of their rulers;and though legally not on one equal footing with
the latter, they are by no means separated from them by the high
barriers with which, except in Java, the churlish reserve of the
English has surrounded the natives of other colonies.
Contact with S[)anish civilization developed a higher
type of Filipino. This development of the natives to the
stage in which our American government found them
may be traced most interestingly in the origin of Spanish
words in common use in the different dialects. Only one
very primitive article of dress is known by a Visayan
word, the language of the central islands;
all the other
words pertaining to articles of dress are Spanish. There
are words in this tongue for primary colors, too, but the
names of the secondary are Spanish. Ideas of God and
spirit are likewise expressed in the latter, though there
is a Visayan word for love. Nor are there any equiva-
lents in this dialect for the words for shirt and shoe.
Tables and chairs were not known before the arrival of
the Spaniards, and the Visayans naturally adopted the
Spanish names. It is interesting to note further that
there is no Visayan word for soap.
Similarly among the Tagalogs— the inhabitants of
Luzon and neighl)oring islands, looked upon as the
first people of the Islands— was this Spanish tutelage
^Jagor, Travels in the Ph'.lippines, p. 30.
FROM LEGASPl TO THE UPRISING OF 189G 80
beneficial, as is evident from the words these people have
introduced into their dialect from the Spanish. The
word for teacher is the same in both tongues, and so
are the words for God, saint, angel, and other religious
terms;
likewise the words for kitchen, hall, window,
door, lamp, lantern, table, clock, stable, glass, bench,
trunk, carpet, and so on through a long list. Althoughthe common people continue to use their fingers at meals,
those of the upper classes make use of spoons, knives,
and forks, the names for which are Spanish. As in the
Visayan, the words for shoe, stocking, handkerchief, rib-
bon, cravat, buttons, pin, thimble, bonnet, hat, and the
like are also Spanish. Ink, inkstand, pen, pencil, paper,
plate, pasteboard, gun, sailcloth, wire, bell, and boiler
are words all adopted from the newcomers. Likewise
of Spanish origin are cow, goat, horse, lamb, goose,
grouse, lion, and tiger ; theater, store, office, mail, tele-
graph, school, college, and academy; all terms denoting
military and official rank, sucli as soldier, corporal,
inspector, captain, general, king, and president ;also
the words for calendar, almanac, hours, the names of
the days of the week, and of the months;and to con-
clude a list that might be much extended, the letters of
the alphabet and the names of the arts and sciences.
Curiously enough, while most of the metals have native
names, zinc and tin have not. Names of natural things,
finally, are, as would be expected, of native origin.
In the dialects of the Moros, on the other hand,
whose immigration was interrupted by the Spanish
90 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
invasion, various common words together with theo-
logical and legal terms are from the Arabic, for it was
through Araljian influences that these Malays became
Mohammedans previously to and soon after entering
the southern islands of the Philippines.
Language alone cannot be considered by any means
a sufficient criterion : on the one hand, certain foreign
notions may be accepted by a people and expressed in
terms of their own dialect; and, on the other, an origi-
nal native idea may be expressed in terms of a foreign
language. Yet these philological facts in connection
with Spanish colonization of the Islands are rather
significant, and aside from the matter of deep interest
afforded by such a study of Filipino dialects, they serve
to supplement and confirm the historical side in show-
ing wdiat a long step toward complete civilization was
taken under the Spanish regime.
The inhabitants of the Philippines at the time of the
settlement by Spain were not, like those the English
found in India, a people with a civilization as old as,
if not older than, that of their conquerors ; quite the
opposite was true,— the very foundations of civiliza-
tion had yet to be laid. Native institutions not conso-
nant with existing social, moral, and political principles
at the time had to be abolished and others substituted,—a work which required care and tact, and yet one
which, when being carried out, met with only a lack
of appreciation and ill-will on the part of the natives.
While the Spanish did away with all customs that were
FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1806 91
contrary to natural right, they allowed others to sub-
sist; they abolished the arbitrary power of the cliiefs,
yet maintained their social position and used those of
the higher class in the work of administration. Amongthe first of their tasks they had to prohibit slavery ;
and they solved this question of labor to the extent of
making the laborer a free agent in the sale of his com-
modity. The number of days of corveCj the obligation
of service owed by serfs to the chiefs, was also dimin-
ished. Spaniards, except officers of justice, were for-
bidden to enter the towns of the natives. Magistrates
were bound to visit all parts of their districts, and were
compelled to change their residence three times within
the year that they might more readily assist the natives
in the various localities. Natives were allowed to changetheir residence when it was to a place where religious
instruction was already established, but otherwise not.
The conduct of the Spanish colonists was watched,
and as a punishment for crime they were sent to the
benches of the galleys side by side with Chinese and
native convicts.
In the beginning the Philippiues enjoyed one great
advantage over the Dutch and English colonies in the
active cooperation of the friars, who, imburdened by
families, were able to devote themselves to their labors
in a whole-souled way. Of the early work of these mis-
sionaries mention has already been made, and it need
only be added that their efforts did much toward effect-
ing the true conquest of the Islands. The exceedingly
92 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
small military force that was necessary during all the
early years is convincing testimony on this point ;in-
deed, as one writer ^
said, each friar was a general and
a whole army in himself. Nor were their activities con-
lined to religious instruction alone, for they introduced
improved methods in various branches of agriculture,
taught some of the finer arts, and in general worked an
economic and a social advancement among the people.
The Spanish conception of colonization was itself
essentiallv different from that of the Eng-lish or the
Dutch, and the newly discovered territories that w^ere
added to Spain's dominions never ceased to be primarily
fields for religious activity. Hence the important posi-
tion of tlie church in her colonies, and also, we must
add, the different kind of treatment which the Filipinos
received from that which was shown their neighbors in
other parts of the Orient;
it was a missionary work
with Spain, and such it remained during the whole
earlier period of Philippine history. When Philip II
was urged to give up the Islands because they w^ould
not pay, he exclaimed :
" What w^ould the enemies
of Christ say if they perceived that the Philippine
Islands were left destitute of the true Lig-ht and its
ministers to propagate it, because they did not produce
rich metals and other wealth like the rest of the fruit-
ful islands in Asia and America?"
If it were not for such sentiments as this, and the
sense of duty to extend the true faith, Spain might' Morga.
FROM LEGA8P1 TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 93
early have abandoned the Philippines, for the tradi-
tional Spanish view in regard to the value of the
archipelago is seen from the following extract from an
account of the first official historian of the Islands.
The Council of State, observing that the Philippine Islands
were rather an Expence than an Advantage to the Crown, being
many, and hard to be maintained, had proposed to King Philip
to quit them and withdraw the Court of Justice and Garrison
that defend them. They added the example of the Chineses,
who abandoned them tho' they are such near Neighbors, and
can relieve them with such Ease, as if they wei'e joining to their
Continent. That as Spain governs them, the loss they occassion
is considerable without any Hopes that it will ever be altered
for the better;a vast Quantity of Silver being sent thither from
New Spain. . . . They alleged that a Monarchy dispersed and
divided by so many seas and different climates could scarce be
united, nor could humane Wisdom, by settled Correspondence,
tye together Provinces so far removed from one another bynature. That these arguments are not the Offspring of Wit, but
of Experience, and Truths obvious to the senses. That all such
as might be urged against them were only grounded upon
Honour, and full of a generous Sound, but difficult of Execu-
tion;and therefore the best Expedient was for the King to
strengthen himself in Europe, where his Forces can be ready
to meet all Dangers without being exposed to the Hazards of
the Sea and the Dominions of Others.
This was the argument of the antiexpansionists
nearly three hundred years ago; and with the numer-
ous foreign invasions, piratical attacks on the coasts
from the Moros, and tribal uprisings up to the very end
of the Spanish rule, it is perhaps not strange that there
was such a feeling.
94 THE PHILIPPIIs^E ISLANDS
How careful and productive of beneficial results for
the people was the early administration of the Spanish
we have now noted in a brief way ;it remains to con-
sider the change that gradually took place and gaverise to the later discontent and hostility which brought
matters to the crisis of 1896.
The same seriousness of purpose and regard for the
natives' best good which characterized the rule during
the earlier years was unfortunately lost sight of as
time went on;officials less scrupulous than their prede-
cessors were not inclined to maintain the former stand-
ard, and personal interests began to influence their
policy ; priestly ambition and the desire for domination
began to supplant the religious zeal and sincerity of the
old missionaries ; and legislative restrictions both com-
mercial and political, putting fetters upon the infant
commerce of the Islands, on the one side, and depriving
the people of a proper share in their own government,
on the other, began to chafe.
Conditions were such as gradually to foster militarism,
ecclesiasticism, and officialism, wliich have never yet
brought in their wake great economic or social pros-
perity. The administration of justice under such cir-
cumstances began to deteriorate, and the feeling beganto gain footing that there was no justice for the poor
man. At the same time the brief representation in the
Spanish parliament had given the people a taste of
political freedom, and those who had sat in the Cortes
returned home filled with the idea of equal rights for
FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 95
all. They preached this doctrine to the people and their
words found ready hearers.
Soon in Luzon a group of young Filipinos gathered
with the aim of bringing about real reforms in the gov-
ernment and securing greater peace, prosperity, and
liberty for the people. The discontent among them
began to be of a more intelligent sort and to have
a more definite jxirpose. The few thinking Filipinos
in and round Manila, some of whom had studied in
Europe, Singapore, and other places away from home,
were arriving at a clearer idea of the nature of the
reforms needed in the country. Mexico had secured
her freedom from Spain, and her example was an en-
couragement to them to strike for their rights. Theyhad no idea of winning independence, but they desired
a change from a harsh, narrow, tyrannical, and un-
progressive rule to one of the nineteenth century with
its greater liberty and its insistence upon freedom of
belief. The conditions during the later stages of the
Spanish regime were hardly encouraging; learning,
except as it pertained to religious studies, was discour-
aged ; liberty of opinion was not tolerated; attempts
at progress were not encouraged; the printing of sec-
ular books and papers was virtually prohibited ;and
Spain, when she saw the sign of awakening, stunted
political growth.
Excited by the ideas which the Spanish revolution
and that of the Spanish-American colonies had gener-
ated, a number of the Spanish Filipinos headed various
96 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
revolts during the first lialf of the nineteenth century.
Tliese were always quelled without disastrous results,
yet every uprising made it clearer to Spain, especially
to that party at home anxious to give the archipelago
a good government, that administrative reforms must
be brought about.
These, it is due to Spain to say, were often attempted.
Agriculture was encouraged by royal decrees, likewise
the cultivation of cotton and the introduction of ma-
chinery for making thread and cloth;a mint was estal)-
lished in Manila;roads and bridges were constructed
;
civil and military governors were prohibited from en-
gaging in commerce;bodies of police were organized
in the provinces ;efforts to simplify and secularize
education were made;commissioners were appointed
from time to time to study conditions and report to the
home government ; usury was suppressed ;the tobacco
monopoly was al)olished;and changes in the general
plan of civil administration were brought about.
These belated efforts were of too superficial a char-
acter, however, to reassure a people already grown dis-
trustful. Even the church seemed to have lost its hold
and was not wholly able to maintain obedience, as for-
merly, through its relations with the people. As one
studies Spanish history one learns that the Spaniard is
more of a theorist than a practical man of affairs. The
Spanish code of law, for example, was excellent in
theory, and the insular enactments were results of care-
ful colonial legislation aimed to prevent the repetition
FROM LEGA8PI TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 97
in the Philippines of atrocities similar to those of Pizarro
in Peru; yet they proved defective as put into practice
in the archipelago by those who knew the laws imper-
fectly or were dishonest.
A scholarly Spaniard writing of these laws in 1854
says:
Perhaps there is not one of them which may not be presentedas an example of equity and discretion
;but among them some
stand forth which ought to be learnt by heart by those who take
pleasure in meeting with proofs of benevolence towards peopleson the part of those that govern them, or by those who seek for
models for establishing the public administration upon a basis
of equity.
He refers to one law which provided that ''offenses com-
mitted against Indians (natives) should be punished with
greater rigor than those committed against Spaniards."
Another defect in Spanish administration, one which
defeated every attempt at reform, ^vas the too frequent
change of officials, who failed to stay long enough in
the country to become acquainted with it and its re-
quirements, and with the means of satisfying them.
During the last years of Spanish dominion, for exam-
ple, from the Cavite insurrection in 1872 to the revolu-
tion of 1896, there were eleven military governors and
eight acting governors.
It is supposed that several of those most prominentin the Cavite uprising were members of the Cavite
masonic lodge, the first one in the Philippines, founded
in 1860. Whether this be true or not, the secret socie-
ties, which had been merely local lodges of the great
98 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
brotherliood of freemasons, now became political bodies
with a definite aim, which was directed toward ecclesi-
astical and political reform.
" La Liga Filipina"was founded at this time by Dr.
Jose Rizal, of whom we shall hear more later, and sev-
eral young men who had been students of Dr. Burgos,
nearly all of whom were masons. Their object was
reform and not separation from the mother country,
as may be seen by their programme.
They demanded (1) expulsion of the friars and con-
fiscation of their estates; (2) the same political, adminis-
trative, and economical concessions as had been granted
to Cuba, including freedom of the press and freedom
of association; (3) equalization of the Philippine and
peninsular armies and a just division of civil service
posts between natives and Spaniards ; (4) return to
the owners of lands seized by the friars, and sale of
such as really belonged to the orders; ( 5) prevention
of insults to the Philippine natives, either in sermons or
in the press ; (6) economy in expenditures ;reduction
of imposts ;construction of railways and public works.
The mysterious KatJpunan, with its blood compact,
was also founded at about the same time," to redeem
the Philippines from its tyrants, the friars, and to found
a communistic republic." The guiding spirit of the
organization was a warehouse keeper in the service of a
business firm in Manila, and the masses formed its main
constituency. That this society was a potent factor in
the uprising of 1896 seems beyond doubt.
CHAPTER IV
FROM THE INSURRECTION OF 1896 TO THEPRESENT TIME
A body of thinking young men with enlightened
ideas and plans for greater liberty among their people
had been coming into prominence in the Islands during
the last quarter of the century. Many of them had been
in Europe, where they became strongly influenced by the
liberal doctrines which had become popular there;and
they were now attempting a realization of these in their
own country. Burgos had headed the movement earlier;
Jaena and Rizal were later leaders. All three were
lovers of their country, who urged reform in Spain's
mediaeval system of government, not alone in the civil
service, but also in the church;and each died for it :
Burgos was garroted ;Jaena died in great poverty in
Madrid, whither he went from his home near Iloilo,
against the will of his friar teachers, in the interests
of his native land;and Rizal was shot on the Luneta
in Manila.
Foremost among them all was the last named, Rizal,
a popular martyr in the cause of liberty for his people.
Born in the small town of Calamba, Laguna, on the
shores of the lake of Bay, in the year 1861, he was99
100 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
tutored by a Ta.galog priest, and was graduated at
twenty from a Jesuit college in Manila, whence he went
to Europe to study medicine. The family name was
really Mercado, but an elder brother, a young man with
views too liberal for the church, who was also studying
at the capital and who had been expelled from the uni-
versity for having lived with Dr. Burgos, persuaded him
Celebration of the Anniversary of Rizal's Death
to change his name to Rizal that he might not be perse-
cuted because of his name and hindered in his studies.
From the University of Madrid he received the
degrees of Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of Medicine,
studied for some time in Paris, and then went to Ger-
many, where he received another degree of philosophy.
While in Berlin he became a member of the anthropo-
logical society. Together with medicine he took up
FROM 1896 TO THE PRESENT TIME 101
ethnological and linguistic studies;he was also much
devoted to art, particularly music and painting, to which
he gave considerable time in the way of diversion while
preparing himself specially as an oculist in Paris and
Vienna.
After visiting nearly every European country he re-
turned home;but so disagreeable was the attitude of
the friars, whose wrath was aroused by Rizal's novel,
Statue by Rizal
Noli Me Tangere, written during his residence abroad,
that his stay in the Islands became exceedingly unpleas-
ant, and he decided to return to Europe. On his w^ay
he spent some time studying in Japan, and then, after
visiting the United States, proceeded to London. Here
he continued his philological work and Ijrought out in
Spanish a second edition of Morga's treatise on the
Philippines, in which he attempted to show that under
Spanish domination the Filipino had retrograded in
civilization. A little later, in 1890, he w^as engaged
102 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
in newspaper work on a liberal journal published in
Barcelona, and was the author of various articles in
behalf of his country, in which he never asked for inde-
pendence, but always sought reform. Rizal was a true
Catholic, who believed the Islands needed the guiding
hand of a progressive, civilized nation;but nowhere
did he express the opinion that his people were ready
for self-government.
His attempts to arouse interest in the Philippine
question were not successful, so he retired to Belgium
to write his second political novel, El Filibusterismo.
This completed, he returned again to Barcelona, where
with great frankness and brilliancy he predicted the
downfall of Spain if she continued her harsh, unpro-
gressive, and illiberal policy of administration in the
Philippines.
Unable to keep away from his native country, how-
ever, Rizal turned homeward once more after prac-
ticing medicine for a short time in Hongkong. He
volunteered to return in order, as he wrote, "to help
heal the wounds reoj)ened by the recent injustices ";
and closes his letter to the governor general by saying," while seeking the good of my country I shall at least
be conscious of having done all in my power to pre-
serve her union with Spain through a stable policy
based upon justice and community interests." It was
with the promise of protection that he left for Manila,
but immediately upon landing he was arrested on a
charge of sedition and banished to Dapitan in Mindanao,
FROM 1896 TO THE PRESENT TIME 103
where amid most dreary surroundings he spent four
unhappy years, convinced of his innocence and yet
refusing opportunities to escape.
While thus isolated he was visited by a Mr. Taufer
from Hongkong accompanied by his foster child, Miss
Bracken. This gentleman had come for eye treatment,
and during their stay Rizal fell in love with the daughter
and maiTied her shortly afterward, just before his death.
The insurrection of 1896 had now broken out, and
Rizal, still at Dapitan and realizing his position, volun-
teered to go to Cuba as an army surgeon. His services
were accepted and he left for Madrid to be assigned.
On his arrival in Barcelona, however, he was arrested
and immediately returned to Manila to answer trial for
having instigated the insurrection then in progress.
Upon false testimony he was convicted and condemned
to death, and in accordance with the sentence was shot
on the Luneta on the morning of December 30, 1896.
Such is a very brief outline of this remarkable Fili-
pino's life,— one that presents many phases. He was,
above all, a lover of his fatherland;but he was also a
social reformer, a prophet who saw with remarkable
clearness of insight and with a boundless hope the
future regeneration of the Filipino people ;and he was,
too, an intelligent leader, revealing in his writings the
highest educational ideals. Were he living to-day he
would rejoice in the reforms inaugurated by the Ameri-
can government, especially in the extension of the free
public school, the equalizer, and in the introduction of
104 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
common language, the nationalizer of a people. Aleading thinker of his time, in thought and character
he was larger than any country. His ideas and ideals
were presented with simplicity and directness in the
two novels already mentioned, one of which. Noli Me
Tancjere, has heen well described as " a poet's story of
his people's loves, faults, aspirations, and wrongs."^
Physician, poet, reformer, martyr, Rizal has been called
by an eminent personal friend not only" the most
prominent man of his own people but the greatest manthe Malayan race has produced. His memory will never
perish in his fatherland, and future generations of Span-
iards will yet learn to utter his name with respect and
reverence. An enemy of Spain he has never been.""
Already has his memory been perpetuated by the Ameri-
can government by making the anniversary of his death
a public holiday and naming a province in his honor;
and everywhere is his name hailed by his countrymenas that of the Philippine patriot.
As Howells says in his review of Ah Eagle Flujlit,
an adaptation of Noli Me Tantjere:
But he is gone, and his book remains. ... I don't know
whether it ought to be astonishing or not that a little salfron
man, somewhere in that unhappy archipelago, should have been
born with a gift so far beyond that of any or all the authors of
our roaring literary successes;but these things are strangely
ordered by Providence, and no one who has read this pathetic
novel can deny its immeasurable superiority. The author learned
1 Introduction to An Eagle Flight, viii.
2 See Monograph on liizal, by Bluineiitritt.
FROM 189G TO THE PRESENT TIME 105
his trade from the modern Spanish novelists . . . but he has gone
beyond them in a certain sparing touch with which he presentssituation and character by mere statement of fact, without expla-
nation or comment. ... It is a great novel, of which the most
poignant effect is in a sense of its unimpeachable veracity.
The following, Rizal's dedicatory preface to his story
of his Tagal country, speaks for itself.
TO MY COUNTRY
The records of human suffering make known to us the exist-
ence of ailments of such nature that the slightest touch irritates
and causes tormenting pains. Whenever, in the midst of modern
civilizations, I have tried to call up thy dear image, my country,either for the comradeship of remembrance or to compare thylife with that about me, I have seen thy fair face disfigured and
distorted by hideous social cancer.
As a true and sympathetic picture of the country
during the years of preparation for the general upris-
ing of 189G this novel should be read. It shows a
thorough appreciation of the conditions at the tim^ and
a diagnosis of the situation the accuracy of which was
later confirmed by developments. An almost prophetic
insight is here and there exhibited, and the fatal rup-
ture between rulers and subjects, which followed so
soon as a climax to political events fast crowding one
another, was foretold with a confidence that was note-
worthy."" The sleep has lasted centuries," says one of
the characters, describing the conditions of the countryto the newcomer, who, though a native, has spent muchof his life abroad,
" but some day the lightning will
strike."
106 THE philippi:n^e islands
And within a few 3'ears after the pubhcation of this
book the lightning did strike in Cavite province, in
August, 1896. In this insurrection, promising to be so
serious, we hear for the first time of Aguinaldo, who,
althougli a young school-teacher of twenty-seven, was
the head of a movement which had spread over all
Luzon and even into some of the central islands. Owingto the persecution of the people of the provinces, where
Fort Cavite
the secret societies were supposed to be strongest, some
five thousaud Filipinos had signed a petition to the
emperor of Japan asking him to annex the Islands.
This was sent in the early mouths of 1896, and the
Japanese authorities forwarded it to Spain, thus appris-
ing the mother country of the organized plan of revolt.
Immediate action, however, was not taken, and not
until quantities of ammunition and supplies were found
at Taal were any arrests made. Even then Governor
General Blanco refrained from using force until every
FKOM 1896 TO THE PKESENT TIME 107
other means had been tried, for he wished to avoid openconflict entirely, if possible, and at any rate until he
should receive reenforcements from Madrid.
By the last of August the revolt had gained full
strength, and encounters took place in which the rebels
were driven back from the capital. Martial law was pro-
claimed, and arrests of those even suspected were made
in such numbers that the jails were soon overflowing.
Province after province came over to the revolutionary
standard and soon all of lower Luzon was in arms.
A change of governments now brought Polavieja
over to the Islands as successor to Blanco, and a more
severe campaign conducted by a man who had liad an
extensive and successful military experience began, in
which the Spanish troops met with success generally.
But failure on the part of the home authorities to
send reenforcements because of the serious outbreak in
Cuba, which occupied most of their attention and de-
manded an enormous number of troops, prevented Pola-
vieja from following up his victories, and discouraged he
resigned his office.
His successor, Rivera, now for a second time in the
Islands, began by offering amnesty to all who should
lay down their arms;and many Filipinos, weakening
because of the cruelty of the campaign waged against
them, accepted.
The center of the insurrection, which had been in
Cavite province, was now farther north in Pampangaand Bulacan provinces, with Angat and San Mateo the
108 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
two particular strongholds of the Filipinos, from which
they harassed the Spanish soldiers. The spirit was lag-
ging somewhat when an edict of July 2, 1897, putting
severe restrictions upon the movements of the people
in the towns and requiring their observance under pain
of being treated as rebels, fanned the flame and brought
the insurgents to a white heat. They answered by pre-
paring a document urging all to take up arms, demand-
ing the expulsion of the friars, representation, freedom
of the j^ress, and more just laws in general. The old
fire burned fiercely again ;and the governor general
perceived that some measure of reform was imperative.
Pedro Alejandro Paterno, a Filipino educated in
Europe, able and successful, was accordingly appointed
to negotiate with Aguinaldo, and after a series of con-
ferences with the insurgent leader, came to an agree-
ment which was embodied in the Treaty of Biac-na-ljato.
By its terms the Filipinos were to give over arms
and ammunition, cease for three years from forming
designs against the Spanish sovereignty, and Aguinaldo
together with certain followers was to be deported for
a period to be determined by Spain. In return they
were to receive one million dollars Mexican currency as
indemnity, and those who had not taken up arms an
additional seven hundred thousand dollars of the same
money as reimbursement for losses suffered; and reforms
for the Islands were promised.
But these reforms were apparently forgotten, for con-
ditions which began to look favorable now took a dark
Aguinaldo
10!)
iiu THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
turn again. Misunderstandings arose, arrests for slight
offenses continued, and then unexpectedly the native
regiments at Cavite refused to serve in the campaign
against the ladrones. In April, 1898, a serious insur-
rection broke out in Cebii, in which five thousand
natives drove the Spanish out, cut off communications
with Manila, and took j)ossession of the city. A few
Wkeck of the Mahia Chkij^tina
days later, however, Spanish reenforcements arrived,
and the revolting natives were driven into the moun-
tains after a crushing defeat.
Further dissatisfaction now arose because of the
arrival of a new chief executive and the return of
Governor General Rivera to Spain before the promises
of reform were realized;and as a climax war was
declared between the United States and Spain.
FROM 1896 TO THE TRESE^'T TIME 111
The results of this in the Philippines we know well
already,— the destruction of the Spanish fleet at Cavite
Mabini, the Brains of the Ixsukkection
on May 1;the arrival of American troops two months
later, and the taking of Manila in August; and finally,
the cessation of hostilities and the consequent Treaty
Funeral of General Lawton
of Paris, Deceml^er 10, ratified at Washington Febru-
ary 10, 1899, by which Spain ceded the Philippines to
112 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
the United States. The first United States Philippine
Commission, sometimes called, from its president, the
Schurman Commission, arrived in Manila early in April
of the same year; and on the 11th the treaty of peace
was proclaimed to the Filipinos.
Later events since the -American occupation have
hardly yet crystallized into history, and, further, are so
fixed in the memory of all that no detailed description of
them will be attempted here. Suffice it to mention briefly
the princi|)al points in this last phase of the movement.
Mount Auayat, Pampanga Province
General Aguinaldo returned to Manila, May 19, 1808,
on board a United States government boat, and started
in immediately to organize an army and a governmentunder the protection of the American gunljoats,
—whether with any reasonable belief that our governmentwould aid him in such organization, it is difficult to say.
Certain it seemed that he entertained such an opinion
and also that the Hons-kouff Junta was convinced that
our government would aid him and his followers to
this end; yet the evidence is clear that neither Admiral
Dewey, who had furnished some guns and ammunition,
nor General Anderson had made him any such promise.
FROM 189(3 T(J THE PRESENT TIME 113
To the Americans, Aguinaldo was the head of the army
cooperating with the American forces; to the Filipinos,
however, he was a dictator and the head of an organized
government. Immediately on reaching Cavite he issned
his first proclamation
to the effect that the
American govern-ment was to exercise
a protectorate over
the Philippines, con-
sidering; the natives
able to govern them-
selves, and that
restraint and order
should therefore be
observed and person
and property pro-
tected. The spirit of
this edict was in
sharp contrast to the
practices during the
uprising of 1896; and
there is no doubt that
the Tagalog leaders realized that more humane warfare
should be carried on, if they desired the United States
to assume protection of the Islands for at least long
enough to estaljlish a government of their own.
Shortly afterwards, during the period of our own
military inactivity, pending our negotiations with Spain
American SoLniEKS in Possession
OF Railroad
114 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
and before the rupture between the Americans and the
insurgents, the latter began to attack the Spanish, and
by a series of victories made themselves masters of the
whole of Luzon outside of Manila, and even sent expe-
ditions to the Visayas.
A second proclamation by Aguinaldo was now issued,
in which he assumed the responsibility of promising
national independence to his people on behalf of the
Insurgknt Leaders deported to Guam
American government. He surrounded himself with a
cabinet, and then changed this dictatorial form of rule
to the revolutionary government with executive, legis-
lative, and judicial departments, recognition of which
by foreign powers was asked August G, 1808.
The insurgent Congress assembled September 15, at
Malolos, the new seat of the Pliilippine government,and on January 23, 181)9, the revolutionary government
gave way to the so-called "Philippine Republic," with
Aguinaldo as president.
<
C/2
Q
<
a
a
<o
<
•A
115
IIG THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Gradually relations between Americans and Filipinos
became strained, and the tension increased after the
fall of Manila and the assumption of the affairs of gov-
ernment by the commanding general of the American
American Soldiers fording a River
forces. In the operations against the capital no con-
ferences had taken place between Filipino and American
officers, and no cooperation of any sort between the
respective forces. Dissatisfaction on the part of the
native leaders was plainly evident, and little effort was
made to conceal it.
Yet we could not have recognized offhand the local
government which had been established. Aguinaldo's
haste and unwillingness to follow our leadership) made
it impossible for our commanders to adopt a more sym-
pathetic and conciliatory attitude. They had no means
of knowing the amount of territory controlled hy the
insurgent government nor the efficiency of their organ-
ization, hence they naturally hesitated.
It is possible that a way might have been found bywhich a friendly alliance between the forces could have
FROM 189G TO THE PRESENT TIME 117
continued, thus making unnecessary the war that fol-
lowed. But whether this were possible or not, the Fili-
23inos can hardly be blamed for desiring independence,
nor can the American authorities be censured for refus-
ing to further such a plan before they were fully con-
vinced that the former were possessed of a sufficient
degree of civilization to govern themselves. The claims
of the ambitious Filipinos were natural enough but hardlyconclusive. It is not possible here to go into the in-
formation furnished the authorities in Washington rela-
tive to the ability of the people to govern themselves;
it is sufficient to say that in the writer's estimation
American Soldiers on Mountain Trail
the refusal to grant independence was a wise decision.
Signs of rupture meanwhile were evident;friction ex-
isted between the troops posted near each other, and
on February 4, 1899, six days before the ratification
118 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
of the Treaty of Paris, hostilities broke out, started bythe shooting of a native soldier who attempted to cross
tlie American lines
in the darkness.
The conflict soon
became general,
with the result
which we know.
Our troops spread
over the archi-
pelago^ and scores
of engagements,hardh^ to be called
battles, were
fought, generally
with little doubt
as to the outcome.
Malolus, the in-
surgent capital,fell in August ;
the
railroad was soon
secured; central
and northern Lu-
zon were subdued;
and as soon as an
adequate military
force was avail-
able attention was
General Cailles turned to southern
FRO:Sl 189G TO THE PRESENT TLME 119
Luzon, and then to the central and southern islands.
By November, 1899, practically all organized opposi-
tion had been de-
stroyed, and small
garrisons scattered
over the whole
country had been
abolished. But
guerrilla warfare
and brigandagecontinued. Agui-
naldo was finally
captured in April,
1901,by Funston;
and C allies, Mal-
var, Lucban, and
other insurgentofficers afterward
surrendered or
were captured.On July 1, 1901,
the insurrection
was declared at an
end by proclama-
tion of the Presi-
dent of the United
States, and the administration of the Islands was form-
ally turned over to the civil government. Judge Taft,
president of the Commission, was made governor.
General Malvar
American Soldiers at Santa Cruz
San I'aisi.o. Lac; una
Limits of concentration
120
FKOM 1896 TO THE PKESENT TIME 121
At this stage we may be able to understand somewhat
the conditions of the miUtary problem which our forces
had to solve,— one bristling with new difficulties, to
cope with which there was for a long time an insuf-
ficient number of troops. The American army in the
Philippines is the American army of history,—
equally
cheerful under hardships and criticism, equally ener-
getic, and equally brave. In later years the story
of the American subjugation of the Filipinos will be
written, and the honor and glory to which our officers
and soldiers are entitled will be theirs. Nor were their
efforts confined merely to stamping out the insurrec-
tionary movement, for much intelligent and efficient
reorganization was accomplished by them, which pre-
pared the way for the civil authorities.
CHAPTER V
CLIMATE
Residents of the temperate zone cannot comprehendthe very different climatic conditions existing in the
torrid belt and their effect— physical, industrial, and
even moral—upon the life of the inhabitants. The influ-
ence exercised by climate is always a marked one, and
the Philippines are no exception ; yet the views as to
these effects have been so various and contradictory
that the attempt is made here to present a few of the
important facts as borne out by scientific data, for the
purpose of giving in a brief yet substantially accurate
way a general idea of what the climate in the Islands
is. The subject is a fundamental one, for it affects the
very character of these people ;it is closely allied with
the question of puljlic health and that of commercial
geography ;and the results of its study, furthermore,
form a valuable contribution to the stock of scientific
information concerning the Islands. It is to be regretted
that extended consideration cannot be given it here;
and yet this seems hardly necessary in view of the care-
ful and comprehensive government publications that
treat this question fully.
Mention has already been made of the excellent work
done by the Jesuits in the study of earthquakes ;and
122
CLIMATE 123
even more time and laljur have been devoted by these
clerical scientists to the study of climate, especially of
storms and their causes. The practical value of the
Manila Observatory, where this study Avas carried on,
made itself first felt in the prediction of these storms;
and so accurate were the forecasts and so great the aid
Manila Oisservatory
rendered to navigators and farmers that the importance
of this central weather station became early established.
The director of the Manila Observatory was the first
person in the Orient to predict the existence and dura-
tion and to determine the probable course of the violent
storms known in the China sea by the name of typhoons,
and in the Philippines by that of haguios. This predic-
tion was made in July, 1879, and was confirmed by the
events which followed. Later in this same year, on
124 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
the 18th of November, the director, Father Faiira,
announced a second storm, which was to strike Manila
itself; the alarm caused by this information was great,
and the warning was heeded by all whom the news
could reach. Vessels were ordered not to leave port,
and the natives themselves took proper precautions to
avoid the destructive force of the hurricane. It swept
over the archipelago almost precisely as it was forecast,
and the accuracy of the information given out by the
venerable director became evident. In those places to
which notices had been sent comparatively little dam-
age to shipping and to life resulted;whereas in the
storm ports where because of lack of telegraphic com-
munication the news did not arrive in time, the destruc-
tive effects of the storm were very severe, forty-two
ships foundering in southern Luzon alone, and manylives were lost. Almost remarkable was the skill dis-
played in these first storm predictions from the observa-
tory ;and the same standai'd has been since maintained,
with the result that from the very first this weather
bureau and its reports were depended upon by the
commercial interests.
We shall now turn to a discussion of some of the
separate phases of this general question of climate in
the Islands, particularly the matters of temperature,
atmospheric pressure, humidity, precipitation, winds
and clouds, and storms.
CLIMATE 125
Temperature
The monthly mean temperature in the months of
November, December, January, and February oscillates
between 77° and 70.7° F.; in the months of April,
May, and June it ranges between 81.5° and 83° F.; and
in the months of March, July, August, September, and
October this average is not less than 80° nor greater
than 81.5°. In accordance with these variations of
temperature the year is divided into three seasons :
(1) temperate, extending through the months of Novem-
ber, December, January, and February; (2) hot, covering
the months of April, May, and June; (3) intermediate,
dm-ing the months of March, July, September, and
October,— March because it is midway between the
temperate and the hot months.
The mean annual temperature at Manila, based upondeductions from twenty-four daily observations extend-
ing over a period of sixteen years, is approximately 80°.
The mean monthly temperature falls to only 77° in
the coolest months and rises to only 83° in the hot-
test. The mildest month is January, with a tempera-
ture of 77°, and the months of December and February
follow in the second place. In the month of March the
temperature rises considerably, attaining an average of
81°;and in May the maximum is reached with a record
of 83°. From May until July a gradual diminution
takes place until 81° is reached again, and from Augustto October this temperature remains unchanged. From
120 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
October, finally, the decrease continues until the mouth
of January is reached once more.
The highest maximum temperature recorded which
has been found by the writer is 100° F., in May, 1889;
and the extreme minimum temperature reported is 61°,
in February, 1888. As a means of comparison let us
look at the temperatures of one or two of our own
large cities. Boston has a mean annual of 48.6°, a
minimum of 27°, and a maximum of 71°; New York
has a mean annual of 51.7°, a minimum of 30.5°, and
a maximum of 73.5°;New Orleans has a mean annual
of 68.8°, a mininmm of 53.8°, and a maximum of 82.2°;
Chicago, a mean annual of 48.3°, a minimum of 23.4°,
and a maximum of 72°; and San Francisco, a mean
annual of 55.8°, with a minimum of 50.1°, and a max-
imum of 60.4°. The highest maximum tem23eratures,
moreover, in these American cities are often over 100°,
as we know, and again the extreme minimum figures
are sometimes as low as 20° below zero. And so, by
comparing the figures for the Islands with those for
different, parts of the United States, the extremely small
degree of variation of temperatures in the case of the
Philippines, as against the very great differences in our
own country, is at once noticeable. The annual varia-
tion in the archipelago is not uniform, since in places
nearest the equator it is less than in those localities
further away and of some elevation; yet this difference
between the highest and lowest temperatures in any
part of the Islands is, at the most, very small. The
CLIMATE 127
yearly oscillation at Aparri, for example, is 9.4°, the
greatest recorded; in Manila, 6.3°; in Negros, 3.6°;
and in Jolo, only 1.2°;and thus the greatest variation
over a period of a year is found to be only slightly over
9°, a figure that is reached frequently in New York
within the short space of an hour.
As to the effect of these climatic conditions, the fol-
lowing paragraph, taken from the Official Guide of the
Philipi^ines, is of interest. It says :
As the archipelago is wholly situated within the tropical
zone, it has the climate which generally characterizes the coun-
tries which are found in the same position. The high and uni-
form temperature which the thermometer reaches throughoutthe year is the chief reason which makes it disagreeable and
wearisome to live in this region, and which produces in the
natives the laziness and inertia which characterize them, and
a sensible prostration of forces in the Europeans who reside for
some years in the country.
In voicing this same opinion, although more in this con-
nection will be said later, the writer does not hesitate
to add here that these natural conditions, particularly
those of temperature, wield a determining influence
upon residents in the Islands in general, whether native
or foreign ;make the native himself, to a great extent,
what he is to-day ;and militate against efforts toward
systematic hard work for any very extended period of
time without incurring the danger of becoming run
down physically, and the consequent necessity for
recuperation.
128 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
ATMOsrHERic Pressure
The barometer reaches its greatest mean height in
tlie month of February, and then continues to descend
at a rate of ahnost 1 mm. a month until July, when the
lowest average for the year is reached. A slight rise is
noted in August, after which it again descends slightly
during the month of September, although remaining
higher than the average for July. From October to
February, finally, the pressure decreases without inter-
ruption. The mean annual oscillation, or the difference
between this maximum monthly average of February
and the minimum of July, is 4.02 mm.; and the annual
average pressure is 759.31 mm.In the field of weather study in the tropics the one
tiling noticeable is the regularity with which the va-
riations and oscillations of the three meteorological
elements, namely, j^ressure, temperature, and relative
humidity, are repeated every year. Exactness is thus
the more possible, and a careful study of the indica-
tions at such a place as the Manila Observatory enables
the initiated to know almost precisely every feature
connected with any particular storm or kindred dis-
turbance which is threatening. The scientific value of
this possibility of accuracy is at once apparent, and
the practical value is exceedingly great. The daily
oscillation of the barometer is so regular in these lat-
itudes that it is rightly compared to the movements
of a clock;and it may be said with certainty that the
CLIMATE 129
least irregularity observed in it is generally the most
unmistakable indication of tke proximity of some
atmospheric change. The tabulation of a large series
of such observations has enabled the directors of the
observatory to deduce several laws as to barometric
j)ressure and cyclonic storms by which these dangers
may be anticipated. The regular variations are worked
out by a long series of such observations, and thus any
departure from these can be quickly detected and the
greater or less violence of the coming typhoon foretold
with almost absolute certainty. How very different this
is from the case of our own weather predictions at home
and how much more simplified the work of forecasting
is made in the Philippines is quite apparent.
Humidity
The atmosphere of the archipelago is generally loaded
with a great quantity of water vapor, the existence of
which in such abundance is due, as is shown by the
official reports, to extraordinary evaporation fi-om the
seas which surround it on all sides, and also in part
to the richness of its vegetation, and the different pre-
vailing winds of the various seasons of the year, accom-
panied by the heavy aqueous precipitation common to
tropical countries. The first two, namely, evaporation
and vegetation, may be considered as general causes
of humidity to be observed in all the islands;and the
last two, the winds and the ordinary precipitation,
may influence the humidity of the different months
130 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
of the year or that of local regions in the archipelago.
For this reason, during those months from October to
June when the prevailing winds are from the first
quadrant, i.e. northeast, and the rains are most abun-
dant on the eastern coasts, the humidity will be greater
in those towns situated nearest the Pacific and less
along the western coasts. These latter, however, will
possess a greater percentage of humidity from June to
October, when the prevailing Avinds are from the third
or opposite quadrant, i.e. southwest.
It is furthermore worth}- of note that as the rains
from June to October are caused by general atmos-
pheric disturbances and extend their influence more
or less over the entire archipelago, it follows that the
humidity peculiar to these months is considerably in-
creased, not alone in the vicinity of the western coasts
but also to a certain degree in the interior and along
the eastern shores. And since it is true that from
November to March there is a higher percentage of
humidity on the western coasts, it is easy to see that the
yearly average degree of humidity must reach its maxi-
mum value in those regions tliat are most exposed to
the winds from the first quadrant, i.e. northeast.
Because of the excessively large amount of water
vapor found in the air even at any time during the
year, the high uniform temperature of the Islands is
doubly trying, and it is this atmosphere, filled almost
always to the saturation point, that causes such debili-
tation. In Manila, April is the month of least humidity ;
CLIMATE 131
it then increases in degree during May, June, and July,
diminishes somewhat in August, again increases in Sep-
tember, when the maximum is reached, and finally begins
to diminish gradually and without interruption from
October until April.
Precipitation
Precipitation of water is one of the principal ele-
ments which influence the climate of any country, and
for this reason the rain records of the observatory
A Street in the Rainy Season, Victoria, Tarlac
are full of interest, especially in the way of disproving
some of the absurd statements made in regard to the
amount and frequency of rainfall, and in confirming cer-
tain others which have the appearance of exaggeration.
132 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
The statement is made that in Manila two hundred
and three days out of the year are rainy ;and again it
has been said that in the months of June, July, August,
and September one hundred inches of rain often fall in
the capital, and during the rest of the year twenty inches
more,— assertions which can hardly be supported bythe facts.
There are in general three causes of precipitation :
1. The first and principal cause is the atmospheric
perturbation, including not only the true cyclonic storms
but also the other centers or large areas of low pressure.
2. The second cause is to be found in the tornadoes
or local tempests accompanied by heavy thunder and
lightning, which frequently continue from May through
October, and occasionally occur in April and November,
though hardly ever during the period from December
to March. These rains are distinguished from the pre-
ceding ones in that while they are sometimes fierce
and come in torrents, still they are usually of short
duration. They rarely occur in the morning, l)ut are
frequent during the afternoon and evening, continuing
during the night and sometimes even for several days.
3. Finally, the third cause of the rainfall is the
influence of the center of maximum pressure, which,
in the months of December and February, is found to
be situated in Sil^eria toward the north-northwest of
Luzon, frequently extending to Mongolia, northern
China, and the sea of Japan. The air currents of the
first quadrant, influenced by the maximum pressure,
CLIMATE 133
cause great and frequent condensations, which in the
months of December and February are produced along
the eastern coasts of the Philippines, and at times
when especially abundant and extraordinary reach
the western shores.
The maximum of days of rain in Manila and vicinity
is during July, August, and Septemljer, and the mini-
mum in February and March. The "rainy days," it
is to be understood, include all those during which
enough rain has fallen to be appreciated or measured
by the ordinary apparatus; days of passing showers
are not registered and hence not taken into account.
The average number of days of rain for the different
months in Manila during the years from 1866 to 1898,
inclusive, are: January, 5.1; February, 2.8; March, 3;
Aj^ril, 3.7; May, 9.1; June, 15.6; July, 20.6; August,
20.3; September, 20.2; October, 16; November, 11.7;
and December, 7.9; making a total annual average of
135.9. The statement made that in Manila 203 daA^s
out of the year are rainy is hardly scientifically accu-
rate; 135.9, or in round numbers 136, days is, however,
a period extraordinary enough to astonish the foreigner
who comes from a continental country. The year 1898
shows a total of 198 days of rain, while in 1885 there
were only 89 days. Much care is generally exercised
by the writers on the climate of intertropical regions in
distinguishing between the two seasons,—the dry, which
lasts from November to May inclusive, and the humid,
wet, or rainy season, which continues during the other
134 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
five months from June to October. In considering tlie
climate of the Philippines, however, it must be remem-
bered that this division can be applied only to the interior
and western coasts and not to the eastern parts of the
archipelago ;for along these coasts the season from
November to May is distinguished by much rain, and
the succeeding one from June to October is far from
being a distinctly wet season, as is the case on the
western coasts in the region of Manila.
The terms "rainy season"and "
dry season"
are apt
to be misunderstood by persons who have never lived in
a tropical country. This is the case with many who start
for the Philippines supposing that the rainy season is so
called because there is a constant fall of rain during the
five months included under the term "rainy season."
If one stops to think a moment, of course, the so-called
rainy months— June, July, August, September, and
October— have long periods of dry weather; and it
is not a rare occurrence for ten, fifteen, or even a
larger number of days to pass without any rain at all,
or at most with showers of but little importance. The
only practical significance in tliis distinction l)etween
the seasons is that the total amount of water which
falls in the five months of the rainy season is greater
than the amount which falls in the other seven months
of the year. Out of the total annual average of 136
rainy days, 43 come within the dry season and 93 in
the rainy season; or, in other words, thirty-one per
cent of the rainy days of the year are in the dry season
CLIMATE 135
as compared with sixty-nine per cent in the wet season.
The average percentage of rainfall in inches is 20 for
the dry against 80 for the wet season.
One hundred and seventeen inches of rain fell at
Manila during the year 1867; and the next highest
amount during; the vears from 1865 to 1898 was in
1891,—approximately 105 inches. On the other hand,
the rainfall for 1874 was only 47 inches. The yearly
average for Manila is 75.5 inches, compared with 116
inches for Albay province, 45 inches for the city of
New York, and only 25 for San Francisco.
The heaviest rainfall which has been recorded in
Manila for any one month was in September, 1867,
when about 58 inches of water fell; and in contrast to
this is the month of September, 1885, when less than
2 inches was recorded. During the first July of Ameri-
can occupation, that is in 1899, 39 inches of rain fell,—
the second hig;hest record for a sing-le month that has
been found;and September 24, 1867, is recorded as
having experienced for a period of twenty-four hours a
fall of 13 inches, the maximum amount for the space of
a day. Such statements, frequently heard, that 20 inches
of water fall in Manila in one day are thus, holding to
the facts, hardly true, although for parts of the day
really remarkable downpours have occurred. On May 21,
1892, between the hours of five and six in the after-
noon, 21 inches of water fell, which is the record for
the period of one hour, and was indeed excessive. The
most noted storm in Philippine meteorological history,
136 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
during which the greatest quantity of water fell in the
least space of time, is the rainfall which occurred during
the tornadoes of August 28, 1897, amounting to 1.5
inches of water in the space of only sixteen minutes.
Winds and Clouds
The prevailing winds in Manila and vicinity are
southwest for six months of the year,— from May until
Octoher; northerly from November to January ; and
during the other three montlis of February, March, and
April, easterly. May is the month of the veering of the
winds from east to southwest, and October the one dur-
ing which they change from southwest to north. The
Suns in, Manila Bay
particular winds of the Philippines are not monsoons in
the proper sense of the word, though this term is com-
monly used to describe them, for they have a local
action peculiar to themselves, and do not conform to
CLLMATE 137
the regular semiannual changes which characterize the
monsoons of neig[:hborino; countries.
The results of the study at the observatory of the
different features of the clouds are of much value, for
Sunset, Manila Bay
by attentively examining the height and direction of
those observed in the proximity of a cyclone and com-
paring these results with the height and direction which
have been found true under normal conditions, really
remarkable differences have been found, that have
opened new avenues of information and increased the
number of means by which it is possible to predict the
advent of these cyclonic disturbances.
The cloudiest month of the year, speaking for the
geographical region of Manila, is August ;and the clear-
est month, March. The number and volume of the
clouds increase progressively from April to August, and
then begin to diminish again, until the minimum degree
of cloudiness is reached in March.
138 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Cyclones
True and typical cyclones possessing the genuinemovements of rotation and transference are found in
the Philippine archipelago and the seas that surround
it. These haguios, as the natives know them, or ty-
plioons, as they are frequently called by Americans, who
fI Ifjl 1/
'Jl
139
140 THE rHlLlPPIXE ISLANDS
then increased from April, when 9 were found to have
occurred, to July, when 66 were recorded. There was a
slight decrease for the month of August, and the maxi-
mum of 79 was reached in September. The figures are as
follows : January, 6; February, none
; March, 3; April,
9; May, 24; June, 35; July, 66; August, 63; Septem-
ber, 79; October, 54; November, 40; December, 8.
The accuracy with wliich an individual observer maydetermine by means of the barometer the almost exact
nature of a coming cyclone has already been mentioned.
There is, however, another means for the detection of
these disturbances, and that is the nebulous condition of
the atmosphere, particularly with regard to the conver-
gence of cirrus clouds,— a sign which is considerably
more valuable than the barometer, coming, as it does,
oftentimes two or three days before any indication of
an atmospheric change is shown by this instrument.
By observing these high clouds, which are small in
size, of very fine structure, and of clear opal color,
generally appearing as elongated feathers, known to
mariners as "cocktails," the position of the vortex of
the storm and the various movements may be deter-
mined with comparative ease. The first idea of utilizing
these clouds for the purpose of learning the storm
vortex is to be credited to Father Vines, director of the
Havana Observatory; it is considered one of the great-
est discoveries won in the study of the meteorologi-
cal phenomena within recent years. Long before the
least sign of bad weather is observed, and in many
CLIMATE 141
cases when the barometer is very high and under the
influence of the center of maximum pressure which
usually precedes a tempest, these small isolated clouds
appear in the upper regions of the atmosphere, banked
up in the blue vault of heaven and stretching away in
the direction of some one point on the horizon towards
which they converge. The foremost are few in number
but well defined and of the most delicate structure,
appearing like long filaments bound together and be-
coming invisible before reaching the point of conver-
gence. At the observatory at Manila they have been
seen at times when the vortex of the storm was more
than six hundred miles distant. As they are observed,
it is necessary to keep them in sight and watch care-
fully their successive movements;and the best time for
making these observations is the moment that the sun
rises or sets. When the sun nears the eastern horizon
the first clouds to be colored by its rays are the cirro-
stratus,—the heralds of bad weather
;on the other
hand, they are the last to appear after the sun has passed
below the horizon. After the point of convergence dur-
ing these moments has been carefully determined the
direction of the position of the storm center can be
approximately fixed. To determine this with accuracy
as it moves along, it is necessary to estimate at regular
intervals the points at which these cirro-stratus clouds
converge and compare them with the movements of the
barometer. By this means the general characteristics
of the storm are learned, and by further inquiries of
142 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
a meteorological nature, aided by available weather
records, practically every feature of the disturbance is
discovered and proper steps taken to avoid any harm-
ful results.
In general, the work in meteorology in the Islands
with the observatory as the center, has been of a high
grade and exceedingly valuable. The necessity for con-
tinuing this study of weather conditions was recognized
by the American government at the outset;and steps
were taken to strengthen the department, as it had
been organized under the Spanish regime by the Jesuit
fathers, by enlarging the equipment and making the
observatory the official weather bureau for the Islands.
To-day the same careful, systematic study of the weather
conditions continues, and daily and other periodical
reports upon which the extensive commercial interests
of the Islands are dependent for safety, are sent out to
different points in the archipelago.
CHAPTER VI
PUBLIC HEALTH
The Spaniards epigrammatically describe the seasons
as consisting of six months of dust, six months of mud,
and six months of everything ;and we might supple-
ment this by adding that these seasons are by no means
successive, for when it is dusty in one place it may be
very muddy in another. It is quite a possible experi-
ence, indeed, to find the soil of one island parched by
the sun and yet be aljle to look across some narrow
strait and see daily storms furnishing nutrition for the
abundant tropical foliage of a neighboring island. This
variety and complexity of physical conditions we have
already noticed, and the effect which these have uponthe subject we are now considering, that of public
health, is naturally obvious;for while living conditions
might be exceedingly favorable in one place, they mightbe almost the opposite in another not far distant. In
what we have to say here, therefore, we must observe
the same caution in refraining from speaking too gener-
ally, and we should limit what we do say in any general
way by the consciousness that conditions vary for every
part of the archipelago, and hence that it is difficult to
lay down any but a few broad directions which might143
144 THP: PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
be of service in preserving in this tropical country the
state of health which we enjoy in the United States. The
sanest and truest paragraph that has been written uponthis matter of residence in the tropics is, in the writer's
estimation, the following, written by an American who
has liA^ed some years in the Islands.
Briefly stated, the facts are as follows : if one is permanentlysituated in a good locality where he can secure suitable food
and good drinking water, if he is scrupulously careful as to his
diet, avoids excesses of all kinds, keeps out of the sun in the
middle of the day, and refrains from severe and long-continued
physical exertions, he is likely to remain well, always supposingthat he is fortunate enough to escape malarial infection.^
The author finds himself in complete accord with
this view, and further agrees with the same writer that
though these words are true as they are here limited,
it is a different matter with the explorer, the engi-
neer, the timber cutter, or any other who would go into
the back country to take up any such severe work as
is involved in developing the latent resources of the
country. Good food, regular habits, little or no drink-
ing of alcoholic liquors, no exposure to the midday sun,
no undue physical or mental exertion, and no worry,—
these are the precautions which, if taken, will make it
ordinarily possible for the white man to live for a
period of from three to five years in the Philippines
without any real suffering ;and yet to fulfill these con-
ditions in the provinces is often particularly difficult.
1Worcester, The Philippine Islands.
PUBLIC HEALTH 145
Our own people have suffered thus far to a great
degree because of their lack of adaptability; and it is
quite true that the climate of such a place even as
Manila, which is at sea level and which is intensely
hot with a high percentage of humidity during certain
portions of the year, is not harmful to the constitutions
of healthy Europeans and Americans, provided that
Native Shack in Malate
they immediately choose a mode of living that is suit-
able to the country, and in the matters of clothing,
diet, habits, and recreations adapt themselves to the
new conditions. Americans as a rule have felt that
they could eat, drink, sleep, and work just as at home,
but the results unfortunately have convinced manyof their error. The doctrine of the strenuous life has
no place in the tropics ;the simple mode of living is
a much wiser one. Further than this, persons over
146 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
forty-five years of age (a limit which is also set by civil-
service requirements) and those with any chronic trouble
should not go to the Philippines with the view of living
there for any extended length of time. It is one of the
worst places in the world for consumptives ;it is not good
for people with catarrhal trouljles or weak eyes ;nor is
it to be recommended for people who are suffering from
indigestion or possessed of shattered nervous systems.
Persons who are planning to go to the Islands gener-
ally read up about the conditions of life in Manila, and
do not realize sufficiently that residence in the provinces,
however comfortable it may be made, is still very differ-
ent from what it is in the capital. Tliis difference is byno means as great as it was before the coming of the
Americans, yet it is sufficient to act as a warning
against accepting as true for the l^ack country the
descriptions concerning Manila itself. The conditions
outside are such as to make the writer feel warranted
in predicting that no extensive settlements of Ameri-
cans in the archipelago are likely to be made for years
to come, if ever;extensive colonization by us seems to
be precluded.
No general statement can be made with any degree
of accuracy concerning the effect of the Philippine cli-
mate upon an American;so much depends upon the con-
stitution and character of the individual, the locality
in the United States from which he comes,— whether
New England or Texas,— the place in the Islands where
he is to take up his residence, the work that he is going
PUBLIC HEALTH 147
to follow, and the fact that he has or has not his family
with him and is to be surrounded by the precautions
and care of a good housekeeper. Home life and strength
of character to do certain things, such as taking exer-
cise, and to refrain from doing other things, such as
overeating or exposing one's self to the sun, are the
two prime conditions for a comfortable existence in the
The Chosex Playground foii Two Schools, Concepcion
tropics. There is no doubt that from the first the hot
months of April, May, and June are generally trying
to every American. The air at this time is steamyand sticky with the closeness and heaviness which we
associate at home with a hothouse atmosphere. The
so-called "temperate months," again, afford no bracing
change, and thus in time the never-ending summer
debilitates one.
In Manila the nights are found to be cooler than the
days, due to breezes from the bay, and refreshing sleep
148 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
is possible. A siesta after lunch, or tiffin, as it is called,
is taken by nearly every one, even Americans. The air-
less character of the atmosphere during the greater part
of the hot season makes it particularly difficult for those
who are in poor health or overtired. Hitherto it has
not been easy to get away from Manila to the purer air
of the hills, and there are no short trips possible from
the capital over Saturday and Sunday, which would fur-
nish much relief. When a man has finished the day's
work in the tropics he is usually fagged out and listless,
and desires nothing so much as the cool veranda and
the thinnest of clothing. The change from the northern
temperate climate of the United States to the tropical
one of the Phili23pines is invariably severe, and to the
writer's knowledge there is no one who has gone to the
Islands from any of the northern states who has not
suffered annoyance of some sort. Evil consequences
of this change of climate may be felt at the begin-
ning of one's stay or after several years' residence, or
even in rare cases after a return to the United States.
Dengue fever, a disease somewhat akin to malaria, is
common during this period of acclimation. Nearly
every one, too, suffers from prickly heat, a rash which
breaks out over the body, sometimes lasting for months.
Other more serious diseases unfortunately are within
the range of possibility if a certain amount of care is
not exercised.
Cleanliness attained by the daily bath is absolutely
essential to good health. All water, furthermore, should
PUBLIC HEALTH 149
be boiled or distilled in order to be able to driuk it with
impunity. Clothes washed in ordinary unboiled water
are sure to contain germs which give rise to a skin
disease known as " dhobie itch," which is extremely
annoying and disagreeable and often contracted in spite
of all precautions.
Among the imiumerable variety of insects to contend
with, the ever-present mosquito is foremost, and no one
thinks of sleeping without a suspended netting care-
fully tucked in on all sides. Ants exist in great variety
Homes of Poorer Class ox Piles near a Canal, Concepcion
and profusion, and they are ready to take immediate
possession of all eatables not pro^^erly protected. But
worse even than the mosquito is the Philippine house fly,
although he appears only intermittent!}^, for he sticks to
you as if he were glued and is often the source of muchirritation. Cockroaches of immense size skip across yourfloors and eat the l^indings off your books
;lizards crawl
over your walls, but after the first impressions are for-
gotten their chirp becomes a cheerful sound; spiders
take up their abode in the bath rooms ; and many
150 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
other insects, their species varying at times according
to the locality, inhabit shoes, chests, and other possible
places around the house. Yet it is very easy for a good
housekeeper to minimize these discomforts, and it takes
a comparatively short time to get used to them, espe-
cially if one starts out at the beginning to make the
best of things. On the whole, life in the Islands is not
uncomfortable ; the experience is interesting, the daily
happenings absorbing, and there is a charm about it all
that is indescribable.
Now that the opinion of the writer has been given,
let us turn to the views of others who have been in the
Islands and see how nearly they coincide. The opinion
of a physician,^ who has lived for a long time in the
Orient and who was charged by certain insurance com-
panies in the United States to investigate the health
conditions of the Philippines and their suitability for
occupation by Americans, is that an American of temper-
ate haliits who is about to reside in the Philippines is a
" fair risk." The climate, in his estimation, is salubrious
as compared with other tropical countries;and although
the Islands are subjected to the diseases which are com-
mon to the adjacent districts of Asia, particularly bubonic
plague, Asiatic cholera, beriberi, leprosy, dysentery, and
various malarial fevers,—
epidemics which obey no law
of periodicity,—
yet there is nothing to show that these
may not be avoided by prudent sanitary precautions. In
the opinion of the writer, however, the actuaries of the
1 Robert J. Sloan, M.D.,resident at Shanghai.
PUJJLIC HEALTJL 151
largest insurance companies are not following this phy-
sician's conclusions, as testified by the fact that from
forty to one hundred per cent is charged as an additional
annual premium l)y the majority of these companies.
An observing school-teacher in an interesting account
of the effect upon a person of residence in the Islands
Afteu School, C'oxcepciux
mentions the loss of memory as particularly noticeable,
and this is literally true, as can )je testified from per-
sonal experience; loss of ability to spell is another
effect. It has been the opinion of the writer from the
beginning that the climate was indeed largely responsible
for most of the pessimistic reports sent home to our
papers concerning conditions and doings in the Islands.
152 THE THILIPPINE ISLANDS
Caucasians grow pessimistic and suspicious after a few
years' stay ;and those who do not stand the climate are
apt to become liypersensitive and hypercritical. Yet
discomforts and hardships of pioneer work are what
try men's souls, and those who stick to their ideals
soon accustom themselves to these difficulties and find
great enjoyment in the work because it is of such a novel
and missionary nature. As Commissioner of Education
W. T. Harris has said, "A person that is not always
ready to be born again upon a week's notice has no
business to go abroad and undertake missionary work
in a foreign land."
The effect which the climate has upon moral char-
acter is a question that should properly be left to those
whose interests qualify them to speak with accuracy
upon this matter;and yet it is almost impossible to pass
such a subject without mentioning the unfortunate com-
bination of conditions which makes it so easy for persons
to become heedless of the restraints which they would be
wont to exercise at home and in their recklessness to go
into excesses of different sorts. The distance from home,the climatic influences, the lack of sufficient means of
harmless entertainment, the general freedom and easi-
ness of the life,— all tend to encourage a departure from
that standard which had hitherto been maintained.
The following extract from the first report of the
Taft Commission bearing upon this question of public
health, gives a calm statement of facts officially pre-
sented, and is therefore helpful in understanding these
PUBLIC HEALTH 153
conditions in the Islands. It is perhaps based upon too
short a period of observation.
That health conditions are, on the whole, suprisingly good in
the Philippines is conclusively demonstrated by comparing the
sick reports of our troops while in camp in the United States with
the reports for the time during which they have been engaged in
active service in the Philippines. It is believed by this commis-
sion that no tropical islands in the world enjoy a better climate
than do the Philippines. While this is true, two classes of dis-
eases have to be reckoned with here. These are, first, diseases
common to temperate and tropical countries, and second, dis-
eases especially characteristic of the latter regions. Under the
former head would fall smallpox, cholera, bubonic plague, and
leprosy ;. . . (under the latter) diarrhoea, dysentery, malarial
troubles, and beriberi.
The report later recommends the establishment at Ben-
guet, a province of some five thousand feet elevation in
northern Luzon, of a summer resort for the recuper-
ation of those government officials who from the effects
of the climate become run down. This recommenda-
tion was later realized by an act of the commission mak-
ing this place a summer home for Americans and the
seat of government during the hot months. Benguethas thus become the summer capital of the archipel-
ago and a genuine health resort for those connected
with the government service. The climate, temper-
ate in character, is a delightful change from that of
Manila and vicinity; and the cooler, cloudier atmos-
phere makes outdoor life and exercise possible and
furnishes just that stimulating force which is never
found in the capital. Pine woods and rugged mountain
154 THE PHILIPPINE I8IAN])S
scenery suggest our northern country at liome and pro-
vide excellent opportunities for exercise by walking
and climbing. Baguio is the region chosen for this
resort, and by this time it contains a number of sub-
stantial houses for use during this summer season,
stores with the limited supplies, government buildings,
and, most important of all, a well-equipped sanitarium.
The distance to the nearest point on the railroad con-
necting with Manila is some thirty-five miles, with a
horse trail the only road over the mountains. A gov-
ernment road, however, is in course of construction up
through a river gorge, and although a great deal of
money and time and engineering skill are yet required
before its completion, owing to the almost insuperable
natural difficulties, when it is completed this summer
capital, the Simla of the Philippines, can be reached
in a day's journey from Manila.
The surgeon general of the United States army dif-
fered somewhat from the opinion expressed in the
report of the Taft Commission as to the effect of the
climate upon the health of tlie soldiers. He claimed
that it is enervating to the body and depressing to the
mind, and recommended, therefore, as a measure of
humanity, that the term of service of a soldier be lim-
ited to three years at the most, while two 3'ears he
considered a more prudent maximum term.
An American physician, formerly in the army and
now practicing his profession in the Cagayan valley of
northern Luzon, in a letter concerning the conditions
c
-I"
-r.
UE
O>-!
Pi
Q
O
1.55
156 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
there, urged as one of the foremost needs an improve-
ment in sanitation and hygiene in the various towns.
He mentioned the death rate of four or five persons a
day in a town of not more than four thousand population,
caused by malarial fever, summer complaint, and the like,
in the dry season, and by cold and poor nourishment in
the wet months,— a record that is not extraordinary. It
is unfortunately true that native medical skill in the
provinces is of no very high order, and on this account
the death rate among infants is unnecessarily high.
Owing to the climate of the country, fevers and intes-
tinal disorders are also common, but generally are not
serious, with the exception of dysentery, which has
proved to be a dangerous trouble to foreigners, manyof whom have died from its effects.
Of the most serious epidemics both bubonic plague
and cholera have occurred since the American occupa-
tion, with results that have been exceedingly unfortu-
nate, particularly in the case of the latter. Shortly after
the coming of the Americans the plague broke out in
the city of Manila in certain quarters, where filthy con-
ditions gave the growth of the disease every encourage-
ment. It seized upon the Chinese and lower classes of
Filipinos, and was spread by rats carrying the infection.
A systematic campaign was at once directed against
these creatures and sanitary conditions were improved,
with the result that after a run of something over a
year, in March, 1902, the disease was wiped out with
a comparatively small loss of life.
PUBLIC HEALTH 157
Almost immediately cliolerca appeared, and because of
the awful havoc it made in the archipelago it will longbe remembered. Thetotal number of cases for
the year^ was 123,000,
with over 70,000 deaths,
a mortality of more than
sixty-five per cent. Dur-
ing the awful ravages of
this epidemic work of
the grandest sort was
done by the Americans
in the insular, provincial,
and municipal bureaus
of health in the Islands.
Examples of self-sacrifice
that have seldom been
surpassed were here wit-
nessed and a zeal dis-
played for the welfare
of the natives that has
been rarely equaled.Volunteers came fromall sides to the rescue
of these ignorant people,
and it was due to their^''"^^" ^'''"^^' Coxcepcion
efforts that thousands of lives were saved by enforcingsome of the connnon principles of sanitation, which were
iFrora March to December, 1902.
158 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS
unknown to the natives themselves. The work carried on
was indeed a vahiable object lesson to the Filipinos,—
one, however, that was almost misunderstood at times;
for, as in a cholera outbreak of the past, the foreigners
were accused of poisoning the wells, and the most absurd
tales gained credence among the lower classes, which led
to the concealment of the sick, the escape of the infected,
and the throwing of dead bodies into rivers, the polluted
waters of whicli were fruitful sources of infection.
With such opposition on the part of these people, and
with the hostility of Spanish and native physicians, and
even sometimes of church authorities, the Americans
had to contend in the work; yet by prompt action,
careful study, and strict surveillance of infected dis-
tricts the scourge was finally stayed, and steps were
taken towards preventing permanently its reappearance
on the extensive scale which it had reached.
In general, life in this tropical land may be made
much more comfortable and tolerable by the observance
of a few rules as to dress and conduct, and freedom from
many of the common complaints may thus be enjoyed.
The invigoration of the four- or five-minute shower
bath is a good beginning for withstanding the wearying
and wearing dog-dayish air, and a second shower before
retiring without any strenuous rubbing of the skin is
refreshing and sleep conducing.
As to clothing, the thinnest underclothing, probably
white linen mesh,— a material that is easily permeable
by air and moisture,— should be worn; and next best to
PUBLIC HEALTH 159
this is cotton. Changes should be frequent and strict
cleanliness observed; if comfort is of any account, the
laundry bill should not be considered. All articles which
come in direct contact with the skin should be changed
as often as they become soiled; the sense of cleanli-
ness itself is cooling and tends to a feeling of self-respect.
Washing Clothes in Cagayan Kivek
An abdominal band should be worn to protect the
internal organs in case of sudden changes in the tem-
perature, the material to be the thinnest Jaeger flannel,
and the band to be changed frequently. Thin, white
cotton stockings are the only ones permissible; and
shoes sufficiently large should be thin soled and of can-
vas or other porous material. White, openworked stock-
ings are suitable for women, while children should wear
none,—
simply the heelless sandals now so popular.
160 THE PHILIPPINE ISLAN^DS
The suit should be of white drilling or some similar
material, and the coat should button up, naval fashion,
to the neck and have a low standing collar. Nothing
should be worn over the undershirt, unless possibly a
negligee shirt;
with a nicely laundered cotton suit
cuffs and collars may be omitted. For women the ideal
costume is a low-necked dress of the thinnest white
muslin or organdie, with elbow sleeves, no gloves, and
no hat. No clothing; should be worn which constricts or
unduly confines any part of the l)ody ;there should be
free circulation of the blood and air as well as prompt
evaporation of the perspiration ;thus loose, open-
meshed clothing is best. Belts, waist and skirt bands,
and impermeable corsets are tabooed;lower garments
should be suspended from the shoulders. A loosely
fitting Panama hat without any sweat band is the most
comfortable and is also the most hygienic, for it can l)e
washed frequently.
Little drinking should be done, and if one must drink,
cooled and not iced drinks should be used;
iced tea
and coffee and all alcoholic drinks should be avoided.
If one must have ice, let it be chopped ice;sherbets are
all right, l)ut it is a good rule to keep away from the
soda fountain. During the hottest weather one should
be scrupulously careful of his diet, avoid rich, hearty
foods, and not overeat. Salads, fresh fruits, and eggs
are good foods for this climate.
Exercise should be taken before or after the heat of
the day; and during this time the sun should be avoided.
TUBLIC HEALTH 161
If one is obliged to be out, a pongee silk sun umbrella
with a green lining may be carried.
One should take things easily and not get excited
over trivial matters. As the expression is, the " heat
gets on the nerves," and Httle annoyances are greatly
magnified.
As much sleep as possible should be taken;and
from our Philippine brothers we may well learn that
the afternoon siesta helps in combating the effects of a
hot day. This means for the busy man a short nap of
ten minutes, the beneficial part of which lies in the few
minutes' complete relaxation of the nervous system.
American women in Manila adopt completely the tropi-
cal custom of undressing and going to bed, and are not
expected to receive or make calls until five o'clock.
The wardrobe of every woman should contain at
least one attractive negligee costume so useful and so
common in the East,—the silk kimono of the Japanese
or the neutral-colored sarong of the Javanese. The
housekeeper found in such a costume on a hot after-
noon should not be looked upon as slack or immodest,
but rather as appropriately dressed,— a practice that
runs counter to the ideas of our NeAV England grand-
mothers, but one which comports well with conditions
in the Philippines.
The night clothino; for men should consist of a suit
of pajamas, which ought to be of wool, a material that
in the tropics best protects the wearer from the chilling
of the surface of the body during sleep; but if this is
162 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
objected to in such a climate, they may be made of
Hnen mesh.
If people would only let common sense instead of
petty convention dictate what they should wear and
how they should live, they would find hot weather more
tolerable and themselves and those around them happier;
and such is the principle to be observed es^Decially in
these tropical islands.
CHAPTER VII
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
Without a clear understanding of the physical aspects,
the climate, and the products of the Islands, there can
1)6 no satisfactory treatment of the extent and scope of
Philip2:)ine trade and its future prospects. Like many
tropical countries, with
their beauty, their fertil-
ity, and their innate re-
sources, the Islands maywell symbolize the dia-
mond in the rough. And
yet, admitting the exist-
ence of this great natural
wealth, the staggering
question follows, Is it
available? Will the Native Sailboat
Philippines pay ? is the usual form of the inquiry. This
question we are as yet a long way from answering, but
as a preparation for later discussion of the topic, let us
look into the matter from the standj)oint of commercial
geography.
Certain facts we have already learned,— the distance
from America, the extensive water area within the
16.'^.
164 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
archipelago limits, and the comparatively small amount
of land surface. We know that if we could look down
upon the group we should find the whole made up of
some dozen large islands, each surrounded by numerous
smaller ones, and each of the former traversed byone or more spinelike ranges of mountains. With the
fertility of soil, due to the volcanic origin, we are
acquainted ;if we could examine it closely, we should
find it of a dark, reddish-brown color, composed of dis-
integrated lava mixed with decayed vegetation. Onthe slopes this soil is rendered extremely productive
by the tropical rains, and a heavy luxuriant vegetation
is the result. On the other hand, this rain pom's down
BAxMBOO BllIDGE, MORONG, KlZAL
into the plains and valleys and makes innumerable
rivers, swamps, and lakes;not all regions are equally
favored, nor is the supply uniform throughout the year ;
there are floods and droughts, and until this sm^plus
COMMERCIAL GEOGKAPHY 165
water can be controlled and stored for purposes of irri-
gation loss of crops and famines will result.
The water biiftalo, or carabao, is an animal for which
no substitute can be found for the work in the field and
"^ - ^y^_
i%fta^'-
p*^'^'S^^-^^i'
ftj*. v»
Plowing Rice Paddy
the heavy drays on the road; yet diu-ing the past three
years rinderpest, an epidemic among the cattle, has
destroyed ninety per cent of these strong beasts;and
glanders and surra have taken off the horses. Both
locusts and typhoons have proved disastrous to the
crops ;and plague, cholera, and smallpox have caused
the death of hundreds of thousands of the people. The
tropical climate breeds indolence, hence there is a lack
of willing labor at the outset;while on account of the
climate American labor in the fields is out of the ques-
tion. The great distance of the field of investment
and the unwillingness to invest where Americans can-
not become permanent residents may operate to keep
capital out. Ladrones, or brigands, intimidate the peo-
ple and in interior districts prevent the pursuit of the
166 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
ordinary vocations; and it is difficult to see how this
ladronism can be stamped out completely as long as
those engaged in it can flee to the mountain fastnesses
for refuge. The majority of the towns are on the
coast and often separated by great distances. There is
only one railroad in the archipelago, one hundred and
twenty miles in length, connecting Manila with the
port of Dagupan to the north;
nor do the physical
features of the country invite extension of railway
communication, for numberless streams, which become
torrents in the rainy season, would necessitate the con-
struction of innumerable strong bridges, and tlie cost of
maintenance owing to the ravages of severe rains would
be heavy. Thus trade, although an economic question,
has its geographical aspect.
The question of interisland comnuuiicatiou is a seri-
ous one. The coast line of the Islands, estimated to be
11,444 miles, includes numerous gulfs, bays, and ports
offering excellent anchorage but few good harbors.
Manila itself, with a harbor spacious enough to shelter
the fleets of the world, has urgent need for the improve-ments now nearing completion to insure safety to ves-
sels. Traffic between the islands has been seriously
interrupted l^y the unsettled conditions of the countrydue to the insurrections, and more recently by the quar-antine restrictions placed upon shipping during the
prevalence of cholera. The facilities for this trade are
inadequate and unsatisfactory ; Spanish boats with a
conspicuous lack of cleanliness run irregularly, and
COMMEHCIAL GEOGRAPHY 107
English vessels, again, are not what might reasonably
be expected.
The rivers afford the chief means of transporting
heavy products from the interior to the seaboard. In
Luzon the Cagayan is navigable for a distance of
seventy-five miles by craft of a certain construction,
though the course is greatly impeded l)y fallen timber,
trees, and debris wliich come floating down during
Water Buffalo
the rainy season. The Abra, Agno, Pampanga, and
Pasig are likewise navigable for part of their distance
by smaller craft; and what is true of Luzon is also
the case of each of the other large islands. There are
almost no rivers with clear entrances and channels
sufficient for boats of any size;and until recently no
attempt had been made to improve these water coiu-ses.
Similarly on land there is difficulty in getting about,
owing to the lack of good roads. The so-called general
168 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
highways are little less than impassable in the rainy
season not only by reason of clay, mud, and washouts
but because of the lack of bridges. Once roads are
built it is difficult to keep them in repair ; many excel-
lent ones, however, constructed by the military authori-
ties are now maintained by the provincial officials, and
others are being laid out and bridges built as far as
limited funds will permit. This work has but begun,
and in many places the horse trail is still the only road;
indeed, one of the prime causes of the stationary char-
acter of Filij)ino civilization in its various phases, and of
the marked philological differences, has been this want
of proper ways of interconununication.
Under such conditions the difficulties with which
the postal service throughout the archipelago has been
conducted may be surmised; yet it has been as fully
organized as the facilities permit and is being constantly
extended in response to the demands of business and
administrative interests. A fleet of small vessels recently
built is now at the disposal of the Insular Government,
and is of great bene lit in carrying on the interisland
government Ijusiness, including mail, transportation of
officials and employees, and doing special work for the
various bureaus.
Since the last of August, 1898, the date of the
American occupancy, the signal corps of the army has
constructed some nine thousand miles of telegraph, tele-
phone, and submarine cable lines in the Islands;and thus
a means of prompt communication, and consequently
COMMERCIAL GEOGKAPHV 169
executive control, from the very northern point of
Luzon to Siassi in the extreme south, close to Borneo,
connecting all the important islands except Palawan,
is afforded. In addition to these military telegraph and
cable systems are the lines of the Eastern Extension
and China Telegraph Company, approximating some
six himdred miles in length and joining Luzon, Panay,
Negros, and Cebii. A transpacific cable nearly eight
thousand miles long, from San Francisco by way of
Honolulu and Guam to Manila, has lately been com-
pleted, thus establishing with the home country a direct
connection the importance of Avhich can hardly be
overestimated. The service hitherto by way of Asia,
Europe, and the Atlantic was not only slower and more
expensive but was without our control and hence not
trustworthy in critical moments.
Commercial Products
Turning now to a consideration of the products of
the Islands, we find that Manila hemp, tobacco, sugar,
copra for export, and rice for home consumption are
the staple ones;while coffee, chocolate, corn, and indigo
are also produced in quantities. Sugar was for a long
time the chief article of export, and, indeed, it is related
that much of that used by the Forty-niners of California
Avas the Philippine product; it was later superseded
in importance by the so-called hemp, which became
the principal Philippine product known to the outside
world.
170 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
This fiber, con^ectly speaking, is not hemp at all, and
does not belong to the flax family, but is ol)tained from
a species of the plantain group called abaca.^ Its trunk
and leaves resemble the banana tree so closely that
the two can with difficulty be distinguished by the ordi-
nary person. The body may be pulled apart as easily
as a vegetable stalk, while only an ordinary knife is
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 171
in general the Pacific slopes of tlie Islands are thus
naturally adapted to the plant, and with the expendi-
ture of a minimum amount of labor and care thousands
of tons of the fiber are produced annually in these
regions, while much is to be found growing wild. It is
exported principally to the United States and Englandeither in its raw state or in the form of rope and cord-
age. The annual return to an owaier of an abaca plan-
tation is from twenty -five to thirty per cent ; and tliis
llii.Mi" >.Uakket, Lebu
with the use of such primitive instruments as are now
employed, involving w^aste both of material and of time.
With the advent of a machine invented by American
mechanical genius for accelerating and economizing the
process of preparing this important article of commerce
for the market, an increase in profits and a new era in
the industry wall be realized.
Tobacco is the next best known and characteristic
product, and the quality of the leaf is excelled only by
172 THE rHILIPPINE ISLANDS
that of the Havana plant. Much of it has a disagree-
able, dry, pungent flavor, particularly that used in the
cheaper cigars and cigarettes, a liking for which can be
Rope Making, Manila
only an acquired taste. The people, however, become
acquainted with it at the earliest possible age, and
indeed it is not an altogetlier uncommon sight to see
infants given cigarettes to suck immediately after they
have been fed at the breast. The cheroots smoked by the
poorer classes are of immense size and are passed round
from mouth to mouth in the family group. After each
has had a sufficiency the stump is put aside for future
enjoyment, or, as is sometimes the case among the moun-
tain tribes, it is stuck into the pierced lobe of the ear
like an earring.
As every one is a smoker,— men, women, boys, and
girls,— the home consumption of tobacco is large ; yet
over one hundred million cigars are exported annually
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 173
from Manila, chiefly to China, Japan, the East Indies,
the United Kingdom, Spain, and Australasia. In addi-
tion, some twenty million pounds of leaf tobacco are
exported principally to Spain. Although it growsalmost everywhere in the archipelago, it is only the
tobacco of the hotter climate that possesses an aroma;
that raised in the Cagayan valley is considered the best
quality. As is also true of the hemp industry, tobacco
growing is to a great extent in the hands of foreigners,
who control large areas of the most desirable land.
Another important staple is sugar, which, although
grown in almost every island, has its home just as
Pkimitive Suuak Mill
distinctly in the central islands, particularly in Negros,
as tobacco does in northern Luzon. Yet, due to the
primitive methods w^hich characterize agriculture and
174 THE PHILiPPl.NE ISLANDS
manufactures in the Philippines in general, the prcxluct
is of an inferior quality,—
perhaps the poorest in the
world, whereas the geographical conditions warrant the
belief that the Islands are capable of producing the best.
Yet poor in grade as it is, the five hundred million pounds
produced is nearly all exported ;and in this connection
the fact that the majority of the planters sell the sugar
Tuba (Cocoanut Vine) (iuovE, Majayjay, Laguna
Bamboo poles from tree to tree as bridges
in the crude state well illustrates the natural inertia of
the Filipino, who is generally content to accept the
smaller profit rather than assume the task of refining
the product. As a result there is economic loss in the
transshipment of this heavy watery substance to China
for refinement. As to the yield itself, the fact that in
the Hawaiian islands, where the soil is less productive,
a planter usually obtains seventy-five tons of sugar to
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 175
the acre, whereas in the Philippines he considers half
a ton a fair amonnt, and can make a profit on such a
basis, bespeaks the character of the culture in the latter
islands.
Copra, another com-
mon article of commerce
produced generally, is
the dried meat of the
cocoanut, the fruit of a
species of palm. From
this an oil is extracted,
which is used in a
variety of ways, par-
ticularly for lighting
purposes and in the
manufacture of soaps
and perfumes. The
cocoanut plantations,
which are used almost
exclusively for the copra
trade, require little care
and yield a large return
on the investment.
These four principal
products—
hemp, tobacco, sugar, and copra— consti-
tute over ninety per cent of the entire export trade of
the Islands. Rice, the universal food of all eastern
peoples, which takes the place of In^ead among us, is
produced in large quantities, and yet so insufficiently
Climbing for Tuba
176 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
as to necessitate heavy importations from Asia, makingthis in fact the chief article of import. Coffee, chocolate,
corn, and indigo are also important vegetable products ;
and the conditions in certain parts of the Islands, par-
ticularly the interior of Mindanao, seem favorable for
the production of rubber. In the case of coffee the
jDroduction has fallen off
very much during the
past fifteen years on
account of the inroads
of a destructive insect.
Chocolate and not cof-
fee, however, is the com-
mon morning drink
among the better class
of Filipinos, and the two
h u n d red t h o u s a n d
pounds of cocoa yielded
is consumed at home in
the manufacture of
chocolate. Corn, or maize, is the food of the common
people where the soil is not suited to the cultivation of
rice;and indigo, the last-named article of importance,
although formerly produced in large quantities for ex-
port, has suffered a falling off in demand of late owingto the adulteration of this conmiodity by the Chinese.
The primary source of wealth of the Islands lies in
the aerricidtural lands, whicli cover seventv-three million
acres, only six millions of Avliich, according to present
Tkaxsi'outing Cocoanuts thuougii
Canal near Post Office,IManila
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 177
estimates, are under cultivation. How crude and unsci-
entific are the existing agricultural methods is but too
evident; yet equally clear is the fact that modern
methods of husbandry, such as rotation of crops, pro-
tection from insects, proper fertilization, and irrigation,
would work a wonderful change in the way of increas-
ing the produce per acre, and hence the profits on the
Planting Rice
investment. Nor is this mere speculation, for the intro-
duction of such means both of increasing the yield and
nourishing the soil to prevent exhaustion is very possible;
and, indeed, any improvement over the present condi-
tions in this industry, particularly a restricted immi-
gration of Chinese into the Islands to teach the natives
farming,— a plan which meets with the favor of the
Commission and which should receive every encourage-
ment in spite of the general attitude assumed by us at
home with reference to the entry of these people into
178 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
the United States,— would tend toward realizing greater
returns in this line of work. With the rest of the agri-
cultural land (by far the greater part) then brought
Pounding Rice to draw it from the Husks
under a cultivation based upon these proposed present-
day principles, this great potential wealth would become
real and the industry attain to the position of impor-
tance which it deserves.
Fruits and Flowers
Althougli the necessary conditions—a warm climate,
an al)undancc of tropical sunshine, a plenteous rain-
fall, and a soil highly fertile— all seem to l^e present,
there is nevertheless a conspicuous absence of sweetly
scented flowers and palatable fruits. The bananas,
though they exist in almost endless variety of form.
Ikkigatiag xMalhime, xMuku:ng, Uizal
Hand Irrigation, Morong, Rizal
179
180 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
color, and taste, are, with the possible exception of one
species, the lakatan, not nearly so delicious as the ones
which we buy at home at almost the same price paid
for this best grade in Manila. The pineapple plant,
also common, is cultivated not for its fruit but for the
fiber which is obtained from its leaves and used in the
manufacture of a very fine fabric known as ^J2y7a cloth.
The fruit itself lacks the
exquisite flavor of the
Hawaiian and Cuban
product, and here again,
as in the case of the
banana, is suggestedthe possibility of add-
ing this particularlydesirable quality by
proper cultivation.
Oranges sweeter than
almost any which we
find at home, though
small, might by similar care in cultivation be made lar-
ger and more luscious, and, instead of falling to waste
where they grow wild, become a universally important
product.
Of the few distinctive fruits of the Philippines, the
one perhaps best liked by foreigners is the mango,
yellow in color, oval shaped, and some five or six inches
long, with an agreea1)le flavor and a pleasant odor. The
species found in the Islands is superior to that of Hawaii,
Breadfruit Tree
COMMEKCIAL GEOGKAPHY 181
Java, or the Straits Settlements, in all of which places
it has a commercial value both as a fresh fruit and as a
pickle. The mangosteen, a product of the equatorial
region, is found as an exotic in some of the southern
islands. By the Moros this is called the "king's fruit
"
because it is so highly prized by their sultans;and such
a name is by no means inappropriate, for the fruit is
most delicately flavored and suggests a fruit lemonade.
In appearance it very much resembles an orange except
for the white color of its parts. In addition to these
fruits may be mentioned the chico, about the size of a
peach, with a dark, dry skin and a mealy, edible portion
with a very sweet, pleasant flavor;the lanzon, a kind
of plum ;while various others less commonly known
and less generally used are to be found growing in
different regions of the archipelago.
Timber
Another important asset of material wealth is the
timber land, comprising some fifty million acres, in which
are to be found between six and seven hundred varieties
of hard wood indigenous to the archipelago which are
suitable for the different economic and artistic purposes.
The great drawback to the development of the lumber-
ing industry is not the lack of demand, but the im-
possibility of getting the timber out of the forests on
account of the want of roads, transportation facilities,
and reliable labor, combined with the character of the
distribution of these different woods, by reason of wdiich
182 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
the percentage of the amount of any jDarticiilar A'ariety
for a given area is generally small and oftentimes so
low as not to warrant the expenditure of the necessary
labor. The majority of these Avoods, furthermore, have
a specific gravity greater than that of Avater, and hence
cannot be shipped to market by stream except by raft
or other craft.
The Avoods in most common use are camafjon, often
mistaken for ebony, a dense black Avood, highly valued
for cabinet Avork; el^ony, more intensely black and
denser than camcKjun, very valuable for furniture mak-
ing and also used in the manufacture of gunpoAvder ;
guijo, a durable, strong, tough, and elastic species, used
in the construction of A'ehicles and for flooring ; i2)U,
excellent for buikling purposes and joiners' Avork and
also for railroad ties; inolave, called by the natives
the "queen of Avoods," proof against sea Avorms, AA'hite
ants, and the action of the tropical climate, exceedingly
strong and durable, lasting Avell underground, and highly
valued for various uses; narra, Avrongly called mahog-
any and resembling it, capable of a beautiful polish and
much used in furniture Avork ; 2)alms, tlie most common
class of Avliich is the jpahna hrava, used for rafters,
piles, and telegraph poles ;and calantds, the Philippine
cedar, used for cigar boxes and other light Avork.
<
<T2
183
184 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Mineral Resources
Muck attention, particularly since the American oc-
cu2:)ation, lias been centered upon what has been hailed
as the enormous mineral wealth of the Islands; and yetin the midst of these glowing accounts of the mining
possibilities, it is well to bear in mind the tendencyinherent in human nature to see visionary wealth in
regions as yet unopened, and to contemplate the exist-
ence of initold treasures in virgin fields with such fasci-
nation as to transform imagination into confident belief.
Practically all that has thus far appeared on this subject
is mere speculation, for as yet there is no available
reliable information based upon actual scientific inves-
tigation by Americans, and no evident proof, scientific-
ally speaking, that the Islands do or do not contain
mineral deposits in paying quantities. That the Span-
iards, known to be expert miners, failed to find exten-
sive deposits may not be conclusive evidence that there
are none, and yet may be a sufficient reason for a
feeling of skepticism as to the possibilities.
Gold, silver, and copper unquestionably exist there,—
the writer has seen them mined;and marble has been
quarried to a limited extent. Pearls are to be found in
the Sulu archipelago. Lignite has also been found,
claimed by some to be of excellent quality, while
others say it is so mixed with sulphur as to be prac-
tically useless. According to the report of the mining
bureau, good coal has been found in the provinces
COMMEilCIAL GEOGRAPHY 185
bordering upon the lake of Bay, and the opinion is
expressed by the head of this bureau that the coal
wealth of the archipelago sin-passes that of other
minerals that may be discovered. Such carboniferous
deposits as there are, however, have not been developed
on an extensive scale, and many of the obstacles which
Igorot Gold Mines
prevented successful mining during the Spanish domi-
nation remain at the present time, so that, should rich
veins be discovered, the physical diihculties alone would
preclude any rapid development of them. True it is
that various specimens have been found showing an
encouraging range of deposit ; yet these isolated sam-
ples do not necessarily indicate dynamic mineral wealth,
and until more definite information is to be had a con-
servative attitude is best.
186 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
The \'iLLA(iE Blacksmith
Mechanical Industries
The country, notwithstanding the aptitude of the
people and the abundance of raw material for all kinds
of fabrics, is not a
manufacturing^ one.
Primitive instru-
ments and methods,
moreover, charac-
terize what indus-
tries there are.
Hemp and pine-
apple fiber, cotton,
and silk are used in
weaving, and the clotli is named sinamai/, jjifia, ovjusi,
according as it is made entirely from hemp, from pine-
apple fiber, or wholly
from silk. Coarser
garments, such as
men's shirts and
women's waists and
skirts, are usuallv
made of sinamay ;
the gauzy outerwaist worn by the
women is also gen-
erally of the same
material, though the more expensive pina is sometimes
used; and their more elegant garments are oijicsi.
BuKNiNG Pottery near Pasig, Rizal
Blacksmiths
Milk Peddleks, Manila
187
188 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Bamboo, palm leaves, rattan, and a number of other
vegetable materials are used in \\\o manufacture of
mats, hats, and household furniture. Bamboo, in par-
ticular, seems to have an infinite numljer of uses, for it
not only supplies everything necessary for building
houses and fences, and is employed largely in making
wagons and harness,
household and farm
implements, but also
is used for food, the
bulb when boiled
tasting much like
cabbage. Most of
tlie rope and cordage
is made from Manila
hemp in or near the
capital ;and here
also are the more
prominent cigar and
cigarette factories.
Throug-hout the Is-
lands are numerous
small stills where alcohol is manufactured from the
juice of the nipa palm, and in Manila there is a large
distilling plant and also a brewery.
In each of the large towns are carried on the com-
mon trades, such as carpentering, tinsmithing, metal
working, carriage repairing, and l)lacksmithing, in all
of which, however, with the excejDtion of the last
An Elkven-Yeau-Uld Cuvax Child
Weaving
Water C'auuiers
Vegetable Garden at Jolo
Photograph by G. E. C. Rost
189
190 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
named, the Chinese are more skilled and in greater
demand. Metal molding in a crude way is nnderstood,
even among the natives of 8ulu;and silversmithing is
carried on, particularly by the Ilocanos, a skillful, intel-
ligent people of northern Luzon. Real ability has been
shown in ^V()od carving, of which we shall make men-
tion later in considering the artistic possibilities of these
people. Shipbuilding, too, w^as formerly a successful
industry of considerable extent, but among the natives
to-day it is limited to the construction of small craft.
Fishing
Owing to the great water area, fresh and salt, nearly
every FiUpino is a fisherman, and fish forms one of the
principal articles of food for the people in general ;but
as distinct industries,
marine and fresh-water
fishing are not carried
on extensively. The
local markets are sup-
})lied by those who make
this a regular occupa-
tion, and in the large
seaport toAvns a brisk
business is done byI'lUM.T.vK WAV OK FisHKNM.
^^^^^^ fishcrmen;but at
most this branch is only of local importance, and no such
deep-sea fishing as has for centuries formed the occupa-
tion of multitudes of Chinese near by is carried on.
Fishing
Making Fish Nets, Cavite
192 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Animal Life
The water buffalo, and not the horse or the ox, is
the native beast of burden. Strong but slow and delib-
erate of movement, and easily affected by overwork
or disease, particularly rinderpest, which has recently
wrought such destruction, it is hardly an ideal one;
yet given its necessary daily wallow in some muddycreek, it serves the Filipino well at the dray and the
plow. Buffalo milk is drunk and the flesh of the ani-
mal is eaten by the natives, but this latter is toughand stringy and to Americans unpalatable. Running
bulls, such as are found in India, and undersized horses
are also employed by the natives, but less generally,
and are hardly typical.
Deer and monkeys are found here, and are used for
food. IIoq;s of a black color are to be seen in the streets
of every village, roaming at will and performing the
useful service of scavengers,—
perhaps the only reason
for tolerating them. In spite of then public function,
however, little hesitation is shown in killing, roasting,
and eating them immediately on any festival occasion.
Among the birds the flesh and eggs of which are
eaten are cocks and hens, several species of jungle
fowl, ducks, pigeons, and snipe.
Oysters, clams, shrimp, crabs, and lobsters abound
in the shallow waters. An enormous £2;iant mollusk
is found with shells sometimes six feet in length and
hundreds of pounds in weight, the valves of which
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 193
are often used for baptismal fonts and at times for
making lime;while the translucent valves of certain
smaller mollusks are ground into thin plates and used
extensively in place of window glass. Coral beds, too,
exist in the southern islands, displaying beautiful forms
and colors in the depths below and evidencing the
activity of the
polypi.
Ants are pres-
ent in countless
numbers and va-
rieties, of which
the most de-
structive is the
white ant, or
ternite, w^hich
inflicts great
damage onwooden structures. Bees also inhabit the Islands, par-
ticularly the southern ones;and honey forms an article
of food, and wax one of commerce. Mosquitoes spread-
ing malarial disease and locusts destroying the crops
fairly swarm the land. Myriads of flies and water
bugs, large and small, also exist;and of the reptile,
rodent, and arachnid families are numerous represent-
atives including lizards, scorpions, centipedes, snakes
to a limited extent, spiders of all sizes, but rarely
poisonous, and rats, which have caused damage chiefly
in Manila l)y spreading plague infection.
Blll Cart used ix rKovix'CES
1U4 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Before concludiusi: this consideration of the Islands
from the standpoint of commercial geography, let us
direct our attention to some of the features of the
more important members of the group.
Interest naturally centers on Luzon, on which Manila
is situated. Next to the largest island in the group,
some four hundred miles in length and two liundred
in width, it was the first to be occupied by American
troops, and was the scene of the earliest and most impor-
tant military operations. It is divided into twenty-two
provinces, not including the municipality of Manila, all
under civil government. On account of the location of
the capital in Luzon, the island has been influenced more
than any of the others b}' outside civilizing forces, and
Taking Rick to Market
for the same reason has the largest and most diversified
trade and most of tlic uiore extensive industrial plants.
Outside of Manila, however, tobacco and hemp growingare the principal industries. It is related that when
COMMEKCIAL GEOaiiAPHY 195
Magellan's party first landed on this island they saw a
woman pounding rice in a mortar made from a tree
trunk, just such as is used to-day, and they made signs
Native Carriage, Manila
to her to inquire what she was doing. In reply she
lifted the large wooden pestle and called out "Looson,"
which is the name given by the natives to the whole
instrument; and from this circumstance the Spaniards
named the island Luzon.
Mindoro is the least explored island of all;
it is
very mountainous, thickly wooded, and unpenetrated
by roads. Various traditions envelop this strange place
in a haze of fascinating mystery : wild tribes are said
to be there;white people having all the appearance
of Anglo-Saxons, and supposed to be descendants of
those who were sent out early to form an English
penal settlement, have, according to tlie testimony of
196 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
native priests and military officers, been seen in the
interior;and great mineral wealth was reported to the
Spaniards as lying in the mountains inland, whence
the name, '''mine of gold." Moro pirates formerly rav-
aged the coasts, and later desperate characters from
Luzon and near-by islands made this their resort.
Along the shores there are small towns having rattan
splitting as the chief industry ;and honey, wax, and
Hammocks going to Antipolo, Kizal
tortoise shell are obtained from the neighboring islands,
with Calapan as the trade center.
Masbate, named from a certain species of palm grow-
ing on the island, is traversed and l)roken l^y a semi-
circular mountain chain, and until the appearance of
the rinderpest was the center of a thriving cattle-
raising industry. Timber cutting is now the chief
source of Avealth. The climate here is conspicuously
healthful, the people industrious, and the natural
beauty unsurpassed.
Samar, third in size in the group, is almost a con-
tinuation of southern Luzon. Nearlv all llio towns are
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 197
on the coast or along the main streams navigable for
native craft. The interior is rough and wild, uninviting,
and sparsely settled by mountain peoi^les. Hemp is the
principal product.
Leyte, separated from Samar by a narrow strait, is
very similar to the latter in pliysical character and
resources, and is likewise devoted chiefly to hemp pro-
ducing, though much sulphur, supplying the powder
Native Transportation
mills in Manila under the Spanish rule, was obtained
here. In sjDite of the general mountainous character it
is one of the best cultivated islands in the archipelago.
Here it was that Villalobos landed in 1543 and named
the place Filij^ina, which name was later extended to
the entire group.
Panay is mainly interesting because on it is situated
Iloilo, next to Manila the most important commercial
center in the Islands. It is one of the more prosperous
198 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
of the group, with fertile soil, good means of communi-
cation with the interior towns, and contented people.
Hemp and sugar in general and various textiles from
silk, pineapple, and hemp fiber, such -dsjus 1,2^0^(1,and sina-
may manufactured in and near Iloilo, are the products.
Negros, almost separated into two different islands
by its dividing chain of mountains, is the home of the
sugar industry. The
soil is particularly
fertile, the people are
in comfortable cir-
cumstances, and al-
most no disturbances
have been known.
Here may be seen the
genuine hdciendas or
plantations, and their
owners, the prop-
ertied class.
Cebu became early known to foreigners as a trading
center, and the city itself, next in importance to Manila
and Iloilo, has from the earliest times enjoyed an inde-
pendent trade with Asiatic and European ports ;and
this intercourse has had the effect of elevating: the
island, particularly that portion in the vicinity of the
capital, to a higher stage of civilization tlian that of its
neighbors. The mountainous interior, however, is not
yet properly opened up by the necessary roads, makingcommunication from coast to coast possible.
COMMEKCIAL CJEUGKAPHY iUU
Boliol is one of the most iminterestiug islands of all.
Its soil is comparatively han-en, the timber resources
are limited, and many of the towns inifortunately were
razed dnring the war. The interior is rocky and diffi-
cult of access, and the people have been turbulent.
Palawan, long and narrow^, lying to the far south-
west, is the most inaccessible of the larger islands.
Spanish authority w^as recognized only along the coast,
but never affected the savage tribes of the interior;
and as yet American dominion has penetrated little
farther. The people are partly Mohammedan, mostly
heathen, and are far removed from the state of civiliza-
tion. Honey and wax are here produced in quantities.
Mindanao, the name signifying" the peoples of the
lake," occupies the southeastern corner of the arcliipel-
ago, and is the largest in the group. The climate is more
equable and healthful than that of Luzon and, unlike
the latter, it is not exposed to the typhoons. Mountain
chains attaining great height traverse the island, and
forests largely unexplored and full of animal life
cover a great portion of it. The lake region of the
interior, practically none of which was imder Spanish
control, is now accessible from the northei'n coast by
military roads, and the Mohammedan inhabitants are for
the first time making the acquaintance of an outside
power.
All the common products of the archipelago are
raised here, and in addition certain of the spices in-
digenous to the East Indies.
200 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
The Sulii archipelago, lying to the southeast of Min-
danao, though ceded with the Philippines, forms a dis-
tinct group of islands, smaller in size than the ones
we have been considering. The inhabitants are Mo-
hammedans, ruled by dattos, with the sultan at their
head, and have tastes, habits, and interests in common
rather with the Bornese and East Indians than with
the Filipinos.
Finally, it would be impossible to leave the present
subject without just a word regarding the commercial
position of the Islands with reference to the great
oriental world, and the significance in this connection
of tlie Isthmian Canal, soon to wield an influence in the
field of international trade. More than half the peoples
of the earth live in the countries which are within easy
reach from the Philippines : China, with its four hun-
dred millions or more of people; the East Indies, with
over three hundred and forty millions; Japan, forty-two
millions; Australasia, five millions; Siani, nine millions;
and the Straits Settlements, one million; making a total
population ten times that of the United States. That
our possessions there w^ill become a base for commercial
operations in the Far East is only a conjecture ; yet there
are those who see in Manila a second Hongkong,—a
great mart for the supply of the earth's products to the
millions of this vast Orient. With the capacity of the
home markets long since reached, where competition
has become almost stifling, trade has already sought
other fields;and among them this oriental one, with
COMMEliCiAL GEOGRAPHY 201
a demand for goods that seems unlimited, is tlie fairest.
It is but beginning to open up, and as its extent and
the various wants of these nniltitudes of human beings
are being revealed, the assurance comes that for ages
hence here will be the great center for commercial
activity, the scene of future trade conflicts, the objec-
tive point in the nations' race for wealth. And here
are the Philippines, an entrance, as it were, to this
tempting field, brought nearer to the home country by
the intercontinental canal, which thus will lend active
aid in gaining control of the field itself. The possibili-
ties are great ;time will determine the results.
-]
f.
202
CHAPTER VIII
MANILA
Manila, formerly Maynila, or Bush Town, as the name
signifies, the Nuremberg of the Orient, with but few
equals anywhere for quaintness, owes its foundation to
Legaspi, who on his northern expedition in 1571 took
PuERTA Real, Walls of Manila
the ancient town at the mouth of the Pasig and, divid-
ing the land among his Spanish followers, set in opera-
tion plans for a well-laid-out city. Streets were cut and
houses constructed in squares, and a park was reserved
203
204 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
in the midst of these, flanked by the cathedral church
on one side and mnnicipal buildings on the other. Later
by some twenty years walls were built round the city
with drawbridge entrances;and in 1654 the cathedral,
now venerable, was begun.
Philip II had made the city the cajDital of the archi-
pelago, and its splendor soon won for it the name of
Pearl of the Orient.
Early writers de-
scribe it as beauti-
fully laid out and
built, indeed the
first city of the
East. It is cause
for regret that it
did not continue upto the present time
in this ancient
form;as we know,
the earthquake of
1645 wroug-lit such
destruction as to
discourage any ef-
forts toward reconstructing on the same scale as for-
merly, and the city which Americans found on their
arrival six years ago was the result.
Excellent judgment was shown by the early settlers
in selecting the site of the capital, for the position is
remarkably good commercially and strategically, with
Sentry Box inside Walls
MANILA 205
the sea on one side, inclosed by a harbor some thirty
miles across, protected by a fortified promontory at the
outlet, the river flowing through the center of the
city, furnishing with its innumerable tributaries every
facility for water transportation. Direct communication
is also thus afforded to Laguna bay and the numerous
towns along the shores in this fertile region of central
Stkeet in Walled City
Luzon; and other streams emptying into Manila bay,
available for lighter craft, make it easily possible to
bring the product of the surrounding country into the
capital.
The location was less fortunate, however, from the
standpoint of climate, for, just at sea level, the city was
constantly subjected to the intense heat of a tropical sun,
which, with so much water near by, caused a high degree
of humidity and thus furnished conditions favorable for
206 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Lighthouse at Entrance of Pasig lli\ i:k on Manila Bay
the contraction of fevers and in general encouraged
the spread of diseases peculiar to such countries.
Manila to-day, with its cosmopolitan population num-
bering some two hundred and seventy-five thousand,
made up of Filipinos, Chinese, Americans, Spanish, Ger-
mans, British, Japanese, French, Portuguese, Indians,
.^M
MANILA 207
and many other peoples in small numbers, is a crowded
oriental city, unprepossessing, conspicuously barren of
the luxuriant tropical vegetation so noticeable elsewhere,
even just outside the city, at first most interesting for
its novelty and afterwards equally tiresome because of
its monotony. Low-lying and bounded by a range of
mountains in the back-
ground which makes it
appear even smaller, it
fails to impress the new-
comer, and not until he
has left the steamer and
traveled up the Pasig
to the landing point is
he able to make out the
real city and its activ-
ities. And then he be-
gins to form impressions
and simultaneously to
wipe off a rapidlyaccumulating flow of perspiration, which seems to have
an abundant source and increases in volume with every
step he takes under the burning sun in his search for
some means of conveyance from the water front to the
hotel. Filipinos and Chinese in the employment of our
government are seen in numbers round the custom-
house and other buildings along the river; others again,
mainly Chinese, hurry along in the broiling sun carrying
burdens suspended from a piece of bamboo placed across
Window in Walled City
208 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
the shoulder;native women with infants galore squat
round selling cigarettes, fried grasshoppers, and cakes,
or await their laboring husbands, who are ever ready to
postpone work awhile for a smoke talk;and occasion-
ally native vehicle drivers are to be seen, indifferent to
the new arrival's need
of some means of trans-
portation, and perhaps
asleep in their box, for
it is still liot. Finally
he reaches the hotel, or
if not this, then unfor-
tunately some one of
the numerous Spanish-
Filipino institutions in
the city which go by the
same name, but are sad-
looking competitors for
such a designation, as
the general interior ap-
pearance, absence of the
little things that are no
longer considered luxuries here at home, and the species
and quality of the food served soon testify.
After a stopping place has been found and, if imme-
diately possi])lo, a change of linen and abandonment
of woolen clothes accomplished, the impression making
may continue. The sun has lowered in its course and,
no longer scorching, is settling over Mariveles across
Washing Cloth ks near BridgeOF Spain
<
3
a
209
!210 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
the bay and preparing one of the most beautiful siglits
imaginable as it sinks behind this rugged mountain,
casting long beams across the broad harbor and bathing
clouds and ships and church spires in a golden brilliancy.
The air has become pleasantly cool, and crowds riding,
driving, and promenading fill the Luneta, where a con-
cert is going on. The white costumes of natives and
Luneta
foreigners, so pleasing in effect, the vivacity of this cos-
mopolitan set, the sweetness of the music, the cooling
air, the beauty of this tropical sunset,— all together
combine to satisfy again the mind that was becomingdiscontented.
By this time the general character of the city and
its contents has been perceived,— the division into sepa-
rate districts or wards; the queer old section within the
walls surrounded by a disease-generating moat and itself
211
212 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
known as Manila;the more recent business portions
on the opposite bank of tlie Pasig, where foreigners
have their establishments ; Chinatown, a typical Chi-
nese neighborhood; the narrow, crowded streets and
the low, strangely bnilt houses, with stables below and
a second story projecting over a bit of sidewalk ; the
number of creeks or esteros forming a network of
canals throng! i the city ;the public markets ;
the differ-
ent types of people with such variegated costumes;the
little horses and the deliberate water buffaloes; and, per-
vading all, the constant chatter of the natives in their
guttural Tagalog dialect, with nn added bit of English
here, German there, or Spanish in another place.
Americans who live in cities which have water sup-
plies, systeuis of sewerage, gas and electricity, street
railways, well-paved streets, fire and police departments,
and public libraries can hardly imagine the elementarycondition of the cities of the Pliilippines. Manila alone
has a water sup})ly, an electric-light plant, a street rail-
way, and a telephone system; and these are primitive
and incomplete. The capital was the fu-st to reap the
benefits of the new government, and consequently had
some of its most urgeut needs attended to almost im-
mediately. Foreuiost among tlie improvements were a
well-organized department of sanitation, which has done
an immense amount of good ;a ])olice department ;
a munici})al ice plant,— a veritable blessing; and a
hospital. Yet much remains that has not yet been
accomplished; the cleansing process must be continued
*«^HR^ET^
214 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
in order to reduce to a minimum the chances of such
serious outbreaks of cholera, bubonic plague, and small-
pox as have occurred in the past; means of transpor-
tation must be extended, though this need does not
demand iunnediate attention now that an electric-car
line has been put into operation,— a great improve-
ment over conditions a short time ago, when it was
practically impossible to secure a vehicle when one was
most needed; and, in general, streets remain to be
improved and various portions of the city to be beau-
tified by parks and tropical vegetation, which needs
little encouragement and which improves these island
cities so wonderfully, as any one who has visited beau-
tiful Honolulu can testify.
The increasing number of Americans is already so
large and their energy and enterprise so dominant that
there is no large city in the East which has undergoneso complete a change. Three years ago the lack of
luxuriant tropical vegetation ;the dirty, narrow, poorly
paved streets;the inferior artificial light ;
the miserably
equipped car line, patronized only by natives of the
poorer classes ;the groups of nipa shacks, more primitive
as a dwelling than the worst American shanty; the
narrow Escolta, the main business street; the sultry
climate;the mixed currency ;
the inability to speak the
language ;the difficulty in finding goods, both clothing
and food, which you especially wanted; the long dis-
tances;the high hotel expenses ;
the scarcity of public
conveyances,— all combined to make the first impressions
215
216 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
of the newcomer hardly of the most pleasant sort.
But conditions have changed much even within this
short space of time, and the city is becoming more and
more American or, in other words, up to date.
Attractions are not by any means entirely lacking in
this city of novelty, as we have already seen; there is
the charm of a tropical climate, which may be called its
open-airness,— one is somehow a little nearer to nature.
Common House Lizard
The evenings at sunset, when the day's enjoyment
begins, are almost always cool, and the nights comfort-
able;
the freedom of the life is delightful. A cold
shower bath in the morning after a solid night of sleep,
and the donning of an immaculate white costume start
the day well;a siesta during the hot early afternoon
adds to the comfort. Cockroaches may devour your
books and clothes, ants your furniture, lizards and
spiders keep you company at night, mice and rats in
the roof hold regular sessions, and mosquitoes get
under your netting, and yet you almost forget it all in
MANILA 217
thinking of the pleasures and gazing at the blue sky
overhead, the rich sunsets across the placid waters of
the bay lighting up the mountains on every side, and
the snowy, white-robed throngs taking their drives and
walks before a late dinner.
Tm^ning to matters more j)i"actical, to one taking
up residence in Manila the house question is the most
House of an American Resident in Manila
difficult to solve; even a fairly good house is hard to
find. Rents are high, varying from fifty to one hundred
and fifty dollars a month; sanitary arrangements are
poor, and nearly every American must spend some fifty
or a hundred dollars in putting the house into proper
condition. If anything better than kerosene lamps is
desired, electric lights or an acetylene-gas plant must
218 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS
be put in by the tenant. Servants, again, are a source
of concern, for while the Filipinos are sometimes good,
they are often incompetent and unreliable. A larger
number is needed than at home, and then the total
cost of domestic service is much higher. Wages in the
capital for native boys vary from four to ten dollars a
tetsPENSioN Bridge over Pasig River
month, and two or three of these are required. Filipino
cooks are unsatisfactory, and a Chinaman, who demands
from fifteen to twenty-five dollars, becomes a necessity.
Laundry is sent out, and even though an exceptionally
good bargain has been struck, this becomes a material
item of household expense. In general, there is no
system of registering servants, and with the constant
change taking place in the American population, the
authors of the letters of reference cannot well be con-
sulted;hence there is no means of tell nig whether or
not the bearer of the recommendation is the oritrinal
person for whom it was intended. After the servants
are finally hired petty thefts and unannounced depar-
tures are to be expected.
On accoinit of the deplorable lack of any proper and
sufficient means of daily transportation until within
MANILA 219
the last few months, when a modern electric railway
connecting the business and office districts with a part
of the residence portion was started, it has been prac-
tically necessary for every family to own at least one
horse and some kind of a carriage. For their care
a hostler-coachman is needed, who, knowing nothingabout the proper care of horses and little more aljout
driving, is paid from eight to twelve dollars a month.
Many a person, annoyed and worried because of the vex-
atious delays in getting a public conveyance, has thoughtthe transportation question settled by providing him-
self with a rig. But he is mistaken; his troubles have
only begun. The ponies are not bardy, there is a great
deal of sickness among them, and every season glan-
ders, surra, and other diseases carry them off by the
Cascoes used in unloading Vessels in Manila Harbor
hundreds. They are expensive to keep, too;in fact, it
costs as much to feed one of these ponies as it does to
board an American horse at a private livery staljle in
New York City. Australian fodder, or American, whenit can be had, is better than the native food, which
220 THE PHILIPPI^s^E ISLANDS
consists of grass,— a valiial)le commodity in the Pliilij>
pines,— nnlmsked and powdered rice, and molasses.
Harnesses are cliea}), l)ut lack durability; the climate
rots the leather and they are always getting out of
order. Carriages, too, are cheap in the first instance,
1)ut dear in the end, for they are poorly constructed
and always in need of repair. Every piece of wood in
them is wrenched one way in the dry season and the
other way in the
wet season; indeed,
one season of wet
weather, aided bythe rough roads, will
age a carriage ten
years according to
home standards.
Meats and gro-
ceries are high and
of inferior quality;
at times, indeed,
it is impossiljle to procure certain articles, owing to
irregular shipments and other causes;while the supply
of meat, which comes from Australia in cold storage,
is very much interrupted during the typhoon season.
The housekeeper is, in fact, kept busy from morningto niglit in looking after her servants, doing errands, and
making purchases.
Manila, socially, is very gay. There are club and offi-
cial receptions, dinners, theater parties, launch parties,
ESCOLTA BrIDGK AND CaNAL, MaNILA
MANILA 221
either on the bay or up the Pasig river, dances, concerts,
and horse races. Among the ckibs are the Army and
Navy, the University, the American, and the English,
and there are various native, Spanish, and American
theaters. Athletic sports, which the British provide
A Manila Canal
for themselves wherever they go, are, how^ever, not
popular with the Americans in the Islands,— a fact
that is to be regretted, for regular exercise of a light
character is one of the requisites of good health in
the tropics.
There are some eight or ten American and Spanish
newspapers, but difficulty is met with in getting together
222 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
sufficient news to fill their columns. Papers and maga-
zines from the States are a month old when they reach
Manila, and yet in spite of this fact their arrival is
always an important event.
Americans and Filipinos meet at receptions and ex-
change calls, but there is no intimate social relation
between them; unavaihng efforts have been made to
bring them nearer together. Many of the richer Fili-
pinos live in handsome villas and entertain lavishly.
One is always perfectly welcome at whatever house he
enters and is urgently invited to partake of everything
the house affords;and this is not only true at times of
marriage and on feast days, but in fact on every occa-
sion that presents itself. The tables are loaded with
cold meats, all kinds of pastry, preserves, confectionery,
and everything to drink, while entertainment is fur-
nished by the harp or piano, with dancing. In both
Manila and the provinces the writer has found these
people to be tlie most liospitable lie has ever met;
they are extremely free, open-hearted, and cordial, and
it seems as if they cannot do enougli for their guests.
Lazy, sleepy, and mediiijval are some of the epithets
applied to Manila by those who described the place pre-
vious to the coming of the Americans, and the monotonyof the business and social life was constantly pointed
out. Now, however, strenuous, wide-awake, and modern
are more applical)le terms for describing it. As one
clever American put it, Manila to-day is the oldest new
town and the newest old town in the Orient.
MANILA 223
The influx of Americans has raised the cost of every-
thing ;what was thought to be a momentary sudden
excess of demand over supply in the matter of food
products, houses, and servants has continued up to the
present time;and the high standard of American living,
even of those of moderate means, has astonished Euro-
peans themselves. The American lavishness, in fact,
Paco Cemetery
has already had the effect of raising prices throughout
the eastern world, and American extravagance has
become a byword.
The capital and its vicinity are not without their
points of interest, chief among which is Paco ceme-
tery,— a place of most singular construction, in the
form of a double circle. Between the outer and the
inner circles there is a space left for the poor, who in
224 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLA:N^DS
Spanish times were interred without coffins. In the
thick, sohd walls there are three parallel rows of hori-
zontal recesses or niches, each capable of admitting a
good-sized coffin, and here are deposited the bodies of
those whose relatives are al^le to pay. After the funeral
ceremonies and interment in one of these spaces the
entrance is iDricked up and a plate fixed outside stating
the name and age of the lonely occupant. He is thus
left undisturbed for a period of years, at the expira-
tion of which time the bones of the deceased are either
Ijuried in one of the churches or else taken from the coffin
and thrown upon a bone pile in the rear of the cemetery.
The monuments which the Spaniards have erected
throughout the city are hardly remarkable and, archi-
tecturally, are deserving of little attention. The most
imposing structure in the city, if it must be confessed,
is the government ice plant, which, although not a
thing of particular beauty, is a real blessing.
Among the things peculiar to Manila which are
observed on a grand scale are the church processions.
The rites and ceremonies of the Roman Catholic
church affect tlie Filipino powerfully, and these pro-
cessions, suggestive of the time of the Crusades, are
oljjects of the greatest interest and reverence for the
natives. In the late holiday afternoons these may be
seen passing through the streets with all their 2:)omp,— tlieir large crosses, torchbearers in long rows, musi-
cians, and images of the different saints and of the
Virgin with the infant Jesus, all dressed in beautiful
MANILA 225
robes and glittering tinsel. Tratfic is stopped, and the
whole population turns out to witness the event. Natives
of every class take part, and girls and women with
lighted candles march along to the peculiar, slow,
solemn music. After a series of ten or more gorgeously
arrayed images come the priests, bringing up the rear.
Houses all along the route are
brilliantly illuminated and
decorated, and the atmosphereis a distinctly religious one.
The spectacle is indeed im-
pressive, and the whole pro-
ceeding appeals deeply to the
people.
Previous to the coming of
the Americans no Protestant
missionary was allowed to set
foot in the Philippines, nor,
if known, was a Protestant
Bible permitted to enter.
Since that time several
churches have been started by the Episcopalians, Meth-
odists, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Christian Scientists
in Manila;and an active branch of the Young Men's
Christian Association, the work of which is deserving
of high praise, has been established. The prospects as
to this Protestant church work, however, are not ^-ery
encouraging.^1 Chapter on Superstitions and Religion.
Spkcimk.n of Wood CarvingIN Sr. Paterno's Home
Done by a Filipino
226 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Finally, a word must be said as to the governmentof Manila, which is very similar to that of the District
of Colmnbia. There is a nmnicipal board consisting of
three commissioners,— the president, a Filipino at a
salary of five thousand dollars a year, and two Amer-
icans at forty-five hundred dollars each. There is also
a well-organized police force;an efficient board of
health, which did splendid work in the city during the
ravages of the plague and cholera by maintaining a
careful inspection of the food and improving distinctly
the sanitary conditions in the poorer quarters of the
city; a board of public works that has bettered the
streets and the surface drainage and beautified the city ;
a fire department efficiently organized ;several good
hospitals and a jail, both of which have been radically
improved by the municipal authorities. The city as a
whole is undergoing a change for the better, partic-
ularly in its living conditions, and the near future will
find it as purely American as it is possible to make
such an eastern tropical place.
Jjjjiikfj- tin*
MjJtn^
PaSIG KlVKU
CHAPTER IX
PEOPLE
The Philippine archipelago forms an ethnic mnsemn,in which we can study the human race in its manifold
forms. Already a hint has been given of the widely
diverse conditions to which the Spaniards had to adapt
their administration and their laws; they were obliged
to deal with Malay character more or less in its pure
form, w^hile we Americans have to do with this same
character Latinized. From these diverse families— Ne-
gritos, Malayans, and possibly Indonesians— the popu-
lation of the Philippines has been composed. The first
attempts toward civilizing them fell to the Spaniards,
and although unfortunately the Spaniards have left
very few written records concerning the conditions in
which they found the natives, we have been able to
see in our consideration of the earlier history of the
Islands that an important w^ork indeed must have been
accomplished by these Spanish tutors in lifting the
greater part of such a conglomerate population to the
position in which we found them six years ago. Weknow that most of the natives, under the direction of
their rulers, advanced from a state of comparative bar-
barity to one of at least semicivilization;that they
227
228 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
gained many new ideas and learned various industries
from the Spaniards; and became in large part Chris-
tianized. Thus we know that the j^eoples with which
we became acquainted a few years ago are in quite a
different stage of development from their aboriginal
ancestors. Just what these former peoples were is a
fascinating subject for speculation to the person who
is interested in anthropology, and it is to be regretted
that not for some time to come— until the sciences of
comparative philology and ethnology have had an op-
portunity to throw light upon these early times and con-
ditions in the PhilijDpines— shall we be able to satisfy
a very lively curiosity. With the restoration of peace
and the establishment of civil government throughoutthe Islands, these studies will surely be taken up byAmerican scholars, and a most fruitful field for inves-
tigation be thrown open. Many historical data, which
^vill undoubtedh' be of aid in any such investigation,
still remain hidden away in churches, monasteries, and
official archives in both the Philippines and Spain. The
paramount position which the church representatives
won in the Philippines, their influence upon the native
race, and their social, religious, and semipolitical organ-
ization of this tropical people furnish a unique subject
for historical research. The practical importance, more-
over, of a thorough scientific study of the Filipino race
— their phj^sical characteristics, their manners, customs,
laws, and languages— is not hard to see, for there can
Ethnological Map
229
230 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
be no doubt that an understanding of the ideas and
modes of thought of an aUen people in a relatively
low stage of civilization facilitates very considerably
the task of cpoverning; them.
The earliest information concerning the population
of the Philippines is for the 3^ear 1735, when the vari-
ous religious orders reported a total of 837,182 souls
under their jurisdiction. At the beginning of the nine-
teenth century the compilation made from the tax rolls
for the tribute showed a population of about two mil-
lion; and this, by the year 1840, had increased to three
million. During the Spanish rule there were two sources
which were almost always available for the purf)ose of
ascertaining with sufficient accuracy for all practical
purposes the number of inhabitants in the towns recog-
nizing the Spanish sovereignty. These were the assess-
ment lists and the parochial records. Independently of
these two regular means, the Spanish government took
an official census in 1887, the results of which showed
a j)opulation just under six million. Another official
census was started some nine years later, but the insur-
rection of 1896 interrupted it, and on this account it
was never completed, and the results, such as they were,
were not compiled. Thus at the time of the coming of
the Americans only very unsatisfactory data in regardto the number of people and their general characteristics
were available. The following is a comment upon the
conditions previous to the American occupation, byProfessor Carl C. Plehn of the University of California,
PEOPLE 231
who held the position of chief statistician for one year,
190U-1001, with the government at Manila. He says :
The most striking feature of these tables is the slow growththat is indicated. With a death rate which in normal years •—that is, in years not attended by some epidemic or other disaster
affecting the whole community— is between 30 and 35 per 1000,
and a birth rate of over 50 per 1000, the increase which mightbe expected is much greater than appears. The fact is that
the growth of the population has been restrained by violent
epidemics of the most sweeping character. A single epidemicof smallpox, cholera, plague, influenza, and other diseases will
easily sweep away the natural growth for several years. Thus
in 1879 the death rate is reported as 106.3 per 1000 against a
birth rate of 43.4 per 1000, while in 1890, which may be taken
as a fairly normal year, the death rate was 33.7 and the birth
rate 56.4.
As a basis of representation and also of election the
act of Congress, approved July 1, 1902, establishing a
government for the Philippines, required a census of
the population to be taken, the returns of which have
recently been compiled. These show a population of
7,572,199 and contain a large amount of exceedingly
valuable information concerning the different tribes
and their characteristics.
Fully five sixths of the inhabitants of the Islands are
of Malayan extraction and speak dialects of a Malayan
linguistic basis. These are the people to whom the term
Filipinos is popularly applied. The Spanish government
officially recognized thirty-five different languages in the
archipelago, and Blumentritt, in arranging a scheme
232 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
for the Malayan population alone, the so-called Fili-
pinos, divided it into fifty-one linguistic groups.
The Philippine archipelago has few large towns and
no great manufacturing centers. It is almost entirely
a rural country, and many of the so-called towns are
mere groups of villages. The town proper, o'c iniehlo, is
sometimes very small, with only fifty or sixty houses;
the rest of the town, made up of harrios, may spread
over a much larger area. The term municipality often
means in the Philippines a collection of small villages
or hamlets for the jDurpose of local government; and
the puehlo, or the village selected as the seat of this
local administration, gives its name to the municipality.
The Philippines as a whole might support a population
much denser than its present one of fifty persons to a
square mile. If the struggle for existence is now some-
times hard, it is rather from lack of proper means of
irrigation than from want of sufficient area of produc-
tive land. With a little more energy and with somewhat
improved methods of agriculture, the country would
yield much more than just enough food for its inhabit-
ants;and with better sanitary arrangements about the
home and a little knowledge of and obedience to ele-
mentary rules of health, the yearly work of disease
and death might be materially checked. The Ijirth rate
is very high, but at the present time the death rate is
still higher; and the statement that has been made to
the effect that, eliminating all the deaths from cholera,
beriberi, and the plague, the death rate in Manila is
PEOPLE 233
three times as large as in Boston is significant, and
indeed holds trne for the provinces as well. In no part
of the Philippines are there more people than the land
can feed, Ijut on the contrary there are vast tracts of
fertile soil, snperior to much of that which is nowunder cultivation, that are untouched. The native,
however, is immobile, and this explains the absence of
people in many of these productive regions. Railroads,
good roads, and other means of communication into the
interior and across the mountains are needed to 023en
up the coiuitry, and before these are supplied no great
activity in the way of settling many of these interior
sections can be expected.
A very brief summary of the ethnological elements
which compose the population has already l^een givenin connection with the history of the Islands. The
Spaniards, as we know, divided the Filipinos into
Christians, heathens, and Mohammedans; the Ameri-
can government has adopted the term non-Christian to
designate the pagan and Mohammedan triljes in distinc-
tion from the Christian Filipinos dwelling in organized
provinces and towns. We have seen that the great
racial divisions of the people are the Negrito, the
Malayan, and probably the Indonesian;and of these
the Spaniards, in their classification, termed the first
and third heathen, and the second they divided into the
two branches of Christian Malays and Mohammedan
Malays. The Americans, when they arrived, adopted
the division of Christian Malays made by the Spaniards
234 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
and used the term non-Christian to designate all the
other inhaljitants, and such is its significance to-day. In
our discussion we shall deal first with the non-Christian
and then with the Christian tribes.
The pagan and Mohammedan tribes, or, as we have
nowadopted the nomenclature, the non-Christian peoples,
are found in Luzon, Mindoro, Panay, Palawan, Negros,
Mindanao, and possibly in Samar. The areas inhabited
by them embrace hardly less than one half of the entire
archipelago, and their numl)ers range between one and
two millions. As has been said bv one of the commis-
sioners,^ who speaks from experience,'' there is a lamen-
table lack of information in regard to them upon which
to base intelligent legislation." Their presence and the
existence among them of head hunting, slavery, polyg-
amy, and other objectionable practices created serious
problems for the Insular Government. With a view
to investigating their actual conditions and conducting
scientific investigation, a bureau of ethnological survey
was established during the latter part of 1901, and this
work is now progressing. The classification of these
tril)es and some of the data to be presented here are
based upon the work that has already been accomplished
by this bureau.
According to the information which it has secured,
the tribes are classified as follows.
1. The Negritos, or little negroes, called the abo-
rigmes.
1 Professor Worcester.
'li
O
'A
O•A
"A
235
236 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
2. The great Igorot trijjes of northern Luzon, a power-
ful and very numerous people numbering some seventy
thousand in Lej)anto-Bontoc alone. They are the most
experienced agriculturists in the Islands, and have con-
structed wonderful terraces and irrigation works;their
towns, too, are strong and com^^act. Head hunting
among them is a practice which still holds with the
force of an ancient custom.
3. The primitive tribes, some of which have a mix-
ture of Negrito blood, are all of a very low grade of
culture, including the Manguianes of Mindoro and the
Tagbaniias and Bataks of Palawan. In spite of their
low degree of civilization in general, these people con-
tinue to use ancient syllabic written characters which
suggest at least some culture.
4. A few small remnants of a more primitive Malayan
population than the present Christian Filipinos, like the
Igorots on Mount Isarog, the Buquidnones in the inte-
rior of Negros and Panay, and the Monteses, mountain
dwellers, sometimes called Remontados, a term applied
to natives who give up their civilized mode of life and
return to the mountain recesses ao;ain. In this class
are also included the primitive tribes of the interior of
Mindanao,— the Subanos in the w^est, the Montescos
further east, on the north coast, the Tirurays and Mano-
bos on the south, and the group of jDossible Indonesian
tribes on the gulf of Davao.
5. The Mohammedan tribes, or Moros, which fall
into several groups: the Maguindanaos in the valley of
PEOPLE 237
the Rio Grande; the Laiiaos around lake Lanao, where
trouhle still exists; the I llanos westward along the
coast from Malabang to the great peninsula of Zambo-
anga ;the Sulus of the Jolo and Siassi groups ;
the
Samals scattered along the Zamboanga coast and about
the islands of Basilan, Siassi group, and Tawi Tawi;
and the Bajans, or
sea gypsies, who are
born and die on their
boats, and shift
about in the archi-
pelago in little fleets
with the chano-inQ:
of the prevailingwinds.
This fivefold divi-
sion of the non-
Christian tribes is a
purely tentative one,
and it is almost cer-
tain that the differ-
ent peoples shade off from each other into a much
larger number of classes.
There are seven important Christian tribes, which are
classified in the order of their size.
1. The Visayans, who inhabit the islands named
after them in the central part of the archipelago, besides
the northern and eastern coasts of Mindanao. At the
time of the discovery of the islands they were in the
Negrito Boy
238 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
habit of pcaintiiig their bodies, and on this account
received from the Spaniards the name of Pintados,
which stuck to them down to the eighteenth century.
2. The well-known Tagitlogs, who inhabit Manila
and central Luzon and present the highest develop-
ment of the Malayan race in the Philippines.
Family of Negritos
3. The Bicols, who are found in the southern prov-
inces of Luzon.
4. The llocanos, who inhabit the northern province
of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and Union, in Luzon, and
form the civic population of Abra.
5. The Pangasinanes, who inhabit the province of
Pangasinan in Luzon.
PEUrLE 23y
6. The Pampangans,who inhabit the })i'Ov-
ince of Painpanga on
the same island.
7. The Cagayanes,who dwell in the valley
of the Cagayan river in
northern Luzon.
Six of these chief
tribes are to be found in^^^'^"'^ ^^^^'"^
Luzon, and the seventh, as we noted, is spread over the
central islands. The Tagalogs, Visayans, and Ilocanos
taken together form two thirds of the entire population.
Each one of these tribes has a language of its own;that of the Visayans is divided into several dialects,
the two most impor-
tant of which are
those spoken in Cebii
and Panay. Tagalogis spoken in Manila
and in the vicinity
of Luzon; yet an
hour's ride on the
train will take one
to Pampanga, where
the local language is
spoken. A few hours
more brings one to
Pangasinan, where
I '.<. --J
Negrito Shooting
240 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
still another is used;and only a short distance farther
north from here are provinces in which the j^eople con-
verse in Ilocano and still other dialects.
The representative races are the Negritos, the first
inhabitants of the archipelago; the Igorots, the most
numerous and most powerful pagan tribe; the Moros,
Igorot Carriers on Mountain Trail
or Mohammedan Malays ;and the Christian Malaj^s,
of which the Tagalogs, the Visayans, and the llocanos
are the principal divisions.
The Negrito race is almost the smallest on the globe,
and while suggestively negroes in their dark color and
frizzly mops of hair, they have neither the projection of
PEOPLE 241
the lower jaw nor the long skull of the African. Theyare true savages, depending for food upon the chase and
wild roots; they do not live in villages or even build
huts, but roam through the mountains in small groupsof a few families each. These people seem to be the
survival of the unfittest, and are physical and mental
their feetweaklings their legs are like broomsticks
Igokut Danck, Li:rANTo-BoNToc
are clumsy and large, and their bodies are covered with
tattoo marks in the form of long gashes. They are
timid and fearful of approach, and yet to a certain
extent they are feared hj the more civilized inhabitants
of the Islands. Much study has been devoted to the
distribution of these people and their localities were
thought to be determined, but recent correspondence
conducted by the bureau of ethnological survey reveals
242 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
their presence in several hitherto nnrecorded regions.
It has been invariably stated that their numbers are
dwindling, and recent estimates have placed them as
low as ten thousand;
but the bureau's cor-
respondence and
field investigations
seem to indicate that
they are at least hold-
ing their own at the
present time, and no
less than thirty thou-
sand have been ac-
curately reportedfrom all parts of the
Islands.
The number of
problems presented
to the ethnologist bythese little blacks is
almost bewildering.
The question arises,
What place have theyin the evolution of
man? Their identity with the Sakais of the Malay
peninsula and the Mincopies of the Andaman islands is
almost certain, but their relation to those other pygmies,the long-skulled dwarfs of central Africa, is mere specu-
lation, and similarly their connection with the true negro
Igokot Warkioi:
PEOPLE 243
race of Melanesia close by. In general, the geographic
distribution of this Negrito people is such that the only
conclusion which seems possible is that at one time theywere practically the sole possessors of the Philippine
archipelago.
Unquestionably the first to arrive and dispute the pos-
session of this aboriginal race and to drive them into
Igokot Village
the mountainous interiors which they now occupy were
the tribes of primitive Malayans that still constitute the
most considerable element of the non-Christian pop-
ulation of the Islands. Among these are the great
Igorot family of the Cordillera Central of Luzon, while
in the great mountainous region of northern Luzon are
numerous other tribes speaking different dialects but of
244 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
common Malayan origin. These are on a similar plane
with the primitive Malayan tribes of the Malay archi-
pelago and have the same barbarous practices of head
hunting and ceremonial cannibalism, and wage similar
community feuds.
The Igorots number some two hundred thousand peo-
ple altogether, and in the opinion of those who have
studied them are a strong, splendid people, among the
Caruyini; Caimoiks to Mai;ki:t
Very typical of the occupation and appearance of the Igorot woman
most interesting and im])ortant savage races of the
world. They give promise of increasing, and, with
the exception of tlie Ilocano coast and tlie shores of
the Cagayan river, of dominating in some future time
this northern portion of Luzon. Ilizal voiced this same
PEOPLE 245
opinion when he said that the future of the Islands lies
in the people of the mountains.
A group of these people once visited the writer in
Manila and impressed him as being potentially strong
and possessing much solidarity. They had come down
from the Lepanto-Bontoc
mountains in charge of
a sympathetic American
miner, and were await-
ing an audience with the
governor for the purpose
of gaining permission to
kill a bad man who had
been robbing them, and
of securing from the
school department flags
and books which made
no mention of religion.
They are as a whole
simple, honest, frank, and
tractable, and possessed of a sense of humor not to be
observed in members of the so-called Christian tribes.
In regard to religion they seem to be much like the
North American Indian, nature worship prevailing;
the sun in their belief is the Father of All ; the moon,
a good big Igorot ;and the stars, good little Igorots.
If they are good, the sun smiles;and if bad, it hides
its face and weeps. Chi-istianity has never gained foot-
ing among these pagans, and their life has remained
Igorot Boy in Servick of anAmerican Family
246 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
unaffected by the changes which have influenced the
other parts of the archipelago. Their most ancient cus-
toms still hold, and as yet in the case of some of the
tribes the custom of securing the head and sometimes
the heart and hands of their victims as trophies to be
displayed at their
feasts as relics,
though discouraged,
is not wholly stamped
out. The practice,
however, is not as
general as has often
been reported and is
dying out among the
minority with whomit has been custom-
ary. The majority
of the Igorots, al-
though so hardy and
uncivilized, are any-
thing but fierce and
warlike; peaceful
and self-satisfied are terms that better describe them,
and the friendship which has grown up between
them and the Americans is tending constantly to
make them more so.
The Moros were the last of the pre-Spanish people to
arrive in the Islands, and probably began to come some
time subsequent to the thirteenth centmy, after their
Igouot Mutiier
PEOPLE 247
conversion to Mohammedanism in their former home
during the twelfth century. By the time of the Span-
ish advent their out-
posts reached as far
north as Manila bay,
and it is probablytrue that their faith
in many places had
been imposed upon
Igorot Home
the Malay natives of the
central and northern regions
of the archipelago. The cen-
turies of conflict between the
Spaniards and the piratical
Moros of Mindanao, whocame as far as Manila itself,
have already been dwelt upon.
This group of Moros in gen-
eral, numbering at least a
quarter of a million, is of
great significance politically
to the American govern-
ment. They are the only
non-Christian people which
can offer any serious menace to public order or to the
peace of any important portion of the archipelago.
Igorot Woman
248 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
During the earlier period of liostilities in the Philip-
pines the friendliest relations seemed to exist, and the
fierce and uncompromising inhabitants of the lake
Lanao regionwere quiet. But
they are natu-
rally suspicious
of all foreigners,
and although the
American mili-
tary authorities
did everything
possible to win
their confidence,
it became evi-
dent later that
trouble wasIjound to come
;
conflicts followed
and as a result
many of these
interior peoplestill remain recal-
citrant.
Among these
Moros slavery exists very generally, and this custom,
so utterly at variance with the principles of the consti-
tution which now extends over these dependencies, has
been the source of much concern. It is true, however.
MoKO Wakuiok
Mouo Group, Zamboanga
MoK(j Town, Mindanao
249
250 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
that the practice, although widespread, is followed now
in a mild form only, and the old traffic in slaves has
almost entirely disappeared. Indeed, the fact that there
are slaves at all is strange enough to Americans, and
yet it should be remembered that this institution is byno means confined to
the Moros, for it is
common also amongthe wild Indonesian
tribes in the interior
of Mindanao and the
uncivilized Malayan
peoples of northern
Luzon, and the aboli-
tion of such a practice
must be patientlyawaited as one of
the results of the ex-
tension of civil gov-
ernment and the
American traininsr of
these people.
The slaves are usually procured when children, either
by force or because of indebtedness. As they come to
maturity they become of less value, it being more diffi-
cult to retain them and make them work. Their condi-
tion is far from unendurable, however, for their labor
is not arduous, and if they seriously desire it, it seems
always possible for them to purchase their freedom. The
Mouo Datto, Zamboanga
PE( )PLE 251
slave eats and sleeps in the same house as his master
and, indeed, is treated more like a retainer than a hond-
man. Views differ, nevertheless, as to the nature of this
servitude, and the writer has been informed by teachers
who have been close observers of this practice that it is
a cruel and vicious institution accompanied by inhu-
manity. Children, they report, can be bought and sold,— little boys of tender years for from sixteen to twenty-
five dollars, and little girls for from thirty to thirty-five
MoRO Weapons
dollars. However true this may be generally, the man-
ner in which our government must necessarily discoun-
tenance any such custom is sure to have the effect of
shortening the life of such a practice.
In 1898 the well-known Bates Treaty with the sultan
of Sulu, who is also the sultan of north Borneo and the
head of the Moro tribes of this whole region, was rati-
fied, with the reservation, however, that our governmentcould in no way recognize the existence of slavery in
the Moro dominions. This agreement provided for the
252 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
extension of a protectorate over tlie Moro country, and
guaranteed to the sultan autonomy in local affairs, and
a yearly income to be paid by the United States. The
sultan is a despotic
ruler having abso-
lute power even as
to life and death,
and our governmentfound itself in rather
a strange position by
being bound to aid
in the maintenance
of such a form of
rule. Hence it be-
came early apparent
that some more
satisfactory arrange-
ment with the sultan
would have to be
made, and more
recently the treaty
has been al^rogated.
The sultan is the
nominal head of his
people, with an armyof some twenty thousand troops, the equal of double that
number of Filipinos. But in reality he has no strong con-
trol over tlie different tribes, who are ruled immediately
by their respective dattos, many of whom are stronger
Moro Wakkiou with Coat of Mail
PEOPLE 253
personalities than the sultan liimself, who is inca^mble
oftentimes, and particularly just now, of holding these
various local rulers with their followers in check. His
position is becoming more and more that of a nominal
rather than an actual ruler of these Mohammedan people.
As to the Moros
themselves, they are
a much hardier race
than the Christian
Filipinos, and are
fiercer and morewarlike. They are
stronsr, ao;ile, of me-
dium height, with a
dark, copper-colored
complexion; their
hair is s t r a i g h t ,
black, and very abun-
dant;their eyes are
small, keen, and
black; and their
noses are broad )jut not flattened. They are cunning,
deceitful, and suspicious ; they are possessed of the
greatest personal valor mixed with a strong religious
fanaticism, and at all times they display a complete
indifference to tlie feelings and sufferings of others.
Life itself is of no great value, and their religion
teaches them that it is glorious to sacrifice it in de-
stroying Christians.
MORO WOMKN
254 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
From early youth the Moro is trained to arms and
he haljitiially wears the native kris, harong, campilcm,
and other weapons. To be seen without them is a dis-
grace, and to use them with effect in gaining the scalps
of their Christianized neighbors is a matter of pride.
Now and then it happens that a Moro, dissatisfied with
his master or disgusted with life or seized with religious
zeal, prepares him-
self for his depar-
ture to the lands
beyond. He will clip
his hair close, shave
his eyebrows, pare
the nails of his
fingers and toes,
and tlien start out
to kill whatever
Christians he maymeet, for the pur-
pose of winning a
heavenly reward. This fanaticism accounts for the
deaths by treachery of numljers of oiu- soldiers amongthese people, and the custom seems to hold even after
severe punishment.
The Moro problem is in every way a distinctly pecul-
iar and difficult one, as the people are so essentially
different in their institutions, their religion, and their
practices from those in other parts of the Islands;and
the Philippine Commission has been wise in the manner
MOKO WoMAX
PEOPLE 255
in which it has estal^lished for these people a separate
government with a miUtary governor. Already there
have been results. The most important seat of Moro
Group of Moro Girls
power— the country around lake Lanao— has been cap-
tured. Successful expeditions have been undertaken
against insubordinate dattos;slave hunting and mur-
dering have been put a stop to in many parts of the
island.
CHAPTER X
PEOPLE {continued)
We come now to a consideration of the natives com-
posing the seven great tribes of Christians which form
pohtically and socially the Filipino people. They are,
as we have seen, the Tagdlog.^i of central Luzon, the Vi-
sayans of the central islands and northern Mindanao,
the Ilocanos of the northwest coast of Luzon, the
Bicols of the southeastern portion of Luzon, the Pan-
gasinanes and Pampangaiis of the central plain of
Luzon, and the Cagayanes of Luzon, along the valley
of the river giving them that name. Almost certain it
is that these tribes came to the Philippines some time
subsequent to the arrival of the Igorots and the other
pagan tribes, and had, Ijefore the arrival of the Span-
iards, forced back into the mountains these less cultured
heathen people. From the uniform structural basis of
their languages scholars infer tliat they were of a com-
mon Malayan source, and are probably the modern
descendants of the second great Malayan immigration
which took place between 100 and 500 a.d. From
some Aryan source they acquired alphabets, the knowl-
edge of writing, and other arts of civilization, which
considerably elevated them above the plane of the
250
PEOPLE 257
interior tribes;and a Sanskrit element lias also been
found, at least in the Tagalog language.
Ethnologically, the typical Filipino, using the term
to designate a member of one of these Christian Malayan
tribes, may be described as of small stature;slender
frame; brownish-yellow skin
; symmetrical skull; prom-
inent cheekbones; low nasal bridge; nostrils prominent;
Native Tagalogs at Malabox, Luzon
eyes narrow, black, and brilliant, with thick curved
eyebrows and long lashes; mouth from medium to
large, with thick but not large lips ;chin short, round,
and almost hairless;and hair black, heavy, and straight.
He is not as thickset as the real Malay of the penin-
sula, though the type varies greatly among the different
peoples.
These Tagalogs, Visayans, Ilocanos, and the four
other Christian raceiB constitute five sixths of the total
258 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
population. The Tagalog is the most important race
in the archipelago, with a distinct superiority in mental
capacity, energy, and ambition. Perhaps it is for these
reasons that it has
furnished nearly all
the insurrectionary
leaders;and the
restlessness thus
displayed by them
may be attributed
to an admixture of
Chinese or other
foreign blood. The
Visayan type is pos-
sibly more uniform
and more robust
than the Tagalog,
whicli in turn seems
Wealthy Filipino Gikl to be more sympa-A Tagdlog thetic and more
characteristically hospitable than the former, due no
doubt to the greater frequency of contact with Euro-
peans. The more pronounced conservatism of the Vi-
sayans is also thus explained. Of all these tribes, the
Ilocanos are the most industrious, tractable, and open-hearted. The other tribes have not preserved their
individuality to the same degree as have these three,
and the Pangasinanes and Pampangas in particular have
absorbed nmch of the Tagalog nature.
PEOPLE 259
The crossing of blood with other peoples has further-
more modified all of these separate types and made
their classification the more complex. Admixture
of Negrito blood is shown in different individuals bytheir small size, curling or undulating hair, and the
darker color of their skins. From the intermarriage
with Spaniards, again, there has sprung a race called
Spanish-Mestizos, a numerous and powerful class, whose
influence is felt strongly in political and industrial
affairs.^ The admix-
ture of Chinese blood
has also profoundly
modified the early
Filipino type, and in
fact, in the mixingof this with the Fil-
ipino blood, the
former is so potent
that a small pro-
portion suffices to
produce a wide varia-
tion from the original
Malayan type,— a
fact that has a direct Native Costume
bearing upon an im- A Tagdlog
portant question in the Islands, that is, the admission
or exclusion of the Chinese. If no restriction were
1 Dr. de Tavera, one of the commissioners, and Chief Justice Arellano
of the Supreme Court are both of this class.
260 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
placed upon their coming, Chinese blood might eventu-
ally take the place of the Malayan and we might then
have a Chinese dependency on our hands,— from which
condition we might well seek deliverance. The Chinese-
Filij^ino, or Chinese-
Mestizo, as this half-
breed is called, is apt
to be somewhat taller
than the typical Fil-
ipino, and his eyes
are more oblique.This class is influen-
tial, particularly in
local trade and Indus-
try, and the women,
too, have a keen busi-
ness instinct. The
Chinese infusion, on
the whole, turns out
a sharp, intelligent,
ambitious, but un-
trustworthy individ-
ual.
Of the foreigners in the Philippines mention should
not properly be made in this chapter, with the one
exception of the Chinese, wlio socially and industrially
are so closely intermixed with the natives themselves
as to require some consideration. It is thought that
this people, long before the arrival of the Spaniards,
Type of Stupid Chinese-Mestizo
PEOPLE 261
carried on trade and commerce with the Malayan pop-
ulation of the Philippines, and that after the settle-
ment of the Spaniards had established commerce with
Acapulco, thus introducing Mexican silver, which was
greatly coveted by the Chinese, this trade became more
active and they came to the Islands in greater numbers.
Group of Visayan Children from the Best
Families, Cuyo
Natives, however, unable to get along industrially with
these people, formed a dislike for them at the outset and
seized every opportunity to show it. The rigid exclu-
sion of the Chinese has been one of the articles in
every revolutionary propaganda, and had it not been
for the large revenues which the Spanish governmentreceived from the Chinese, this hated class would have
been at the least deported.
262 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Being an essentially gregarious people, the Chinese
love large cities, where there are more opportunities for
making money, and hence nearly all of them in the
Philippines live either in Manila or in some half-dozen
other places. One fifth of the j)opulation of the capital
is composed of these people ;and tliey are engaged
in nearly every form of work, though their particular
sphere is trade. The small shopkeepers here, the car-
penters, tailors, shoe-
makers, furniture
»™ dealers, and cooks
are practically all
Chinese; they also
figure largely as
merchants, contract-
ors, shipbuilders,
Ijlacksmiths, farmers,
and coolies. TheChinaman possesses
the trading instinct
of the Jew plus a willingness to perform hard manual
labor which the Jew and, we might add, the Filipino
despise. He shows commendable adaptability in his
promptness in procuring American tools and food prod-
ucts,—
just that sort of adaptability which the Filipino
lacks. As is true everywhere, the Chinaman is willing
to accept a smaller profit than any one else, and in
trading with the upcountry natives he shows a wonder-
fid patience. The one serious charge that is brought
Ilocano Women, Victoria, Taklac
Taken to show luauner of carrying babies
PEOPLE 263
against him is liis practice of using false weights and
measures and of adulterating his stock;
Ijut this cannot
now be carried on to any extent because of the laws
governing the matter.
However unpopular the Chinese may be, they have
no difficulty in obtaining Filipino wives. Thrift out-
weighs sentiment. The hard-working Chinaman makes
Ilocaxo Village
a good husband;his children have far more energy than
the natives;and they are superior to the pure Filipino
in aljility and force of character.^
We are now able to understand, to a degree, of
what diverse and varied elements the population of the
^Mabini, known as the "brains of the insurrection," was one of this
Chinese-Mestizo class, and his steadfastness to the cause won the respect of
every American.
264 THE PHILIPPINE ISLAJs^DS
Philippines is composed. Heterogeneity is its chief
characteristic, and the Filipino races hardly constitute a
people. The Spaniards used the term Indian in speak-
ing collectively of these seven Christian tribes and the
word Filipino in speaking of any one born in the Islands
without distinction as to religious beliefs;even a child
of Spanish parentage born in the Philippines was, to
the home authorities, a Filipino. The Americans, for
obvious reasons, have not adopted the word Indian, and
have been very careless in the use of the word Filipino.
In the discussion of the non-Negrito, non-Igorot, and
non-Moro natives upon which we are now entering, for
the want of a more accurate title the writer will use
the term Filipino, which is to be understood hereafter
to refer to the Christianized and civilized native.
A thorough understanding of Filipino character and
political capacity is at once recognized as interesting
and important for Americans who would attempt to
govern the Filipinos and advance their civilization.
The inhabitants of these Islands, like all eastern tropi-
cal peoples, are very unlike western people of the tem-
perate regions. There is an entire want of sympathybetween oriental and occidental ideas, and it is almost
impossible, without long association, for one to be able
to understand the other. This is well illustrated in
the case of the Chinaman who cannot understand howthe American or European can go so long without
eating rice;or why we all dress alike
;or how it is
that we seem to consider women the equal in rank
PEOPLE 265
with men. And the same inaljility to understand us is
found to be true of the Filipinos in their Avay. Some
time ago a letter of complaint appeared in a Tagalog
paper to the effect that the noise made by the school
exercises one afternoon in a certain district interfered
greatly with the noon siesta of those in the neighbor-
hood. That the education of the children was a matter
of more impor-
tance than the
siesta of a few
people who prob-
ably did scarcely
more than three
or four hours'
work in twenty-
four did not of
course occur to
the complainant,
with whom the
editor also expressed sympathy. This trifling incident
is sufhcient to suggest the difference of American and
Filipino viewpoints. It must also be understood that
although Filipinos are eager for education, their ambition
is Filipino, not American. They believe that education
means money without work;as one keen, sympathetic
observer among the American teachers wrote, '•While we
look upon learning as training for life work, they regard
it as a means of getting along without work." We
might also add that they consider it a means of obtaining
PaMPAX(.A I'lIll.DKKM
2G6 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
power, a thing which they are always prone to worship.
Antipathy to work, especially of the manual sort, has
heen a powerful opposing force to American endeavors
to introduce a system of education fundamentally in-
dustrial in character; the extravagant expectations
prevailing at home of what education will do for the
Filipino races are based on a knowledge of American
and not Filipino character. Nor must we underrate
the conservatism of the Filipino ;for these people are
not nearly so anxious as a body to elevate themselves
to the plane of American civilization as it would at
first appear.
Let us first turn to the children, for it was these
with whom the writer had most to do during his stay
in the Islands, and in whom his interest and hopecentered. The children of the Philippines are those of
promise ; they are docile, quick, and mentally alert;
they have an aptness for acquiring languages, a natu-
ral talent for the lesser mechanical arts, and they
draw and write well. The majority of the school chil-
dren are young looking and attractive, and, further,
there is no doubt but that they excel in docility, imi-
tativeness, and attentiveness. By docility is meant that
they are easy to manage and, in their willingness to
be taught, ready to assume a certain subordinate sta-
tion in their relations with the teacher. In this they
certainly surpass American children, who are prob-
ably the least docile ones that ever lived. That they
excel in imitativeness, too, is shown in everything that
PEOPLE 267
they learn from the American teachers, such as draw-
ing and modeling, as well as writing, spelling, and
speaking. This superiority in imitative ability is also
to be observed among the Japanese, Chinese, Javanese,
and Hindu children;but the Filipinos, in accomplish-
ing results with this parrotlike facility, lack the patience
of some of these other children. Persistency is a trait
that is not so often met with as among Americans.
And while it is possible to believe that the average
level of intelligence and ability is high among Filipino
school children, there seems reason to doubt that in-
dividuals of conspicuous intellectual superiority are
numerous. As American teachers reported, there are
not many who rise far above the general level of
ability and accomplishment. Reticence, probably due
to timidity, characterizes the native children;and forti-
tude, which accompanies courage, is lacking. They are
likewise deficient in patient endurance and ability to
apply themselves to their tasks. The school qualities,
neatness and accuracy, are possible with them;
but
punctuality, regularity, truthfulness, and industry fall
short of their desire to learn. They surpass American
children in memory ;the American children are superior
to them in originality and also in the power to study,
to think, and to do. There is without doubt a greater
tendency to lie among Filipino children and a greater
readiness and skill in falsehood, not due to any innate
depravity, but rather perhaps to a " certain careless-
ness and generous disregard of truth." One of the
268 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
more experienced American teachers, in a letter to the
writer comparing American city children of the poorer
classes with Filipino children, wrote :
It remains to be seen whether we can teach them to be honest
and truthful. At present they do not possess these virtues. I
believe they really love to lie, and they often do so without any
apparent cause.
With the large majority there seems to be absolutely
no moral obligation to speak the truth. These children
are not at all pugnacious, and a schoolboy fight is verj^
rare. Often they are inquisitive and not always deli-
cate in their questions. Affection is prominent amongtheir strong traits, and they are very fond of each other,
their parents, and their teachers. They are polite and
respectful toward strangers and superiors, and amongtheir companions are enthusiastic and full of life. Theyhave tlieir own peculiar games, into all of which they
enter heartily, but the most popular are those contain-
ing a gambling element.
In his youth the Filipino l)oy is often attractive and
interesting, with his slight figure and rich brown skin,
suggestive of a bronze statue, his bright eyes, long
black eyelashes and eyebrows, and his expression of
cheerful carelessness. The girls are not as attractive;
they need constant encouragement in the schoolroom
and are keenly sensitive to a look or word. The writer's
belief is that up to a certain point Filipino children are
quicker intellectually than American youths ;but this
PEOPLE 269
view is not shared by all the American teachers, manyof whom reported that the Filipino child does not excel
the American child in anything. One teacher neverthe-
less supplemented her dissent by saying,"However, I
am delighted with what I consider the possibilities of
the Filipino child." Another added, "He has, however.
Bull in thp: Ring
a ready mind and a fairly retentive memory." Still
another, one of long experience in the Indian schools,
wrote," Inferior even to the American Indian child."
One other, finally, gave the following interesting opin-
ion :
" To my mind, the Filipino child does not excel
the American child markedly in anything. His appar-
ent extraordinary aptitude I attribute to his absolute
270 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
ignorance of the subjects we teach. This is iUustrated in
the case of a man of normal intelHgence who has never
learned to read. His memory will retain three times as
much of an article he hears read as that of his literary
neighbor, whose mind is crammed by constant reading."
As to the intellectual status of the adults themselves,
the opinion of one of the teachers of these grown-up
Filipinos in one of the night schools is very near the
truth. In his opinion, it is the ignorance of the people,
old and young, that is the pitiable aspect of the situa-
tion. Ignorance is evident both in quantity and quality,
so to speak, of mental content. Ideas are not only few,
but abstract ideas are rare. In the native learning Eng-lish the use of nouns is acquired more readily than the
use of adjectives; so our task is not to enable him to
pass from one language to another as a medium of
thought and expression, but to furnish the material
of thought as well.
The Filipinos show no signs of becoming an intellect-
ual people. They have been compared with the Japan-
ese, and both are quick-witted and imitative, but Japan-
ese children are somewhat more persevering. Japanese
adults are not as intellectually apathetic as the Fili-
pinos, and they display a little more originality together
with a greater keenness in practical affairs. Always
excepting the name of Rizal, it must be admitted that
in the sphere of intellectual achievement, in scientific
progress and invention, in literature and philosophy, and
also in art, the Filipino people have accom2)lished little.
PEOPLE 271
As to moral characteristics, these people have the
defects of most orientals, and hence it would be unfair
to judge them too harshly. In regard to truth and
honesty, they are at worst not inferior to the average
Asiatic, though considerably below the New Englandstandard. Some fall below the common moral level of
the inhabitants, while others again are models of civil
and Christian virtues. According to their lights they
are moral. Sexual morality to a fairly high degree
prevails, and temperance in its different forms is a trait.
The marriage relation, though void of formalities, is
nevertheless binding ; polygamy does not exist. Theyare one and all childishly simple even to the point
of irresponsibility at times, and hence in many cases
the test which we apply must be correspondingly mild.
The Filipinos whom American government officials
meet in Manila and in the important towns of the
provinces belong largely to the Mestizo class, which
constitutes an important part of the population and
would under any form of an independent Philippine
government be the ruling one. The great mass of peo-
ple do not take much interest in public affairs; they
are like the peasant classes of all oriental countries,
—simple, very mercurial of temperament, easily led by
those in whom they have confidence and by their super-
stitions. It is to Spain's honor that she drew no color
line and treated the rank and file with a certain degree
of easy condescension and tolerant familiarity. Such
training as they received from the church inculcated
272 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
negation of initiative, passive obedience, uniformity of
opinions and ideas,— in short everything that might
serve to rob them of their individuality. The church
authorities descriljed Filipino character as naturally
indolent and apathetic, but mention also a certain
inconsistency and volubility of this character due to
"the tropical climate, the exuberant vegetation, and
the imposing manifestations of the phenomena of nature
in these regions."
Of their conservatism we have already sj^oken ; they
M^ant to do as they have already done. The restlessness
to be noted at the present time in the people is due in
part to the constant changes of government which have
taken place during the last five or six years,— a reign
of American military law pure and simple, following
the unsuccessful attempts to estaljlisli a Philippine rule;
theu in turn two civil experiments under military aus-
pices, which amounted to little because of the treachery
and untrustworthiness of the native civil officials, who
were really allies and spies of the insurgents in arms,
many of them being members of the Katipunan, a
society which aims to expel all foreigners from the
Philippines ;and finally, an established civil govern-
ment. Even now there is constant change in legislative
officials, whereas in view of this markedly conservative
trait of the Filipino people, stability of governmentshould characterize our efforts.
Our view of the history of the Islands has shown us
that quarrels among the people themselves or l^etween
PEOPLE 273
the tribes, with the exception of the Moro invasions,
have been notably lacking; when undisturbed by for-
eign interference they have remained as a whole peace-
ful. There has, however, always been a brigand or
ladrone class; and had Aguinaldo established a govern-
ment under our protection, he would have had this
brigandage to wipe out, thougli his efforts might have
been attended with earlier success than ours.
The soldier's opinion of the Filipino has been almost
always diametrically opposed to that of the civilian;
both are founded equally on experience, but the experi-
ences have been different. As one commanding ofhcer^
said," No adversary has a pleasant aspect, and our
soldiers who are fighting the native have no use for
him." He immediately followed this, however, by the
statement :
'' But when the social machine is again
organized, and the asperities of conflict are forgotten,
the admirable and sweet traits of the Filipino will
emerge. Of course his character is not rugged ; but,
I repeat, it is lovable."
Speaking as a civilian official, the writer found the
educational work among them constantly interesting
and fascinating; and the Filipinos whom he met in
his office and in the country districts were polite and
easy in their manners, somewhat reserved on first
acquaintance, although never cringing, fluent talkers,
ready with promises of cooperation, and in fact gentle-
men. Teachers and superintendents who lived in the
1 (leneral MacArthur.
274 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
towns with these same genial natives reported that veryfew of them showed executive ability, and some were
obstinately inefficient and inactive. When requested to
make repairs on school buildings or to get school furni-
ture, municipal officials are very ready with promises ;
but as has been well said, the Filipino never says
no but never does yes. When asked for information,
he studies you and is inclined to give the answer that
he thinks you desire.
Americans are too willing to assert, without giving
the matter sufficient thought, that Filipino indirectness,
the too frequent malfeasance in office, and the giving
of bribes are the bad results of Spanish domination.
There is, perhaps, no doubt that bribery and corrup-
tion characterized the later period of civil service under
the Spaniards ;but indirectness is a trait and the giv-
ing of gifts by subjects to those in authority a cus-
tom common to all eastern peoples, just as hospitality
is a sacred duty to them all. Bribes and propitiatory
offerings or, as the Spaniards called them, gratifica-
tions, are based on the principle that there is no use
in holding an office unless it can be turned to profit ;
and it is difficult for a Filipino to understand that
the giving of presents to government officials is not
quite proper. They are unable to believe that simply
because a man happens to be white he has any scru-
ples against such a practice, and look upon one who
refuses a consideration of this sort with a measure of
contempt.
PEOPLE 275
One is tempted to say that there is nothing of the
spirit of trustworthiness necessary for a self-governing
people. False ideas and ideals have been incorporated
into their character, and mutual respect and confidence
are lacking, as are also a spirit of candor and the idea
of the equality of all citizens before the law. But, the
writer must repeat, the Filipinos are not to be measured
by our standards of thought and purpose.
In economic affairs the woman averages rather
higher than the man. In the Philippines she occupies
a position far better than that held by the women in
India or, indeed, in most other countries of the trop-
ical East, and is certainly the helpmate rather than the
handmaid,— an elevation that is due largely to the
Roman Catholic church. Among the upper classes
many capable and energetic women are found, some of
them engaged in active business;and before the law
they all have full property rights.
The manners and customs of the Filipino people mgeneral show signs of Spanish influence
;and the more
one studies them,— their history, language, and char-
acter,— the more convinced one becomes that the Span-
iards accomplished a unique work in redeeming these
races from barbarism and heathenism and teaching them
the forms and manners of civilized life.^ Although much
of what has been taught must be modified, yet because
of the advancement made socially under their earlier
masters our work has been made infinitely easier.
1 This is not the usual American opinion.
276 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
These people, however, have retained to a consider-
able degree those local customs which were consistent
with the new ideas implanted by their earlier teachers;
and to-day even the npper classes who adopted the
superficial habits of the Spaniards throw off many of
these in the privacy of the home and become thoroughly
Filipino again, laying aside conventionalities and con-
sidering such things as knives and forks, taljles and
chairs, and slioes and stockings as mere superfluities.
As a story in point, it is related that a certain American
official, who had been attending a banquet which had
been as well served as far as silver, fine linen, and glass
were concerned as anv of om^ dinners, was oblisred to
return to his host's house for an article he had left
behind;and thereupon found the women of the house-
hold, who had acted so gracefully and deftly as wait-
resses during the meal, all squatting ui^on the beauti-
fully polished tal)le top eating with their fingers the
remnants of the feast. Formality was all right for a
while, but it proved too oppressive to observe it for a
longer time than actual necessity seemed to require ;
and such is the common conception as to the necessity
of holding to conventionalities of this sort.
To the ordinary observer the manners of tlie upper-
class Filipino surpass those of the average American
to be seen in tlie Philippines ; the uniform courtesy
and the cordial hospitality of tlio former are traits not
easily forgotten, and, it must be confessed, stand out
in rather sharp contrast at times to the brus(pieness
PEOPLE 277
closely analogous to rudeness of A'arious representatives
of our own people. The critical European residents are
already commenting unfavorably upon the change in
manner of the natives since the arrival of the Americans,
particularly the lack of deference on the part of the
former to white persons generally. Such a transforma-
tion is undoubtedly taking place gradually, encouraged
Going to Town
as it is by the more liberal American spirit ; though in
the provinces the native meeting a foreigner continues
to salute him courteously. By this time the people have
learned that there are Americans and Americans, and
consequently are somewhat discriminating in their dis-
play of hospitality, though they are none the less ideal
hosts to those whose acquaintanceship they value.
The would-be Filipino aristocrat, with a superb dis-
dain for manual w^ork, entertains a contemptuous feel-
ing for the American w^ho is engaged in such, who
278 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
walks when he might ride, or who displays any of
the characteristics of the laboring man. A certain
carelessness of manner that we possess is very often
misunderstood by Filipinos, even those of the lower
classes. Superficial, talkative, and showy Americans
are most popular with these people. Brusqueness is
fatal in an official, and modesty and quiet force are
not always understood.
One does not perceive in the Filipinos of Manila and
the larger cities the happy carelessness which strikes
the observer as characteristic of such a closely allied
people as the Javanese. The ordinary Tagalog seems
almost sullen;and the tribes in general exhil)it a cer-
tain indifference and lack of emotion that hardly indicate
an enthusiastic nature.
Bathing is a frequent practice, though nice discrimi-
nation is not always exercised in the choice of a place.
Clothes are washed often,— many times, it is true, in the
water in which the natives have bathed; yet the process
is cleansing, and neatness of garb is a noticeable char-
acteristic of all classes of Filipinos.
Their dress is not particularly picturesque nor artis-
tic, and compares very unfavorably with that of their
neighbors, the Japanese and the Javanese. The colors
are too pronounced, black, green, yellow, and particu-
larly red, being the favorites. For the women, a gauzy
waist, a handkerchief, and a skirt with an apron over
it are the garments worn ; stockings are seldom used,
heelless slippers constituting the footwear. The men
PEOPLE 279
wear trousers reaching to the feet and a kind of white
shirt hanging loosely over them;in general, they go
barefooted. The children frequently come to school
wearing nothing but a blouse, and sometimes a derby
hat, often considered the next necessary garment and
much prized by the natives. Shoes and such luxuries
do not constitute pressing needs.
The houses are untidv, even dirtv; and underneath
these dwelhngs are kept hens, horses, pigs, and often-
times carabaos. At their meals, ordinarily of fish, rice,
and fruit, the members of the family squat on the floor
and eat with their fingers from a common dish. They
usually all sleep together on the floor.
The framework of these houses is usually constructed
of bamboo;the roof and walls are made from leaves of
the nipa palm ;and the floor is of small bamboos split
and put down with an open space between them. Open-
ings in the walls provided wath shutters of palm leaves
answer the purpose of windows; bamboo ladders form
the means of entrance, for all the houses are built upon
piles with the object of avoiding deleterious vapors
arising from the ground and insuring comfort during
the rainy season. Very often there is but one room
within— kitchen, dining room, and bedroom combined
— for the whole family; and there are but few articles
of furniture, and ill kept at that. Although the Filipino
peasant is fond of his home, real comfort there seems
to concern him but little. Of course in a tropical cli-
mate people live more out of doors,—
they really camp
280 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
out,—and have less desire for abundant furnishings for
the home; and yet meager as are such in the houses,
there is always to be found a little altar with images or
pictures of saints for use in their devotions. In contrast
to the abodes of the ordinary
native, of which we have just
been speaking, the houses of
the better classes are of frame
structure, substantial, and
much more like our own.
They are very open, the win-
dows being constructed of
small panes of shell sliding
in grooves, and it is possible
thus to open up practically
the whole side of the house.
These are often luxuriously
fitted out with heavy polished
furniture and oiled floors, and
kept in splendid condition. The home life, too, of this
latter class is much more according to our own ideas.
Among the marked traits of these people is their
delight in festivals or fiestas, and each church holiday,
birth, marriage, or death that occurs is made the occa-
sion for a celebration which lasts from one to three
days with banqueting, music, and gaming. All are
invited and all accej)t. Food of every sort, including
the indispensable unsalted boiled rice, hams and other
meats, chicken, fish of various kinds in numberless
Altar Piece
Designed and carved by a
Filipino
PEOPLE 281
combinations, sweets, and fruits are provided in abund-
ance; wine and native gin are not lacking, nor cigars
and cigarettes in quantities. The food is served in
courses Avbich follow one another in almost endless suc-
cession, and Americans who may happen to be amongthe guests are compelled to cease early from active
partici^mtion in the eating. The chief dish is a pig
roasted whole, and a peculiar mixture of fish, eggs,
vegetables, and sauce— one which Americans have not
as yet become able to relish— is almost equally popular.
Through numerous courses, each with its particular
merit, the guests are conducted, until finally something
like satisfaction has been attained. Other forms of
entertainment are
then sought, perha^Ds
card playing and
dancing, and so the
m e r r i m e n t c o n-
tinues, with further
eating as the time
goes on.
The word fiesta
originally meant a
saint's day and the
word still retains its
religious significance,
though applied also to other celebrations. On the differ-
ent church holidays everywhere, as we saw to be true
of Manila, these festivals take place,—more religious in
Punch Bowl
Designed and made by a Filipino silversmith
282 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
character of course than the ordinary affairs, and gener-
ally gorgeous and extremely impressive. On the more
serious occasions levity is forgotten, though the feasting
takes place, and a feeling of real piety is shown.
Another prominent trait of the Filipinos is their fond-
ness for elaborate funeral rites. Gaudy trappings and
the pomp of woe are greatly in favor with these people,
who like so much anything in the way of ceremony.
They seem hardly to realize the seriousness of the occa-
sion and, outside the immediate relatives, are apparently
attracted more by the interest of the event itself than
by any particular consideration for the deceased;while
the bands of music accompanying the body are as likely
to play lively two-steps or street songs as anything
appropriate.
Still another side of these people is shown in their
intense interest in any game which possesses the gam-
bling element and their general dislike for ordinary out-
door sports. A native game of football played with a
wicker ball which is kicked from one to another in
the air is rather popular; and much riding is done in
the provinces, though more for business errands than
for pleasure and exercise. After all, cockfighting, horse
racing, and card playing, with bets and money in other
ways involved, are the chief delights, and oftentimes,
it seems, the main interests of the natives. With the
younger generation, however, a change is taking place,
and the more vigorous American sports are beginning
to gain a popularity that promises to equal that of the
PEOPLE 283
coin games which the children play almost universally.
Card playing for money is the national game and has
such a fascination for these people that it nearly always
receives first consideration. Even among those of mod-
erate means very large sums at times change hands, and
a spirit of recklessness akin to that of the experienced
gambler of the western world is displayed.
Among the upper-class women there is a great fond-
ness for personal adornment in the shape of silk
brocaded dresses with enormous trains and jewelry,
especially diamonds. These trains are frequently most
inartistically painted, and the display of gems amazing.
Nor is that distinctively artistic touch given the gownwhich is the case, for instance, with Japanese women.
The amount of really artistic work among these
people is very limited. Some of the embroideries of
jnna cloth are, however, exquisitely done;and in the
ornamentation of a few of the churches there are wood
carvings of true merit. In Manila and various parts of
the provinces this carving forms a distinct industry,
and in Laguna a product closely resembling Swiss work
is turned out. Painting is a comparatively unknown
art, though very fair ability has been shown in the exe-
cution of native landscapes ;and at least one artist
— Luna ^— has been produced, whose work gained for
him admission to the French Salon. Some of the work
in metals, particularly silversmithing, also shows an
1 Brother of General Luna, who was killed, as is alleged, by order of
Aguinaldo.
284 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
originality in designing power and an appreciation of
the principles of grace and proportion.
In architecture little original talent has been dis-
played ;in general, the people have been satisfied to
accept Spanish ideas, which in the Islands were influ-
enced by considerations of convenience rather than of
artistic beauty. The churches, however, which are the
principal buildings, are all interesting, and while some
are plain, barnlike structures, others are dignified and
well proportioned, with graceful towers and pleasing
faQades. The walls and gates of old Manila and the
turreted forts constructed by the natives of Samar,
different monuments in the capital, together with
Magellan's tomb in Cebu harbor, are all interesting
historically but hardly so artistically, at least for us,
since the design of these works is not native but
Spanish ; the same may be said with regard to the
statue of Sebastian del Cano in the Ayuntamiento and
the Legaspi-Urdaneta monument facing the Luneta,
both of which are splendidly executed.
Music, though not an art among these people, forms
a part of their very life. Little native music has been
written, and there is no composer who stands forth as
does Rizal the writer, or even Luna the artist; yet one
hears the wilder, more racy strains of native composi-
tion and the livelier foreign airs everywhere and at all
times. During festivals, on the one hand, and labor,
on the other, the sound of violin or native instrument
is constantly heard, often accompanied by the peculiar
PEOPLE 285
native singing which is at times so mournful. Everytown has its musical organization, and some of the
musicians perform very creditably,— indeed, the Rizal
Orchestra is as fine as anything to be found in the
Far East. The children take deep interest in this branch
of school work; and the teachers find that the pupils
pick up an air readily and memorize the words with
accuracy and faithfulness.
And such are these people,—
childlike, curious, pleas-
ure-loving, immature, strange, unfathomable, elusive,—
a study for us, their tutors.
CHAPTER XI
PEOPLE {cnntinued)
The character and pohtical capacity of the Filipinos
have such a direct bearing upon their government and
administration that the writer is loath to leave the
subject before presenting in addition to his own views
the opinions of certain persons who have had such
experience with these people as to make their obser-
vations valuable.
General Otis was particularly qualified to speak uponthe question, arriving, as he did, a short week after
the taking of Manila and acting as military governor
until May, 1900. In giving testimony before the United
States Senate Committee as to the character of the bulk
of the people, he informed his hearers that there is
everything in the Philippines from a high state of civil-
ization to the most degraded barbarism. The great mass
of the people, in his estimation, are ignorant and very
superstitious ; they prefer to remain at home quietly and
till the soil, free from outside interruption. In their
public conduct they depend largely upon the attitudes
and desires of their leaders; and the general run of
them, after the Spanish domination of three or four
centuries which developed the practice of secrecy among286
PEOPLE 287
them, are hardly capable of being trusted implicitly.
He agreed with the testimony that had been gathered
from former witnesses before the committee respecting
Filipino liabits, that these people would sooner play
than work;that they go off to dances, festivities, and
cockfights, and abandon their work; and if they get a
little money by winning on a favorite bird their absence
becomes extended. He added that almost every other
day with tliem is a holiday, and that he had a great
deal of difficulty on this account, even around Manila, in
keeping them at work. A good strong white man will
do as much in one day as three Filipinos, he believed,
and although there were many good laborers among
them, the average native was of about this quality.
They were found to work well in the early part of
the morning, but when noon approached siestas of one,
two, or three hours were necessary before the resump-
tion of labor in the afternoon. As to the development
of the Islands in any rapid way, he was convinced that
it would have to be done by means of labor secured
outside of the Philippines, preferably by the restricted
immigration of Chinese.
General MacArthur, who succeeded General Otis, said
of these people which he had helped to subdue :
I do not know where they got it, yet it is a fact that the Fili-
pinos alone in the Far East have somehow been imbued with the
nineteenth-century spirit. They have ideals. Their evolution
will be so swift it will surprise us, and I am sure they will
become thoroughly Americanized and an addition to the United
States to be proud of. If we ever have a war in the East they
288 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
will fight for us. Of all the Eastern colonial soldiers they are
the best stuff.
In answer to an inquiry as to whether the Filipinos
would be content under American sovereignty, he said :
They have not longed for independence, for they are not a
nationality nor homogeneous. What they have been striving for
these years is personal liberty. Now they have come in contact
with an Anglo-Saxon people, and personal liberty is what Anglo-
Saxons have fought for during the last five hundred years. Theyare learning that. They are already experiencing personal liberty
under Anglo-Saxon protection. ... I predict the time will come
speedily when these Filipinos and ourselves will admire each
other and affection will exist between us.
Governor Taft, who from the responsibilities and
anxieties of his position should be a pessimist of the
pessimists, is an extreme optimist. His views as to
these people and their possibilities are better known,
and yet the following quotations from speeches deliv-
ered during a recent visit to the United States while he
was still governor of the Islands are hardly superfluous :
They are a courteous, hospitable, and in many respects a
lovable people. They are not a licentious people, but they do
not regard the marriage tie as essential to the decent living
together of a man and a woman. Under the influences of the
tropical sun they are not an energetic or industrious people,
though I believe that organization can accomplish much in
making them a much more useful people for purposes of
labor than under the recently unsettled conditions they have
proved themselves to be. With the war passion they have
developed cruelty, but in peaceful times they are a sweet-
tempered people, decorous in their conduct. Tlieir cliief vice
is that of gambling. Tliey are a very temperate peo^de, and
PEOPLE 289
one rarely sees a drunken Filipino, although I think they all
take more or less vino, the distillation of the sap of the nipa
palm. Among the ignorant ninety per cent there is very little
political sentiment of any kind, except the desire for quiet, for
protection from ladrones or other disturbers of the peace, and
the feeling of deep hostility against the friars who represented
to them the political condition of subjection under the Spanishrule and all its severity. Political conception, until the systemof education shall have brought this ninety per cent into sym-
pathy with modern ideas by giving them a common language,
must be generally confined to less than ten per cent who speak
Spanish, and the discussion of political parties must be limited
to that ten per cent.
As to the political responsibility of the people and their
ideas of popular government, the governor proceeded :
There are some of the Filipinos who have given a good deal
of study to the Constitution of the United States; they are
to be found chiefly among the Federal party leaders, and possi-
bly there should be included among them a few of the revolu-
tionary leaders and irreconcilables. Their whole education has
been in the civil law and in the conceptions of civil governmentand of liberty which prevail in France and among the so-called
republicans or social democrats of other European countries.
They have very little practical conception of individual liberty
as it has been hammered out in Anglo-Saxon countries by hun-
dreds of years of conflict. In spite of eloquent tributes to liberty
and freedom even the most advanced and practical of the Fili-
pino party leaders find it difficult to regard with favor limita-
tions of the executive in favor of the liberty of the individual,
when the right man is in the executive. The tendency amongthem is always toward absolutism in the president of the town,
in the governor of the province, and in the representative of the
central government.It is most difficult for them to conceive of a ruling majority
sharing equal rights with the minority. On the other hand, the
290 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
minority are, as President Wheeler aptly expressed it in remarks
made by him in San Francisco some time since," bad losers," and
the defeat in an election is only a preliminary to violence and
revolution. It is the idea of practical individual liberty which
the Filipinos are to learn,— the practical elements of popular
government.
We know of the massacre of our troops at Balangigaon the island of Samar and of General Smith's campaignthere in which he was reported to have urged his soldiers
to make the island a howling wilderness. Although the
inhabitants there are Visayans, they are of a lower stage
of civilization than the other members of this family in
Panay, Negros, and the other central islands;and they
are so different in character from these others that one
might have experiences among them which would not
apply to any of the other peoples of this same race.
This is only a single instance which might be multi-
plied almost without limit, indicating that local condi-
tions are the cause of striking differences among these
people, even though they may be members of the one
common branch. A soldier's or a teacher's letter mayrepresent actual experience and be a true statement of
local conditions and yet not apply at all to the peoplein the archipelago as a whole. And those who labeled
all the Filipinos as "cruel traitors" on account of this
barbarous massacre in Samar are just as much in the
wrong as those who harshly condemned General Smith
without understandincr that conditions on that island
warranted drastic military methods. This event served
only to emphasize the difficulty of knowing the people
PEOPLE 291
generally and the mistake of assuming that some are
just like others. Before the loss of our troops occurred
at Balangiga, the people had been reported as havingtheir hearts and minds wholly wrapped up in insurrec-
tion and barbarism. Enlightenment had no place amongthem
;and they were said to be so corrupt morally and
cruel naturally that it would be far from advisable to
send teachers to help such an unappreciative people,
who had all the cunning of a traitorous tribe. Howtrue this estimate of these people became was revealed bythe events which followed. General Hughes, in assign-
ing an officer to that station, gave him a full account
of the character of the people among whom he was
to start operations ;the fact developed later that this
officer heeded but slightly the information which he
had received, owing to an unusual confidence which
he had previously learned to place in the natives in
Luzon; and the trust which he placed in these new
people was what made their treachery possible.
This same General Hughes, a shrewd, lovable gentle-
man as well as an excellent soldier and a practical
administrator, in stating his opinion of the character of
the Visayan people, the largest tribe, as we have seen,
in the archipelago and the ones whom he learned to
know so well, said :
The Visayan people are not understood, and I do not pre-
tend to understand them after living with them for two and a
half years. There is a small percentage, and it is a very small
percentage, of educated, fine people. In the towns, where these
292 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
people are, there is another percentage, much larger, of peoplewho have learned enough of good manners and good behavior
to appear very well and to behave very well;but the great mass
of the Visayan people to-day are absolutely ignorant. They have
the general reputation of being a very gentle and pleasing people.
That is certainly true;but I think that that is simply the pas-
sivity of indifference and ignorance. There is nothing that
interests them. They will not be disturbed by anything that
goes on around them. . . . These people do not know what inde-
pendence means. They probably think that it is something to
eat. . . . They want us driven out so they can have this inde-
pendence, but they do not know what it is.
Of the Filipinos in general lie said :
They are lazy. They want at least three days in the week, if
you will give it to them; they want to go to cockfights and they
want to gamble. As laborers they cannot do any heavy work.
They are weak when it comes to lifting. It Avould take a longtime to develop the Filipinos for the heavy work and the finer
part of the skilled work. As the old Chinaman wlio used to
come around to repair things in my house remarked," No good,
no good ; Filipino man made it."
A native physician who has always lived "in Manila
said of his people before the first Philippine Commission :
Ordinarily, the native Filipino, because he has been under the
influence of the friar for a long time, is stoical. . . . They are
fond of work up to a certain point. They will work as long as
it is necessary to gain a livelihood. They have not yet learned
to save what they earn by their work, for tliey have always been
obliged whenever they had any money to give it to the church,
and in this way they have become indifferent to saving.
The imagination of the Indian, when he talks in his own lan-
guage, may be easily seen to be very active and easily aroused,
considering the small amount of education which he has had.
PEOPLE 293
On account of the education and fanaticism which they have
received they regard life as a transitory state, and they are indif-
ferent to death. It is not that they are brave but that they think
that in the next world they will enjoy a better life than here.
These Filipinos stand unique as the only large bodyof Asiatics converted to Christianity in modern times,
and yet this common religion has not been sufficient
to efface tribal differences and make them one people.
The Spaniards were the first and only nation to Chris-
tianize a large group of tropical orientals;and let us
hope the Americans may be the first to assist in their
development into a self-governing people. Certain Eng-
glishmen who have been for a long time residents in the
Malay states take the position that brown races, like
the Malays, are unfit for self-government ;that the in-
variable results of such a rule are misery, wrongdoing,
and retrogression ; and that such people can secure hap-
piness, progress, and welfare only by remaining subject
races under white rulers.
As one wrote concerning the Filipinos :
They have no unity, no patriotism, and no common tie to bind
and qualify them to be a self-ruling people. Their only destiny
in short is to be left under the tutelage and guardianship of the
superior race which now holds the Islands.^
And another writes :
There never has been and there never will be within any time
with which we are practically concerned such a thing as good
government, in the European sense, of the tropics by the natives
of these regions. . . . However we may be inclined to hesitate
1Clifford, Blackwoocfs Magazine.
294 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
before reaching this view, it is hard to see how assent to it can
be withheld in the face of the consistent verdict of history in the
past and the unvarying support given to it by facts in the present.^
Still another, a keen observer of eastern peoples, says :
Those who have been intimately connected with the Malayshave to a great extent fallen under the spell of a certain charm
in their character. They speak with enthusiasm of their bright-
ness and hospitality, of a certain tenderness of heart, and manyother traits which make them pleasant comrades. They are said
to be easy to rule so long as they recognize their master;to be
brave and reckless though superstitious. But their most ardent
admirers, men like Swettenham and Clifford,^ are the first to
allow that, whether physically or morally, they degenerate when
brought under the influence of western civilization, and fail to
acquire other traits which require the exercise of reason and
discipline. Another deficiency in their mental and moral equip-ment is a lack of organizing power. . . . The Malay is always a
provincial ; moreover, he rarely rises outside the interests of his
own town or village. . . . The Malay is the laziest of orientals
and the Filipino is not the least lazy of Malays. The Malay, in
short, is a creature of limitations.^
On this Malayan stock, furthermore, have been
grafted many shoots, the principal ones being Spanishand Chinese, giving, as we have already seen, the Mestizo
class, an important one in the Islands. The natives of
Chinese mixture have the reputation of being amongthe keenest and shrewdest of the population ;
as a result
of the Spanish intermarriage, on the other hand, the
shortcomings and peculiarities of the Latin peoples have
become exaggerated in the offspring, and a thin veneer
1Kidd, Control of the Tropics.
2Swettenham, Malay Sketches ; The lieal Malay ; Unaddressed Letters.
Clifford, Studies in Broivn Humanity ; In Court and Kampong.3Colquhoun, Mastery of the Pacific.
PEOPLE 295
of western culture has been spread over the passions
and emotions of these orientals.
The foregoing are some of the various esthnates of the
peoples of whom we have assumed charge,— estimates
which are undoubtedly based upon careful, fair-minded
observation, and which, it may be admitted, are rather
discouraging to those of us who would see our desire
to fit these natives for self-government realized in a
day. Any who are in fact cherishing such expectations
cannot be otherwise than discouraged, and satisfaction
with the results that are being accomplished can only be
attained by remembering just what the material is uponwhich we are working, and adopting a more patient
attitude in looking for results. The thoughtful Amer-
ican official in the Philippines, if asked his opinion as
to the outcome of our efforts in the Islands, would be
inclined to say that he could do no more than hope that
the Filipinos might, though slowly, develop for them-
selves an efficient government under which they could
become an independent nation in accordance with their
acknowledged ideal; and such would be the happiest
solution for our own country of the very difficult prob-
lem, not to mention the confidence it would create in
the latent possibilities of tropical oriental nations gener-
ally. Enough evidence has it seems already been brought
forward to show that a solution is still not entirely
beyond the bounds of hope ;and from a first-hand
acquaintance with these natives the writer is willing to
assert the belief that they will develop for themselves
an efficient government ultimately.
CHAPTER XII
SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION
In large part the inliabitants of the Phihppines are
Roman Cathohcs, though the Negritos, Igorots, and
other mterior wild tribes are pagans, while the people
of Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago are Mohamme-
dans. The beliefs of those who have become converted
to Christianity are, as we should expect, considerably
modified, yet certain of the ancestral ideas remain; and
the religious views of the pagan and Mohammedan
tribes comprise a maze of superstition, nature worship,
and tradition.
The Negritos display very few signs of possessing a
real religion, and merely observe certain principles in-
dicative of a belief in spirits, which is further attested
by the great reverence shown for their dead and bytheir custom of inclosing the burial places and guard-
ing them from the desecration of neighboring tribes.
Ancestral worship is a part of their creed;and natural
things,—
plants and animals,— as the embodiment of
different spirits, are ol)jects of devotion among them.
To their children they give the name of the plant near
which they are born, or that of some bird or snake.
The most solenni function is the burial of their dead,
and yet this occasion is mixed with feasting and2t)t)
SUPERSTITIONS AXl) EELIGIOX 297
drinking. When a death occurs notice is sent out and
those in the neighborhood gather round, bringing with
them the game which they have killed on the road.
The corpse is prepared for burial by enveloping it in the
thick bark of a certain tree, taken off entire, and filling
the ends of this cylindrical case with a mixture of earth
and resinous gum, by wdiich means the body becomes
hermetically sealed. It is then left unburied for manydays, during which time a feast with more or less
riotousness is held. All the food and drink consumed,
they then proceed to complete the burial ceremony. Avertical ditch is dug underneath the house of the de-
ceased, and the body lowered into it feet foremost so
that it remains in a standing posture ;the grave is
then covered with earth and the house burned over it.
This marks the end of the event, and the tribe members
disperse, feeling that their duty to the dead has been
performed.
Marriage celebrations and religious dances amongthese people are full of ceremony, which is followed
to-day just as in the days of their aboriginal ancestors.
They all live close to nature and contemplate its forces
with reverence.
The Igorots believe in a Supreme Being, the creator
and preserver, known to most of them as Apo. He has
a wife, a daughter, and a son;and besides these there
are two inferior gods who hold intercourse with man-
kind through the anitos, or ancestral spirits, some good,
others evil, who reward or chastise the people in this
298 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
life according to their deserts. These spirits are repre-
sented by roughly carved idols of wood, and their goodwill is invoked by family prayer. The ancestral spirits
are the objects of greater veneration than the gods,
however, and for fear of incurring their ill will poultry,
swine, and dogs may not be slaughtered except in a
sacrificial manner. There is a priest in every village
who first consecrates the animal to the anitos and then
kills it and returns it to the owner, reserving, how-
ever, the choicest piece for himself. In company with
his first-born son he takes the lead at prayer meetings
or on special occasions such as illness, marriage, the
beginning of an important work, or the averting of
some threatening evil.
Near each village is a sacred tree regarded as the
abode of the anitos ; and outside the different houses
are placed small benches with rice or other food for
their refreshment.
According to the Igorots' belief there are two places
where the souls of the dead go,— one an agreeable resi-
dence provided with everything necessary to happiness,
and the home of the spirits who have died a natural
death;
the other a place of chastisement for those
who have been evil doers and escaped due punishmenton earth.
Turning now to certain other primitive tribes of a
very low grade of culture, of Negrito mixture, we
find religious conceptions of even a more elementary
nature. The Manguianes, or forest people, of Mindoro,
SUPERSTITIONS AND KELIGION 299
for instance, have denied any belief in a future life and
were found to have no word for any idea of a God.
No evidence either of idolatry, spirit worship, or any
other sort of worship has been found among them.
The Tagbaniias, literally the original inhabitants, of
Palawan, a Malay people with some Negrito blood,
show their common origin with the Negritos by their
manner of burving; their dead. The body is incased in
a bamboo coffin and tlien placed in a grave which the
departed one himself has selected. With him are buried
his arms and utensils and a liberal ration of cooked
rice and condiments for his journey to the other world,
— a practice similar to the one followed by the Chinese
and our American Indians;and around the grave is
built a strong; wooden fence. Sometimes also dishes and
pots, after being broken, are used to mark the place;
and as with the Negritos, feasting and drinking accom-
pany the exercises.
Similarly also to the American Indians, these people
have medicine men, half priest and half doctor. They
believe there are two gods,— one in heaven (the sky)
and the other beneath the ground. The former receives
and cares for the souls of the pure and good, and
the latter is his delegate and is charged with puri-
fying the souls of the wicked on earth. When a man
dies he enters a cave that leads into the depths of the
earth, and after traveling a long distance he arrives in
a chamber where sits a judge,— a giant, who stirs the
eternal fire. The monster asks the newcomer whether
300 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
lie has been good or bad in the world overhead;
if bad,
he is cast into a dark and thorny place ;but if, on the
contrary, he has been good, he is j^ermitted to present
himself before the second judge, who may grant him en-
trance into paradise, where there are beautiful houses sur-
rounded by gardens, in which are the fathers, wives, and
relatives of the deceased, together with other good souls.
The Bataks, another of the various non-Christian
tribes, have a religion made up largely of superstition;
they worship animals, particularly singing birds. The
Tinguianes believe in the existence of the soul, which
leaves the body after death but remains in the family.
They venerate anything strange, such as rocks or trees
having an unnatural appearance.
Scattered over the archipelago are a few remnants of
a Malayan population more primitive than the present
Christian Filipinos, and these in general have few if
any religious beliefs, or else very gross ones. They are
without exception filled with superstition, and, as is
the case with all these pagan tribes and oriental people
generally, ancestor worship is very common. Their reli-
gion is somewhat similar in conception to that of the
Igorots ;there is a chief god, the Supreme Being, who
sometimes has a wife and one or more sons and daugh-
ters, and a similar idea prevails as to the reward await-
ing those who have done good and the piniishment for
those who have committed evil.
The Monteses, or hillmen, of Mindanao tell of a tree
that folds its limbs around the trunk of another and
SUPERSTITIONS AND KELiOiON 301
hugs it to death; and the tree thus killed rots and
leaves a tube of tightly laced [^ranches in wliich are
creatures that bleed through the Ijark at a sword thrust
or an ax cut. We learn from the Jesuit fathers who
have studied these people that they l^elieve in a future
life and are polytheists, worshiping particularly the
gods of the cardinal points. Another god takes care of
the horses and cattle, and as there is hardly a memljer
of this trilje who does not possess some of these animals
to assist him in his laljor, the aid of this deity is con-
stantly invoked. There is also the god of the fields, to
whom prayers are offered for a good crop ;and a feast
corresponding to our harvest festival is held in his
honor. Still other spirits inhabit the trunks of trees
and intervene in the affairs of men to favor or hinder
them. To these propitiatory sacrifices are offered up and
their good will thus secured,— a practice similar to that
of the old heathen Tagalogs in invoking the favor of
the Tic-Balan, spirits of the same nature as these.
An idol in the shape of a monkey is always worn
around the neck suspended from a cord, and when on
a journey, if they fear an ambush, they hold out this
little image like a plumb line and let it spin. When it
comes to rest its face is turned in the direction where
the enemy are concealed, and they then carefidly avoid
that place.
According to their belief, also, there are two devils
who must constantly Ije kept in good humor. It is wiser
in their estimation to honor them by sacrifices than
302 THE PHIL1PPI:^^E ISLANDS
to worship the benevolent deities whose favor is always
assured. They believe in omens and are careful to obey
the instructions given by these signs. One most curi-
ous practice^ is oljserved: when a stranger enters a house
to visit and it happens that a fowl flies np and passes
in front of him, the bird is immediately killed and
cooked, and the family in company with the visitor
proceed to eat it as quickly as possible to allay the
fright of the newcomer and cause his soul to return to
the body.
The dead of these people are buried with lance, bolo,
and shield beside them;and from a high post over
the grave is hung a bag of rice, so that the soul of
the departed may have sustenance on its journey to the
highest peak in the vicinity, whence by one jump it
reaches heaven.
The bloodthirsty Mandayas, also of Mindanao, are
strongly attached to their idolatrous customs. Theybelieve in two good principles, father and son, and two
evil ones, huslxand and wife. The wildest among them,
it is reported, make human sacrifices; and offerings of
animals are very common.
Superstitions abound among them, and some are
indeed peculiar. When an eclipse occurs they believe
a snake is devouring the suu or the moon, and in order
to frighten it and thus prevent perpetual darkness they
shout and create a great din l3y pounding upon vari-
ous objects.^ Wlien there is an earthquake the same
1Sawyer, Philippines, p. 342. 2
iiyid., p. 367 et seq.
SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 303
procedure is followed for the purpose of pacifying the
immense crocodile which causes this disturbance by
moving around in the center of the earth.
The Manobos are the most numerous of tlie pagan
people of Mindanao and in their rites and beliefs
resemble closely the Mandayas. They believe in three
principal divinities, which they imagine as powerful
animals inhabiting the forests and exercising dominion
over them. One watches over the snares and traps set
for deer and hogs, another is god of the crops, and
another is the cause of illness. There is also a godof war, for whom it is customary to go on the war-
path after the harvest is secured. Ancestral worship
is their religion, and they have their idols, or dinatas,
similar to the anitos of the Igorots. Natural phenom-
ena, as with the other tribes, seize upon their imagi-
nation strongly. Thunder is the voice of the lightning,
and a rainbow fills them with awe. Like the Tagalogs,
they look upon the crocodile as a sacred animal and
respectfully address it as grandfather.
The Bagobos, who inhabit the foothills of the volcano
Apo in central Mindanao, strangely enough do not use
idols. In their belief they have two souls, one of which
goes to heaven and the other to hell. A set of devils
exists with a chief who has his throne on Mount Apo ;
and this volcano belongs to him as the gateway to hell.
He has a thirst for human blood, and on this account
human sacrifices are made to him. All the other devils
are also worshiped that their wrath may be appeased
304 THE PlllLlFFlXE ISLANDS
and the people be allowed to live. The voice of their
god they hear in the singing of a certain species of
wood pigeon, which is therefore greatly respected, for
it warns them of dangers that are imminent.
The Moros, the numerous people of the south, are
firm in their Mohammedan belief and desire nothing
outside the teaching of the Koran. The Jesuit mission-
aries of jMindanao have always dwelt upon the tenacity
with which these tribes hold to their beliefs and refuse
to accept any other form of religion. They are, as we
have seen, pure Malays from Borneo, who were con-
verted by Arabian missionaries and merchants from
the vicinity of the Red sea; they habitually fix their
abode either along the beach or on the banks of some
stream so as to be able always to find water with which
to perform the ablutions required of the followers of
Mohannned. Their abstinence from all alcoholic liquors
and other ol^servances peculiar to their system of reli-
gion have been remarked by various officers and civilians;
yet the personal observation of the w^riter, though it
was confined to the larger cities, was that the Moros
did not pay to the ceremonies of their creed anythinglike the careful attention displayed by the Mohamme-
dans of India, for instance, or of Egypt.
Their religious hierarchy consists of a chief, or high
priest, who has made the pilgrimage to Mecca and who
can read and expound the Koran; and the jmndita, or
priest, who also as a rule is a pilgrim, and who per-
forms the ceremonies of marriage, circumcision, and
SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 305
burial, and in the earlier days was wont to start the
holy wars.
The people are superstitious and fanatical, and are
quite firm in their Ijelief that the killing of a Christian
is a sure passport to heaven,— the greater the number
killed, the larger the reward when they arrive there.
An army officer in writing of these people says :
Like most savage races the Moro is extremely superstitious.
They all wear hidden in their girdles some sort of charm, gener-
ally a verse from the Koran or a stone blessed by Sijmndita, guar-
anteed to protectthem from death in battle and bad luck in general.
Some of the priests are wont to take advantage of this weakness
on the part of their followers. I know of one pandita who sells
his chin whiskers at the price of one dollar, Mexican currency,
per whisker, each hair being guaranteed to render harmless a
Krag-Jorgensen or a Mauser bullet.
In the rice fields one often sees a tiny nipa thatch
under which is hidden a letter, written by a priest, in
which a fatal attack of dysentery is promised any Moro
who attempts to steal the rice. From the writer's own
observation of these people and from all that he has
been able to learn concerning them, they are hardly
less superstitious than the pagan tribes. Their Moham-
medanism has in it a strong alloy of superstition; it
places a few prescril^ed rigid rules of conduct before
them, but in no sense of the word has it been a
spiritual force.
Many of the inhabitants of the Philippines, even the
Christian natives of the lower class, share the idea that
306 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
seems to prevail among all Malays, that the soul is
absent from the body during sleep, and that if death
occurs at that time the soul is lost.''
May you die
sleeping"
is one of the most dreadful of their numer-
ous cm-ses; naturally, then, they think it dangerous
and wicked to awaken anybody suddenly, and indeed it
is a difficult thing to get a Filipino servant to wake
any member of his master's family. High mountains
form important factors in the religious beliefs of all
oriental peoples, especially those of a low state of civi-
lization;and in the Philippines among all the non-
Christian tribes the notion is quite general that tlieir
god, or Su23reme Being, inhabits the highest peak in
their locality, and that this is the last earthly station
on the road to some heavenly land,— the point whence
the soul departs for the happy regions beyond.
After this discussion of the relis:ion of the non-
Christian tribes, whose numbers amount to about one
sixth of the total population and whose creed is so essen-
tially enveloped in superstition, let us turn to a considera-
tion of the subject of religion in connection with the
remaining and greater portion of the inhabitants, like-
wise of Malayan origin but, on the contrary. Christians.
Even among these people who have become Christian-
ized there are certain superstitious ideas which seem
to be inseparable from Malay character;
in particular
the reverence now paid to the remains of the dead points
to the existence of a form of ancestor worship in the past
the traces of which have not yet been fully effaced.
SUPEKSTITIONS AND liELlGiUN 307
The Jesuit fathers furnished for the report of the
first Philippine Commission a paper on Catholicism in
the Islands, in which they attempted to answer the
question as to what the Filipinos were in a religious
way before the arrival of Magellan and Legaspi. They
were, in the opinion of these persons, what the im-
mense majority of the idolatrous Indians of Asia, the
Chinese, the Japanese, the Igorots, the Atas, the Mano-
bos, and the savages of the high ranges of Mindanao
not yet converted to the Christian faith are to-day; they
were animists, or worshipers of the souls of their an-
cestors;or Sabians, worshipers of the sun, moon, and
stars. They found gods in plants, birds, quadrupeds,
cliffs, and caves;and certain of these, especially the
bluebird, the crow, and the crocodile, they honored
and worshiped. They had in their houses many small
strange-looking idols, which were known to some as
anitos and to others as dinatas,—
spirits which, as we
have seen, are the objects of worship among different
pagan tribes.
Their idea of the creation of the world was expressed
in strange fables. In their belief the sky and the water
were formerly walking together when a kite interfered
between them, and in order to keep the water from
rising to the sky he placed islands on it; and thus the
world was formed, which for these people was composedof a number of islands. This Filipino conception of
the creation of the world is unlike the common Malay
theory; but their story of the creation of man and
308 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
woman from a piece of bamboo is a common one in
Malay folklore. In this Jesuit account of the early
condition of the people in general many customs are
described, some of which are still observed by those
tribes which have not yet accepted Christianity. Omensand superstitions formed an important part of their
creed;the hooting of an owl and the song of the wild
dove, the siglit of a serpent, the hissing of a lizard,—
all were to them so many messages from heaven. Theybelieved in an evil sprite known as the asuang, which
w^as feared by all as a demon or a witch, and a myriadof fabulous and fictitious horrors were attributed to
it. Even to-day this dreaded monster is feared bythe average native. By some the asuang is supposedto be a female sprite of the woods who is kept awayfrom the house during childbirth by the husband
mounting to tlie roof and maintaining a disturbance
for some hours; by others it is supposed to be a man
spirit, who, with his own blood, has signed a contract
with the evil ones by which he receives the privilege
of being able to turn himself into the form of a dog,
cat, pig, or other animal, and .is also given the powerto fly, thus making it possible for him to arrive quicklyat the scene of his mischief. An insect, called the
tik-tik, always precedes him, announcing misfortune
to the fearful native. When its sound is heard in
the night he believes that the dreaded asuang is near,
and every effort is made to drive it away by various
charms.
SUPERSTITIONS AND EELKIIOX 309
According to this belief, a man, after signing the
contract with the evil spirits and thus becoming an
asuang, suddenly finds that holes appear at once under
his armpits, the one visible mark by which this spirit
can be identified. All that the monster then has to do
if he wishes to change into an animal is to rub some
oil into these holes and the transformation takes place
immediately. To keep the spirit away, a light is kept
burning under the bed and garlic is placed at each
corner of the couch. So much, indeed, is this monster
dreaded even by those natives who still retain this belief
that they never make friends or become very intimate
with one before assuring themselves that he does not
possess these visible characteristics. This peculiar super-
stition is supposed to be entirely of native origin and
seems to have a hold upon many of the people, even
those who have been Christianized.
Many here at home have probably heard of the anting-
anting, a charm which our soldiers often found on the
bodies of Filipinos,—
perhaps a bit of paper with writing
upon it, a coin, a button, a piece of stick or bone, or, in
fact, anything which could be worn, and which possessed
the mysterious power of protecting the wearer from
death. Various forms of these have been found, some,
as the writer has seen, consisting of pieces of paperwith sentences written thereon in the native dialect.
Another curious one that has been seen is a shirt, made
to be worn next to the person, well covered with signs,
phrases, emblems, and words that were supposed to
310 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
protect the entire upper part of the body; and the
practice was quite common among the native soldiers
of holding something in their mouths to protect their
internal organs.
Among all these early peoples who later became con-
verted to Christianity the common Malay conception of
the human soul prevailed ;it was '' a thin, unsubstantial,
human image, or manikin, which is temporarily absent
from the body in sleep, trance, and disease, and perma-
nently absent after death." ^ The idea of immortality
remained to be learned through the friar teachers of
Christianity. By their efforts came about the change
among the great mass of the people, making them what
they are to-day, in contrast to their pagan and Moham-
medan brothers in the Islands. Idolatry and systema-
tized superstition disappeared, and likewise slavery,
polygamy, usury, tribal warfare, and other signs of
paganism which characterized the great mass of Fili-
pinos at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards.
The story of this early conquest in a religious wayhas already been touched upon. Philip II, we know,
inspired by religious zeal, started the work of estab-
lishing Christianity in the Philippines, which was con-
sidered the first object in their colonization, by sending
Augustinian monks with the Legaspi exj)edition that
reached the Islands in 1565. Other missionaries of this
same order soon followed to extend the work of the
church. Convents were established in Cebii, Manila,
1Skeat, Malay Magic, p. 47.
SUPERSTITIONS AKD KELIGION 311
and other centers, and parishes were organized in the
various provinces of Luzon and Panay.
The first expedition of Franciscans arrived in 1577,
and they likewise established convents and jDarishes in
and around Manila, particularly in Laguna and what is
now Rizal province, in the Camarines, and in Tayabas.
Dominican Priests
The first bishop of Manila reached the Islands in
1581, and with him came the third missionary body,
the Jesuits, who have since played such an important
part in an educational and scientific way in the Islands.
The members of this order started in immediately to
open schools for religious instruction, founded the col-
leges of Manila and Cebu, and sent out missionaries
all through the Visayas.
THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Six years later, in 1587, the Dominicans came to the
Islands; and some twenty years after these, in 1G07,
the Recoletos.
Thus, by the beginning of the seventeenth century, the
evangelization of the Philippines by the five great friar
orders was well under way, and a complete ecclesiastical
Church of Santo Nino, City of CebiJ
system had been established, with the archbishop of
Manila as its head, assisted by the three Ijishops of Cebu,
Nueva Caceres, and Yigan, and other high dignita-
ries,— the provincials of the monastic orders. Besides
the members of these orders there was the secular
priesthood composed in part of Spanish and in part of
native clergy. In the earlier days these were greatly
SUPEKSTiTi()>!S AND RELKiiON 313
outnumbered by the regular clergy, who often refused
to acknowledge their allegiance to the bishops and
archbishop.
The activities of these various religious bodies soon
began to extend over the greater part of the archi-
pelago, and by a definition of their respective fields,
which became necessary within a short time, the orders
were confined to
their particular
territories, within
which wascarried on the
work of Chris-
tianizing, erect-
ing churches, and
founding schools
for religiousteaching, which
Bamboo Church, San Jose, Nueva Ecija
later added to their curriculum the common elementary
branches ; higher institutions of a broader scope were
established in the more important centers. Theirs was
the real conquest of the Islands, and proceeding quietly
but with untiring effort, often almost forgotten in the
midst of political strife, they gained a hold on the peo-
ple that proved permanent.In regard to the religious life of these natives during
the process of their conversion. Friar Martin Ignacio, in
1584, writes: "Such as are baptized doo receive the
fayth with great firmenesse, and are good Christians,
314 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
and would be better if that the}^ were liolpen with
good ensamples."^
Morga, writing in 1603, said of this religious work :
In strictest truth the affairs of the faith have taken a good
footing, as the people have a good disposition and genius, and
they have seen the errors of tlieir paganism and the truths of
the Christian religion ; they have got good churches and monas-
teries of wood, well constructed, with shrines and brilliant
ornaments and all things required for the service,—
crosses,
candlesticks, chalices of gold and silver,— many brotherhoods,
and religious acts, assiduity in the Sacraments and being present
at Divine service, and care in maintaining and supplying their
monks, with great obedience and respect ; they also give for
prayers and burials of their dead, and perform this with all
punctuality and liberality.-
Another writer, in an account of the friars' work
written at the beginning of the last centiuy, said :
Of little avail would have been the valor and constancy with
which Legaspi and his worthy companions overcame the natives of
the Islands if the apostolic zeal of the missionaries had not seconded
their exertions and aided to consolidate the enterprise. The latter
were the real conquerors,—they who, without any other arms than
their virtues, gained over the good will of the Islanders, caused
the Spanish name to be beloved, and gave the king, as it were by
a miracle, two millions more of submissive and Christian subjects.^
To quote, finally, from another^ wlio was well ac-
quainted with the conditions in the Islands, writing at
a considerably later time, in March, 1851 :
Without any governing power whatever, the greatest moral
influence in these possessions is that which the priests possess
1Mendoza, Ilistorie of the Kincjdome of China, Vol. II, p. 26.3.
2Morga, p. 319.
^Coinyn, State of the Philippine Islands in ISW, etc. (trans, by Wm.
Walton), p. 209. *English consul Farren, 1851.
SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 315
and divide among the monastic orders of Augustines, Recoletos,
Dominicans, and Franciscans (who are all Spaniards), and the
assistant native clergy. A population exceeding three million
souls is ranged into six hundred and seventy-seven pueblos, or
parishes, without reckoning the unsubdued tribes. In five hun-
dred and seventy-seven of these pueblos there are churches with
convents or clerical residences attached, and about live hundred
of them are in the personal incumbency of those Spanish monks.
Other writers who visited the Islands from time to
time during the two previous centuries might also be
quoted to show
how efficient was
the work of the
friars in religion
and education;
and althoughsome have de-
scribed the people
during this time
as bigoted and
the country as
priest-ridden, the
final statement of the work accomplished through the
instrumentality of the orders must l^e a favorable one.
The natives who came under the influence of these
Spanish missionaries became at the outset real Catho-
lics;and though their Catholicism was tinged by cer-
tain local touches of superstition, it remained the object
of pious observance among them, in contrast with the
practices of those around them who failed to come under
this same influence.
Chukch and Campanile, Rosales,
Pangasinan
316 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
The ceremonies and the solemnity of the Catholic
worship had for them a strong attraction, as did also
the solemn pomp in connection with the numerous
feasts and religious processions. Its mysteries were the
source of deep curiosity and its teachings possessed a
certain charm, perhaps because of the novelty and
strangeness of it all, perhaps l^ecause of the kind treat-
ment they received at the hands of these unknown
white-skinned missionaries, possibly for both reasons.
\Yhatever the explanation, the new faith continued to
gain strength, and the influence of the church upon
the life of these people increased. After the religion
itself had been established the activities of the mission-
aries turned into other channels ; they began to take an
interest in the civil affairs of the various localities and
to assume certain administrative duties, such as the dis-
bursement of local funds;and in this way ecclesiastical
interests and influence became a part of the everyday
life of the people.
As time went on the church organization increased
its scope ;Manila became the metropolitan diocese, and
Jaro was added as the fourth provincial one, thus divid-
ing the archipelago into five great dioceses. Additional
missionaries, too, came to the Islands later, and in recent
times other orders sent representatives,— the Paulists
in 1862, and the Capuchins and Benedictines more
recently, in 1886. Converts came over to the protecting
wing of the churcli wherever its influence reached, and
the people accepted the new faith with a sincerity and
O
Oo
S
B
317
318 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
piety that were the subject of comment by ahnost every
traveler in the Islands. Public worship on the Sabbath
and holydays was regularly attended;and at home
little altars were erected with various images of Christ,
the Virgin, and the saints,— the objects of daily devo-
tion. The efficacy of prayer was taught the people,
and even to-day one may hear, as he passes along in
the night through almost any little village in the back
country, the recitation of the rosary and the singing
of different hymns,—
practices that are particularly
common during the celebration of the great feasts of
the church. Such feast days as Christmas, the Epiphany,
Easter, and the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin are
observed with the greatest reverence, with processions
illustrating various biblical events connected with these
holydays of the church, general confession and com-
munion, and family prayer extending through the dura-
tion of the celebration. Among the most beautiful
of religious customs are the daily vespers at sunset
during these times and the solemn midnight masses
during the feast of the Nativity. The one noticeable
activity among the people in general has always been
their attendance at these various church services and
their careful observance of every holyday. On anychiu'ch day, long before the sun has risen, the throngs
may be met returning from service, and later in the
night, especially during the season of Advent, Holy
Week, and other such occasions, their last prayers maybe heard. During all these years the church itself and
<
Q
Q
319
320 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
its practices have remained the object of the same kind
of fascination which first attracted these people.
In later times the part which the different orders
played in the civil administration became more impor-
tant, and with their possession of rich estates and the
great political power which followed almost inevitably,
their character changed and they became something
more than mere ministers of the gospel. The assump-
tion by them of additional duties in the various munici-
palities soon gave them as a class a position that was
second in importance to none;and the exercise of these
extensive powers later, in a way that proved injudicious,
laid the foundation for serious antagonism that began
to make itself felt on the part of the populace. This
feeling of opposition to the extension of the authority
of these monastic missionaries beyond their own field
of religious activity became more serious as the property
holdings of the orders increased and they became more
firmly established in their dual capacity of spiritual and
civil officials. The outcome was what has come to be
known to us as the friar question,— one which assumed
very serious proportions in the latter days of Spanish
rule, which was the underlying cause of the last revo-
lution against Spanish authority in the Islands, and
which, after remaining a puzzling problem for our
own government for the past six years, has finally, as
far as the political side is concerned, been brought to
a solution. The friar question a sliort year or two
ago was perhaps the most important one which the
SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 321
Commission had to solve, and even now, though our
government has effected a satisfactory arrangement on
the political side by the purchase of the arable property
belonging to the different orders, it remains for the
Roman Catholic
church to com-
plete the solution
of the religious
problem. Akead}-
from the United
States have ar-
rived an arch-
bishop and three
bishops, who are
zealously striving
to upbuild the re-
ligious institutions
that were injured
or destroyed by
neglect or war.
The so-called
friar questiondates rather far
back into the
previous history of the Philippines, to the times when
the members of these orders first began to act in other
than a purely religious capacity ;it has been more of a
social, political, and economical question than a reli-
gious one, and it is only now that the religious aspect
Stone Pulpit
322 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
alone is important. The loyalty to the Roman Catholic
church itself was never questioned ; hostility to the
religious corjoorations was what caused the popular out-
burst of feeling against the friars, and the people looked
upon the church itself as entirely distinct from the Span-
ish missionaries
in their role of
land proprietors
and politicians.
The friar, bv a
regular increase
in authority, had
come to take
active part in
family, muni-
cipal, and provin-
cial affairs. Hewas inspector of
t li e p r i m a r yschools and presi-
dent of the boards
of health, prisons,
and cliarity; was in charge of the collection of taxes;
acted as a sort of recruiting officer for the army; attended
all municipal elections and council meetings, and audited
municipal accounts and passed upon nnmicipal iDudgets ;
he was, in fact if not in theory, the municipal ruler
and really controlled the political situation. His per-
manent residence in tlie country, compared with the
Padre
SUPEK8TITIOX8 AND RELIGION 323
frequent changes of civil and military officials, gavehim an advantage in his contest for power, and thus
of all the Spanish officials he became the most inti-
mately connected with the natives.
Both the Schurman and Taft commissions were
instructed to investigate this question full}', and, as a
Padres studying in Corridor of Convent
first step, the purchase of the property holdings of
the various orders, amounting to some four hundred
and three thousand acres, was recommended.
The chief ground for hostility against the friars has
been in their exercise of far greater powder than their
own position and interests justified ;in their embodi-
ment, practically, of the whole Spanish governmentin the Islands, with all its distasteful features
;and
their retention of parochial offices contrary to church
324 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
law, as the people claimed, which decreed that local
parishes should be filled by the secular clergy. In cer-
tain provinces, moreover, particularly in Cavite, Laguna,
and Bulacan, as well as in the districts around Manila,
the political feeling against the friars had in it a trace
of agrarianisra, where for years the friars had been
heads of great manors upon which of late they had
paid no taxes, and yet from which they secured a con-
siderable income from the native squatters.
The friar was often the only man of intelligence and
training in the locality who knew both the native dia-
lect and the Spanish language well, and this knowledge,
in connection with his office as spiritual leader of the
people, had given him an important position as an
intermediary between the natives and the rest of the
world in almost every matter of imj^ortance. As was
reported by the Taft Commission :
At first actually, and afterward by law, he came to discharge
many civil functions and to supervise, correct, or veto every-
thing which was done or sought to be done in the pueblo which
was his parish. . . . The trutli is that the whole governmentof Spain in these Islands rested on the friars. . . . Once settled
in a parish, a priest usually continued there until superannuation.
He was, therefore, a constant political factor for a generation.
The same was true of the archbishop and the bishops. . . . The
friars were exempt from trial for offenses, except the most hei-
nous, in the ordinary civil courts of the Islands under the Spanishrule. . . .
Besides these powers and privileges in the years just
preceding the American conquest, many of the residents
SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 325
of the different pueblos were deported to distant south-
ern islands by reason of suspicion or because of minor
offenses; and, whether wrongly or not, the friars w^ere
charged with having caused these deportations, and
thus came to be looked upon as possessing the additional
powers of life and death over their parishioners. They
always acted as
local agents of
Spanish author-
ity, and, in later
times, when mat-
ters had reached
such a crisis, and
arrests, imprison-
ments, and exe-
cutions becameso frequent, their
connection with
the governmentthat ordered these was an added incentive to the people
in seeking their removal.
Aguinaldo, in expressing his opinion to General Otis,
said that the primary cause of the revolution was the
ecclesiastical corporations which, taking advantage of
the corrupt Spanish administration, robbed the country
and stood in the way of progress and liberty. One of
the clauses of the Malolos constitution itself provided
for the confiscation of the property of these orders;
and public denunciation of their members by different
Church and Bell Tower, Victoria,Tarlac
326 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
native political organizations appeared from time to
time, charging the friars with political oppression of
the people, with extortion and innnorality, always with
a saving clause, however, which asserted their faith
and loyalty to the church itself.
The Filipinos and also the American Catholics in the
Islands, with whom the writer discussed this question,
pointed out as a primary defect the lack of church
discipline among the orders. The friars, as they
said, were independent of the diocesan authorities,
Cjiuuch in Capiz, Panay
and [it different times things were done that were
not sanctioned by tlie cliurch officials, and yot there
seemed to be no way of reaching the offenders. ( )iie of
the witnesses who appeared before the first Philippine
SUPERSTITIONS AXD RELIGIOX 327
Commission, a Filipino of intelligence and, in the writ-
er's opinion, integrity,^ stated that almost everything
about the government was subjected to ecclesiastical
supervision ;that the friar has always been the enemy
Chukch in Tagbilakan, Boiiol
of the Spaniards themselves and that his control en-
tered into the most private affairs of family life. His
opinion was the same as that of numerous other promi-
nent natives,— that antagonism to the religious orders
was one of the strong elements of the revolution against
Spain. Seiior Luzuriaga, now a member of the Com-
mission, testified at that time that as far as the island
of Negros was concerned the feeling of the people was
completely hostile to the friars, particularly because
1 Sr. Caideron, a successful native attorney.
328 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
of their grasping spirit in seeking to be the civil and
military authority eoniljined, and, in short, the com-
plete owners of a man's body and soul. In his opinion,
the friar was the personification of autocracy, and had
as his oljject the spiritual and material exploitation of
the native. The people of the island, he added, are in
general Catholics, and in opposing the friars they do
not attack the religion; it is because they have made
use of this religion to exploit the country and take
money from the people that the feeling of hostility has
arisen.
Testimony of this same sort was heard on almost
every side by the commissioners, and showed that the
hatred for the friars was well-nigh universal, extending
through all classes.
At the time of the American occupation of the Philip-
pines in 1898 the total number of missions in the archi-
pelago was 067, having in their care, according to the
church registry of that year, 6,559,998 souls;and of
the 746 regular parishes all but 150 were administered
by friars of the Dominican, Augustinian, Recoleto, and
Franciscan orders. By the revolts of 1896 and 1898
all the memljers of these four orders acting as parish
priests were driven froui their parishes to seek refuge
in Manila. Some 40 were killed, while 403 were put
into prison and remained there until the advance of
the American troops. And to-day, of the 1124 monks
who were living in the Islands just before the outbreak
of 1896, only 472 remain;some of the others either
SUPERSTITIONS AND K El. 1(1 ION 329
were killed or died, and the rest returned to Spain or
took up tlieir missionary work elsewhere, some in (Jhina
and some in South America. Besides these four orders
there were some 42 Jesuits, 16 Capuchins, and 6 Bene-
dictines engaged in mission work;and though many
of these left their missions because of the unfavorable
conditions, they were treated with more consideration
and suffered little, for these orders, together with the
Paulists, of whom there are a few engaged in teaching,
have done only mission work and have not aroused the
hostility which exists against the four great orders.
With the object of determining the extent of the ill
feeling against these religious orders, their influence in
administrative matters, the amount of property held by
them, and the possilnlity of their return to the Islands,
a careful inquiry was made by the Commission, before
which a host of witnesses, including members of the
orders and the secular clergy, native laymen, army
officers. Catholic and Protestant, and American Catholic
priests, were summoned; and, as a result of this search-
ing investigation, the Commission became convinced that
the deep feeling against the friars was founded in the
usurpation by these latter of the powers of government.
In the words of the Commission :
The Filipino people love the Catholic church. The solemnity
and grandeur of its ceremonies appeal most strongly to their
religious motives, and it may be doubted whether there is any
country in the world in which the people have a more profoundattachment for their church than this one. . . . The people
would gladly receive as ministers of the Roman Catholic religion
330 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
any but those who are to them the embodiment of all in the
Spanish rule that was hateful. . . . AVe are convinced that a
return of the friars to their parishes will lead to lawless violence
and murder, and that the people will charge the course taken to
the American government, thus turning against it the resent-
ment felt toward tlie friars. . . . The question for the prelate
and statesman is not whether the bitter feeling toward the friars
is justified or not, but whether it exists. It does not seem to us,
therefore, to aid in reaching a conclusion to point out that all
the civilization found in the Philippines is due to the friars.
... A popular bias or prejudice, deep seated in an ignorant
people, is not to be disregarded because it cannot stand the test
of reason or evidence.
After this hearing on the friar question had been
completed and it was decided to purchase all the prop-
erty of these orders, as a first step in this work a confer-
ence was held between Governor Taft and Pope Leo XIII
at Rome, the result of which was that Papal Delegate
Guidi was sent to the Islands to aid in the arrange-
ments for this purchase. After a series of negotiations
extending over a considerable period of time, an agree-
ment was finally arrived at by which all the land held
by the ditferent orders was delivered over to the pos-
session of the Insular Government for the sum of
$7,239,000.
Thus one element of the friar problem has been
eliminated by the purchase of their lands, and yet byno means has the entire matter been settled. These
negotiations for the sale of their lands have been in
fact aside from the real friar question which to-day,
somewhat simplified, remains for the Catholic church
SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 331
to solve. The return or nonreturn of these monastic
priests to their parishes now rests with the church
itself, and in view of the earnest recommendation of
the Commission, the indelible impression which the
people seem to have gained of these clergymen, and the
golden opportunity which is open for the introduction
Church in Angeles, Pampanga
of American priests with their American spirit and
liberality, the only wise decision would seem to be to
substitute these latter in place of the friars.
The charges of immorality so frequently made against
the friars the writer had no adequate means of investi-
gating, yet he did observe all over the archipelago the
bitter feeling against members of these religious orders
and heard pretty definite reports of an evident relax-
ation of the hold of Catholicism on the people due to the
332 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
personnel of the church. ImmoraUty in a degree un-
doubtedly existed, and yet, as the bishop of Jaro said :
You must bear in mind it would be very strange if some
priests should not fall. To send a young man out to what mightbe termed a desert, the only white man in the neighborhood,
surrounded by elemencs of licentiousness, with nobody but the
Almighty to look to, with the climatic conditions urging him
to follow the same practices as surround him, it is a miracle
if he does not fall.
Although there has from time to time been unmistak-
able evidence of misconduct in isolated cases, immorality
was not the principal ground for hostility to the friars;
on the contrary, the native priests who have taken then*
places to-day are certainly of no higher moral standard,
— by which statement the writer does not intend to
convey the impression that the standard of the friars as
a class was low,— and yet the people do not feel any
ill will ascainst them on such score.
It is the conviction of the writer that the return of
these friars to their parishes in the Islands would be in
the highest degree inadvisable. The work of winning
over these people to the American government and of
reconstructing the civil organism has thus far proceeded
so successfully that we can ill afford to invite failure
by any such means as this. The people throughout the
Islands are practically unchanged in their view as to
these friar missionaries, and have cultivated a con-
fidence in our administration in great part because of
their belief that through the new government the
SUPERSTITIONS AND KELIGION 333
deliverance from these spiritual leaders is to be perma-nent. The following opinion, which the writer knows
by observation is voiced by Filipinos almost everywhere,
comes from a devout Catholic, a native Filipino, one
of the justices of the Supreme Court.^ He said with
reference to the return of the friars :
The clinging of the friars to the Pliilippines and their stayingin the towns under the name of parish priests, by virtue of
special grants obtained in Rome, to the detriment of the ordinaryand general laws of the Catholic church and to the prejudice of
ecclesiastical discipline, constitute, according to popular opinionand the deep convictions of the Filipino people, a constant and
positive menace to their rights and liberties, which tliey believe
are guaranteed by the Constitution and flag of the Union;and
point to the time, sooner or later, when the true liberal and
democratic character of the government which is to be definitely
established in the Islands will be warped and twisted out of
semblance to itself; for the Filipinos in general see in the friars
only a lot of powerful feudal lords, hostile to their progress and
culture, to their rights and liberties, and they think that the
mere contact between the friars and the American officials of
all ranks will end in changing the nature and adulteratingthe character and forms of the American administration, con-
verting it into a monastic one, similar to the former Spanishadministration.
As a liberal l^ut sincere believer in some form of reli-
gion for every people, the writer has viewed with doubt
a certain tendency on the part of so-called enlightened
natives to the exercise of free thought. Conditions are
such as to urge the Roman Catholic church here in the
United States to send its best material just as soon as
1 Floieiitino Torres.
334 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
an adequate supply can be made available to revivify
and reunite the Pliilippine Catholic chui-ch, for it is the
religion best suited to the temperament, spirit, and
character of the various Filipino races.
An illustration for the necessity of such work is the
recent anti-Roman Catholic movement which started
two years ago in Manila under the leadership of Padre
Gregoria Aglipay, who styled himself Archbishop of
the National Filipino Catholic church. The movement
seemed to gain footing at once; and, with the active
support of Aguinaldo and a few other Filipinos of
some prominence and of free-thought tendencies, it has
drawn to its standard a sufficient following to demon-
strate to the ordinary native mind that neither the law
nor those in authority will interfere with entire free-
dom of worship.
This leader of the new religion has been active in his
efforts, and has perfected an organization with bishops
in different parts of the Islands, though beyond this
the movement has not yet gone far. Aglipay himself
has attracted large native audiences in and around the
capital, and they have seemed apparently in s_)^npathy
with the movement which he is trying to establish.
Little can be said of the effect of this as yet, though
nothing serious in the way of a schism seems to prom-
ise; and with the advent of an additional number of
American priests it is believed that certain malcontents
who are behind this movement will be reconciled and
return to the church.
SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 335
Among the American Protestant bodies that have
tak^n up mission work in the PhiUppines are the Pres-
byterians, Baptists, Methodists, EpiscopaUans, Christian
Disciples, and possibly one or two other denominations.
Of the Protestant missionary movement there is not much
to be said as yet, though its agents have already estab-
lished themselves in many parts of the Islands.
The Episcopal mission is represented by a bishop, sev-
eral clergymen, a number of kindergarten teachers, and
many trained nurses; and under its influence settle-
ment work and a free dispensary have been established
in Manila, and missionary stations have been founded
in the mountains among the Igorots. In Manila, too,
there are already established among the poorer classes
a few Filipino Protestant churches;and an industrial
school has been started by the Presbyterians. Through-
out the archipelago the Bible is being translated into
the native languages and a certain num]:)er of converts
are undoubtedly being secured. A tendency is indeed
manifest here and there to fall away from the Romanchurch now that conditions are changed and the period
of restraint seems to have passed; and there is some
degree of truth in the statement made by the Protestant
missionaries that conditions seem to furnish a favorable
opportunity for their church to do a service to the
Filipino people.
The pure form of Roman Catholicism found in Eu-
rope and America does not exist in the Islands. It has
drawn to itself superstitions of native origin and certain
336 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
principles from the popular code in vogue there;the
people are more superstitious and more impressed with•
novelty and perhaps therefore less constant. Yet Philip-
j)ine Catholicism is in reality the concrete embodiment
of the spirit and character of the people; it has become
so intermixed in their very fiber, it seems so naturally
fitted to them and accommodates itself so perfectly to
their nature, that it cannot be doubted, however loath
Protestant missionaries may be to accept the conclusion,
that it alone is the religion for these people and will
continue to be. Revitalization, more rigid discipline,
and American priests,—
progressive, adaptable, and in
sympathy with American political ideals,— are the needs
of the Roman Catholic church in the Philippines, and
when they are supplied the religious problem in the
Islands will be settled.
CHAPTER XIII
GOVERNMENT
Throiigli our study of the history of the Islands we
gained some idea of their government and administra-
tion;and our discussion of the religion of these people
has thrown light upon the position of the ecclesiastical
body in its control of civil as well as church affairs.
For our purpose here it will l3e hardly necessary to
enter into any lengthy description of the tribal govern-
ments which prevailed before the conquest of the archi-
pelago by the Spaniards. In this earlier time, as we
know, the different peoples were living about on the
shores, fields, and in the woods, in groups of from fifty
to one hundred families, called harangays, which were
ruled by a chief or leading man to whom was given
the name of caheza. This ancient ofhce, the head of a
hundred, or caheza de harangaij, was kept up, at least
in name, by the Spaniards ;but under them, as we have
already seen, the position ceased to be one of honor and
dignity ;the local chief l)ecame a mere tax collector,
an officer hated by the people and punished severely
by the government if the revenues were not forthcom-
ing. In this way the office, which before the comingof the Spaniards was considered the highest and most
338 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
honorable of all local preferments, fell into such dis-
grace that it became necessary to pass a law com-
pelling service in this capacity.
Startino; with this oriu-inal territorial unit of the
group of one hundred, we find a development of it in
the ward, or harrio, as it was called, which was com-
posed of a number of harangays ; in the town or muni-
cipality, which embraced various barrios;and finally
in the province, which included the A-arious towns and
formed a large territorial and political division.
The governor general presided over the archipelago,
a governor supervised the affairs of each province, the
municipal council administered the affairs of the town,
and the head of the hundred represented the govern-
ment as a sort of agent in the haranyaij.
The governor general was appointed from the home
country, as were also the provincial governors. The mu-
nicipal council nieml^ers, composed of a captain and four
lieutenants, were elected by twelve delegates of i\\Q j^rin-
cqxdes, or first citizens of the town, who were qualified
])y having held certain offices and paid a land tax amount-
ing to at least fifty dollars;and the cabeza cle harangay
was practically elected by this municipal tribunal.
A brief consideration of this scheme of Spanish gov-
ernment in practice in the archipelago during the period
preceding American occupation will assist materially in
understanding the character of our own endeavors in
the administration of the Islands. During this surveyof political matters it must, however, be borne in mind
GOVEIINMENT 339
that in practice ecclesiastical influences were always
exceedingly strong and, to use the expression of the
head of one of the great orders, the friars were the"pedestal or foundation of the sovereignty of Spain in
these Islands, wdiich being removed the whole structure
would topple over." In the general government the
archbishop was in the last resort more powerful than
the governor general ;and in municipal affairs in actual
practice the parochial priest was local government itself.
The character of the Spanish colonization must also be
remembered, for in reality the archipelago formed one
great mission, and conversion to Christianity rather
than inculcation of ideal political principles was the
chief object in view. Political institutions indeed were
only a means toward the attainment of these religious
ends, and bearing this in mind we may be better
able to understand the paramount influence exercised
by ecclesiastical officials, and the position of the chm'cli
in matters that seem to us quite without its domain. As
has been truly said,'' The legal status of the Indians
before the law was that of minors, and no j)i'ovision
was made for their arriving at their majority. The
clergy looked upon these wards of the state as the school
children of the church,— the only thought was to make
Christians and never citizens."^
The form of the general government of the archi-
pelago was that of a highly centralized colonial
1 Le Gentil (De la Galaisifere), Voyage dans les mers de VInde (Paris,
1781), Vol. II, p. 61.
340 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
administration closely bound to and controlled by the
sovereign government of Madrid. The crown together
with the Spanish parliament made the supreme laws for
the government of the Islands;and the royal power
was immediately exercised by the department for the
colonies presided over l^y a cabinet minister. There
was also an important advisory body in the Islands, the
Council of the Philippines, which aided in the work of
administration.
The governor general was appointed by the crown
with the consent of the cabinet and upon the recom-
mendation of the minister for the colonies. He held
office for no stated term ]>ut rather at the pleasure of the
crown; he was its personal representative and as such
was the chief administrative and executive officer, under
the immediate control of this minister for the colonies.
Within the Philippines he held the chief command of
the army and navy, and liis appointing power embraced
all branches of the civil service in the Islands. His
authority extended to all matters pertaining to the
maintenance of the integrity of the territory, to the
conservation of public order, the observance and execu-
tion of the laws, and the protection of person and
property.
As a sort of cabinet to the governor general there
was the Council of the Philippines, already mentioned,
or, as it was sometimes called, the Board of Authorities,
comprising the archbishop of Manila, tlie lieutenant
general, the commander of the navy, the treasurer of
GOVEKKMENT 341
the archipelago, the director general of civil adminis-
tration, the cliief justice of the Supreme Court, and the
attorney-general. This body was entirely advisory in
character and its decision was in no way binding uponthe chief executive.
There was, further, the Council of Administration,
which served as a mere representative advisory board,
having for its chief duty the consideration of general
and local budgets and receipts. Its action was likewise
not binding upon the governor general.
Provincial governments organized upon a civil basis
were in Spanish times found only in Luzon, where theynumlDered some twenty or more. No civil governmentwas established in the Visayan islands by the Spaniards,
although the islands of Negros and certain portions of
Panay were quite as far advanced politically as some
of the provinces which were given civil government in
Luzon;and the rule in Mindanao and the Sulu archipel-
ago was always a strictly military one. The provincial
governors were the direct representatives of the governor
general and always subject to him. They were appointedfrom Madrid and were invariably Spaniards.
Aiding these governors were provincial boards com-
posed of nine members, including the governor general
always as president ex officio, the attorney-general, the
treasurer, and several other civil ofhcials, together with
two ecclesiastical members chosen from the relig;ious
orders. The functions of this board, aarain, were solely
hispection and consultation ; in short, there was really
342 THP: PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
no provincial government except the governor, who
represented the governor general.
Locally, the municipal council, although subject to
the inspection of this provincial council and to the veto
and corrective powers of the governor and the governor
general, nevertheless within a narrow sphere, and ten-
tatively and conditionally, administered the affairs of
the town, which tlius had in a way a kind of pojiular
government. Under a very late law ^
municipal councils
were established in the towns of Luzon and the Visayan
islands, composed first of the governor general by virtue
of his office, and in addition five other members, known
as the municipal captain and four lieutenants, who were
designated respectively the chief lieutenant, the lieu-
tenant of police, the lieutenant of the fields, and the
lieutenant of live stock. These offices were honorary
and oldigatory for those chosen to them. The term of
office was four years, and the method of electing mem-
bers was interesting chiefly because it showed the great
limitation of the franchise and the absence of anything
like universal suffrage ;for the system did not rest even
upon an educational or a property qualification, but con-
ferred the right of voting only upon the principal men
of the towns, who elected twelve delegates, who in turn
chose the members of the council.
We have seen how Spain became convinced of the
necessity for radical reforms during what turned out to
be the last period of her dominion in the Islands, and
1 In 18!)3.
GOVEENMENT 343
how earnest were some of the efforts and how real the
results of her attempt to satisfy popular demand at the
time. The excessive centralization which had always
characterized Spanish rule in the Islands became one
of the crying evils, and as a reform measure the minis-
ter for the colonies at the time, Senor Maura, drew upthe law mentioned above, which aimed to abolish this
feature and to restore to the people some of the func-
tions of local government which they had been accus-
tomed to exercise in the earlier centuries previous to
the Spanish conquest. The measure was not ill aimed,
but was, however, ill timed, and came too late to satisfy
the Filipino leaders of reform. A close examination,
moreover, will show that it was largely a mere pretense
of reestablishing the conmiunal home rule of the ancient
regime. The governor of the province could admonish,
fine, or suspend the members of the municipal council,"
while the governor general had the power to dismiss
any or all of them. Further than this, the captain, or
mayor, could set aside any action of the council as he
saw fit;and the parish priest continued the most potent
factor in this local government. Briefly, centralization
extended down to the very towns themselves;
the
influence of the chief executive was felt in these local
governments ;and popular rule existed little more than
in name.
The defects of this Spanish system of administration,
as they have been pointed out in the report of the first
Philippine Commission, were (1) the boundless powers
344 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
of the governor general; (2) the centralization of all
governmental fmictions in Manila; (3) the absence of
representative institutions in which the Filipinos might
make their needs and desires known; (4) the pernicious
system of taxation; (5) the plethora of officials who lived
on the country and by their numbers obstructed the
public business which they professed to carry on ; (6) the
division of minor responsibilities through the establish-
ment of rival boards and offices; (7) the expensiveness
of the system and the corruption thereby bred;and
(8) the confusion that resulted between the functions of
the state, the church, and the religious orders.
One who has devoted any study to this particular
phase of the question can hardly disagree with these
conclusions;and as we progress we shall see to what
extent these abuses have been remedied and the people
permitted to participate in governing. This much, at
least, can be said now : a capable and honest govern-
ment under the American rule has been established;
state and church have been separated ; public revenues
are now used solely to defray the legitimate expenses
of the government and the cost of duly authorized
public works and improvements. Consideration for the
Filipinos as the people of the soil and the owners of
the country has been put foremost;the making of citi-
zens is deemed of primary importance ;and the real
interests of the natives are consulted.
That it was reform in the scheme of governmentwhich the Filipinos desired more than independence at
GOYEENMEXT 345
the time seems to be the only conchisioii to be drawn
from the extensive inquiries made by tlie first Commis-
sion just after their arrival in the Islands in the early
part of 1899. Hundreds of witnesses testified before it
on the subject of the popular desire for independence,
and though all varieties of opinion were expressed,
many of them from sympathizers with the insurgents,
yet they were agreed that because of the ignorance
and political inexperience of the masses, the number of
languages, the varieties of culture and modes of life,
and the difficulties in the wav of intercommunication,
an independent Philippine government was at that time
neither possible nor desirable. And to-day even the
most patriotic Filipinos declare that the Islands cannot
yet stand alone; they need the tutelage and protection
of the United States in order, in their opinion, that
they may become self-governing and indej^endent. In
a w^ord, then, ultimate independence is the aspiration
and goal of the intelligent natives,— and yet an object
w^hich they are convinced is not possible of early realiza-
tion. Those wdio appeared before the first Commission
wanted immediately religious liberty, fundamental per-
sonal rights, and the largest measure of home rule.
They sought free speech, the right of association, the
right of petition ; they wanted the opposite of" arbi-
trary arrest, detention, prosecution, or imprisonment,"
"violability of the home, papers, and effects," "private
laws," "special tribunals," "unearned emoluments."^
1Report of the First Philippine Commission, I, p. 82.
346 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
We have already spoken briefly of the part the
Phihppines played in our war with Spain, the insur-
rection which followed, and the final general pacifica-
tion of the Islands. On August 13, 18'J8, as we know,
Manila surrendered, and Merritt, commanding general,
became governor. On the next day, the 14th, he issued
a proclamation in which he declared the existence of
Seat of Insurgent Government, Malolos
war and the destruction of Spanish authority; assured
protection in civil and religious affairs;announced a
government of occupation and the continuance of mu-
nicipal laws affecting private rights ; created a provost-
marshal district for police regulation ; opened the port
of Manila to the commerce of all neutral nations;
and extended protection to places devoted to religious
worship, art, science, and education. On August 15
GOVERNMENT 347
general orders were issued for the assumption of civil
government hy our military autliorities in the city of
Manila and the district of Cavite, and assignments of
offices were made. The next day, the 16th, a cablegramfrom Washington announced the cessation of hostilities
pending the conclusion of the treaty of peace. The civil
courts as they existed under the Spanish governmentwere soon permitted to reopen, subject to supervision
by the military authorities.
The treaty of peace was signed in December, and dur-
ing this same month the proclamation was made that
municipal law should remain in force as far as appli-
cable and should be administered by ordinary tribunals
presided over by the representatives of the people, the
functions of civil and municipal government to be per-
formed by persons chosen as far as possible from the
inhabitants of the Islands. Pending the ratification of
the treaty, President McKinley appointed in January,
1899, the first Philippine Commission, which we have
come to know, from its president, as the Schurman Com-
mission. Shortly after, this body reached the Islands
and began its work of investigating the conditions of
the country and the capacities of the people.
Under General Otis the whole archipelago was consti-
tuted a military division with headquarters at Manila,
and separated into the various departments of northern
Luzon, southern Luzon, the Visayas, Mindanao, and
Jolo, each of which was set off into districts. The vari-
ous towns were recognized as municipal corporations,
348 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
and under the supervision of the post commanders,
majors, or presidentes, and councilors were elected;and
by a series of general orders from headquarters steps
began to be taken toward establishing other local gov-
ernments. For the time being the commanding officers
of the military districts were constituted governors of
the provinces, as they had been defined by the Spaniards,
and thus a pretty comprehensive administrative system
became established in which lay the foundation for the
later civil government. The work performed by the
American army officials as civil administrators during
this military regime was excellent;not only were mu-
nicipal governments reorganized, but roads and bridges
were constructed, courts were reestablished, and schools
in which soldiers were detailed as teachers were opened.
In a word, the civil experiments and administration
of our military officials prepared the way for the civil
Commission.
The second Commission was appointed March 14,
1900, composed of William H. Taft, president, Dean C.
Worcester, Luke E. Wright, Henry C. Ide, and Bernard
Moses;this later became the Philippine Civil Commis-
sion, and with its advent into the Islands, June 3, 1000,
dates the real beginning of civil administration under
the present American rule.
General MacArthur had succeeded General Otis as
commanding general and governor general and retained
this position of chief military official and the highest
legislative and executive officer until September 1, 1900,
GUVEKNME^'T 349
when civil affairs were turned over to the charge of the
Commission previously appointed.
Immediately upon its arrival in Manila the PhiHppine
Civil Commission began a series of investigations pre-
paratory to the establishment of a civil government.
It had been vested by the President, through the
Secretary of War, with authority to exercise duties of
a legislative nature, which were to be transferred from
the military governor to the Commission, beginning Sep-
tember 1;and it was left free to exercise this legis-
lative function in such a way as it should deem proper
and under such rules and regulations as it should pre-
scribe until the later establishment of a central civil
o-overnment. The same deliberation that was followed
by the previous Schurman Commission was observed
during this period of investigation from June until
September. Similar methods of calling witnesses from
all classes of Filipinos to give testimony as to the form
of government best adapted to the Islands and most
desired by the people were followed out. All evidence
taken, no matter what the bias of the particular wit-
ness, showed that the masses of the people are ignorant,
credulous, and childlike, and that under any govern-
ment the electoral franchise must be very limited
because the large majority w^ill not for a long time
be capable of exercising it independently. As the Com-
mission reported :
" From all the information we can
get, it seems clear that a great majority of the people
long for peace and are entirely willing to accept the
Of;50 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
establishment of a government under the supremacyof the United States."
The establishment of civil government in the Phil-
ippines dates from the time when the United States
Philippine Commission assumed legislative functions,
September 1, 1900. This was an important step, for it
permitted the organization of nmnicipal and provincial
governments, and of the various governmental bureaus,
many of which had their work already mapped out.
The chief executive was still the commanding general,
and the Commission remained, until later congressional
action, a civil body expressing the will of the President
and acting under military auspices.
During the rest of this year, 1900, and the first part
of the following year, while the American army was
contending with the insurgents, the commissioners were
investigating conditions, making laws, establishing addi-
tional bureaus, providing for highways, bridges, and har-
bor improvements, organizing a judicial system, and in
general picking up the remnants which had been left
by the Spaniards and creating out of them by the addi-
tion of new material and modern ideas a governmental
system on American lines.
A second important step toward the realization of
civil rule in the Islands was taken July 4, 1901,
when civil executive power in the pacified provinces
was transferred from the military governor, General
MacArthm-, to Judge Taft, who became civil governor.
A short two months later, September 1, a third step
GOVERNMENT 351
was taken, when at the beginning of its second legis-
lative year there were added to the Commission three
Filipino members appointed by the President, Seiiores
Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda, and Jose Luzuriaga.In the same month the administrative duties were dis-
tributed amono; tlie four American members of the
Among the Tines, near Summer Capital, Benguet
Commission who became heads of executive departments:
Commissioner Worcester, of the interior;Commissioner
Wright, of commerce and police ;Commissioner Ide, of
justice and finance;and Commissioner Moses, of public
instruction. The salary of each was to be ten thou-
sand dollars, in addition to the five thousand dollars
which each received as a member of the Commission;
the salary of the governor was fixed at fifteen thousand
3o!2 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
dollars, besides the seventy-five hundred dollars which
he received as president of the Commission.
From July 4, 1901, to July 1, 1902, the Commission,
with its executive, legislative, and judicial functions,
continued to act as the governing body for the Islands,
by virtue of the authority granted it by the President
of the United States. On this later date the action of
the President in appointing the Commission was rati-
fied by Congress in an act to provide temporarily for
the administration of civil government in the Philip-
pines and for other purposes. This congressional action
marked another important epoch in the affairs of the
archipelago, as it placed a limit on the President's
power by restricting the exercise of his authority, as
far as the Philippines are concerned, to conform to
this legislative act. His appointments must be con-
firmed by the Senate, and his policy w^ith regard to the
administration of the Islands is to an extent dictated
by this legislative measure. By it the Philippine Com-
mission is made the legislature for the Islands and yet
is also limited in the exercise of its functions. Thus
the Islands are actually governed by the people of
the United States through Congress, for which body
the War Department in administering the affairs of the
archipelago acts through its secretary. In the near
future, now that the census has been taken, and pro-
vided that the present state of pacification in the Islands
continues,— conditions precedent to the taking of these
further stejDS,—another legislative body, the Philippine
GOVEilNMENT 353
Assembly, is to be established with a membership of
from fifty to a hundred, composed of representatives
from each province ;and two resident commissioners
are to be stationed in Washington.The essentially different natures of the two systems
of government, the former Spanish and the present
American, are emphasized by a Ijrief comparison of
the two. At the outset we see a distinct separation of
state, church, and military interests under the present
rule,— a condition which was never found to exist
under the former regime, with the result that we have
seen. Under the Spanish rule all three functions of gov-
ernment were exercised by the governor general, who
was appointed by the crown on the recommendation
of the minister of the colonies. The people enjoyed no
representation in this rule;the provincial governors, all
of whom were Spanish, acted as administrative agents
of the governor general, and even the nmnicipal ofhcials
were influenced and controlled by this central authority.
No such thing as representatives of the people sharing
this power of the governor general was known;such
a body as a native congress which should have a share
in legislating for the Islands never existed ; and native
participation in affairs of government in an}" degree
resembling home rule was always out of the question.
Under the present American scheme, on the other hand,
the governing body itself is composed partly of Filipinos ;
the majority of the provincial governors are natives; the
chief justice and certain other members of the Supreme
354 THE PHlLlPriNE ISLANDS
Court are likewise Filipinos, and so also are various
heads of the departments of government; the judges of
the courts of first instance for the different districts are
largely native born, as are all the local justices without
exception; and the municipal officials, with the possible
exception of the health ofticer in certain places, are
always Filipinos. Wherever the opportunity presents
itself the natives are given a certain hand in the gov-
ernment;election of municipal and provincial officers is
by popular vote;and soon, as we have noted, a popular
assembly at the capital will share with the present
legislative body the power of governing.
After the establishment of the four departments of
government already mentioned, the first important work
to be taken np by the Commission was the organiza-
tion of the various bureaus, chief among which was
the civil service board, through the efforts of which a
more ideal system of civil service exists in the Islands
than is to be found in the United States. All offices
and nearly all positions in the insular service are classi-
fied, i.e. are to be filled through examination and certi-
fication by the board, whose action is always subject
to the approval of the governor. The principal excep-
tions are in the case of judges and heads of a few of the
bureaus, and by later amendments many of the latter,
which had been formerly excepted, were included within
the rules of the service. The law provides that pref-
erence in appointment sliall he given first to natives of
the rhilipjjines, and secondly to honorably discharged
GOVERNMENT 355
soldiers, sailors, and marines of the United States,— a
preference that is being observed wherever applicants
of these classes are found by examination to possess the
necessary qualifications.
The merit system, uj)on which this civil service law
has been based, has operated in a way to exclude the
exercise of favoritism and to give to the Filipino people
a larger measure of real lil^erty and an opportunity for
participation in the affairs of government. The chances
for promotion to vacancies of a higher grade, including
the heads of the departments, offer an incentive to
enter the public service and furnish a practical demon-
stration of the declared purpose of our government in
assuming charge of the Philippines.
A bureau of public health— under which have been
organized thirty-six provincial boards and more than
three hundred municipal ones, in all of which the native
members are in the majority,— has been established.
Its held is perhaps the most important in the Islands,
where such a careful inspection of health conditions is
always necessary ;in Manila particularly, where alone
some four hundred officials carry on the work, splendid
results have been accomplished.
Bm-eaus of forestry and mining have also l^een estab-
lished to take charge of the extensive interests involved in
a forest area of some seventy-three million acres, and in
the various gold, silver, and copper mines, many of which
had been opened under the Spanish administration, and
numerous others by Americans immediately afterward.
356 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
A bureau of the first significance is tliat of public
lands, which has the important work of adjusting land
titles. No attempt was made by the Spanish authorities
to settle this question of land tenure until the late date
of 1880, at which time a law was passed changing simple
possession to legal ownership, and thus placing property
upon a solid basis and enabling the inhabitants to enjoy
all the Ijenefits which result from the security of prop-
erty rights. The adjustment effected by this law, how-
ever, was very imperfect, and many of the natives, if
not the majority, who cultivated the soil remained real
squatters. To-day it is practically impossible to make
transfers on account of the insecuritv of the titles, and
hence investment is not yet safe. The successful solu-
tion of this question of land ownership is closely related
to the healthy economic future of the Islands.
The bureau of agriculture is likewise of primary
importance, for, as we know, these various peoples are
essentially agriculturists, and the chief wealth of the
Islands has in the past come from the products of the
soil, as it promises to come in the future. This indus-
try, nevertheless, has been carried on in a very primitive
fashion, and it remains for the department to introduce
modern scientific methods,—a work which it is begin-
ning to do by carryuig on investigations and experi-
ments, distributing seeds and bulletins, and establishing
modern farms for instruction in improving cultivation.
A weather Imreau and bureaus of geodetic survey
and coast guard and transportation are among tlie other
GOVEENMENT 357
important departments established. In addition to
these are the bureau of ethnological survey, of posts,
which has an organization that is exceedingly efficient,
in view of the transportation difficulties in the Islands;
and the bureau of Philippine constabulary, or colonial
militia, which was created by an act of Congress, and
which has accepted from the military authorities the
responsibility of maintaining peace in all the provinces
that have been organized under civil rule.
Under the department of finance and justice have
been established the bureaus of the insular treasury
and the insular auditor, the work of which has brought
about a radical change for the better in the collection
of taxes and revenues and the accounting for public
funds. Since its institution, without as yet any increase
in the tax rate, the taxes have produced douljle what
they did in the best years of the former administra-
tion. Rigid control of the expenditures of the various
bureaus, proper systems of auditing and accounting, and
a reorganization of the principal receiving departments,
such as those of the customs and the internal revenues,
since these features stand in such contrast to what was
true formerly, have impressed the Filipinos of the office-
holding class deeply ;the increased amount of receipts
is actually a surprise to them;and the result of all this
cannot but have a beneficial effect. Official extortion
is not possible mider the present system and, although
there is still a weak spot in municii^al expenditure
which needs to be cured, general abuses such as were
358 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
the subject of complaint of the taxpayers at one time
are to-day impossible.
Directly under the treasurer of the archipelago is a
force of provincial treasurers, all Americans, who in
person or through responsible deputies collect all public
taxes and revenues, even municipal licenses, except such
as are received from day to day in the various towns,
which cannot be attended to by a monthly visit on the
part of the treasurer. Everywhere except in the mu-
nicipalities public moneys are handled by Americans,
as it has seemed inadvisable as yet to add this further
responsibility to the native officials;and unfortunately
tlie experience with certain of the local presidentes has
proved the wisdom of this step. Unaccustomed as the
natives are to handling these funds, it will require the
same sort of training; in financial as in other matters
before they are able to look after such receipts and
expenditures without the oversight of American officials,
A judicial system, comprehensive in its scope, is in
operation, comprising the Supreme Court with a Fili-
pino chief justice and six associates, three of whom are
also natives;a series of courts of first instance holding
session in the different judicial districts of the archi-
pelago, in some of which Filipinos preside, and in
others Americans;and a justice of the peace court in
every municipality in which there is a court of first
instance. All justices of the peace are Filipinos. Besides
this regular judicial system there are additional muni-
cipal and land courts, and a court of customs appeals.
GOVEIINIVIENT 359
Allied to this judicial organization is the bureau of
justice with the attorney-general and his assistants, the
solicitor general, a Filipino, and the various provincial
fiscals, all of whom are also Filipinos.
The bureaus of customs and immigration, of internal
revenue, and of banks, banking, coinage, and currency
comprise a most important department of the govern-
ment, including, as it does, the sources of income of
the Insular Government, which is dependent upon the
revenue of the Islands for its support.
The government has established laboratories, a neces-
sary adjunct to the bureau of public health, and a
department where scientific investigation of microbe
activity and its relation to human, animal, and vege-
table life in the archipelago, is carried on.
The department of public instruction, finally, includ-
ing the bureaus of education, public charities, public
libraries and museums, statistics, public records, print-
ing, and architecture and construction, completed this
first work of setting in operation the civil-government
machine.
By the organization of these different departments
an hnportant work was finished, since the various needs
of government, which suffered so seriously l^y their long
abandonment during the period of military operations,
now received attention, and matters began to move
again under the leadership of efficient Americans. Dur-
ing all this time, moreover, the Commission was busily
engaged in continuing its work of investigation and
360 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
meeting deputations of Filipinos, in carrying on hear-
ings, in passing various legislative acts to meet the
most urgent demands at the time, in drawing up pro-
vincial and municipal codes for the establishment of
these more local governments, and in studying other
immediate needs of the Islands.
Preparatory to the promulgation of a provincial code
which should form the basis of government, the number
of the provinces and the size of each were determined,
largely by geographical considerations. In some cases
in the larger islands convenient mountain ranges and
rivers were constituted the boundary of the particular
province ;and in other smaller islands single provinces
were established. The insular and mountainous aspects
of the country and the mixed and ignorant character
of the people necessitated a centralized form of govern-
ment, and even under American rule the degree of
self-government in the provinces had of necessity to
be a limited one.
The general act for the organization of provincial
governments was passed early in 11)01, after the Com-
mission had met the representatives of the various
provinces on a tour of inspection and inq^uiry. Thirty-
four provinces have since been regularly organized and
administered by the native governors with marked
success, particularly in certain instances.
The two purposes of these i)rovincial governments
are, first, the collection of taxes tlirough a provincial
treasurer who is the common agent of the central,
GOVERNMENT 361
provincial, and municipal governments ; and, secondly,
internal improvements. A further function lies in the
supervision of the police of the provinces and the
conduct of the municipalities.
The personnel of the provincial government consists
of five officers, provincial governor, secretary, treasurer,
supervisor, and fiscal or prosecuting attorney. The real
governing body, however, is composed of the governor,
Provincial Officials of Ilocos Norte
treasurer, and supervisor, forming a sort of triple-
headed executive power.
The governor is the chief executive and as such in
a certain sense has charge of the municipalities, which
he is obliged to visit twice in the year, and is in control
of the police power. He is elected biennially by the
municipal councilors in convention. Of these provin-
cial heads twenty-nine are Filipinos and five Americans.
362 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
The secretary acts as the recording officer for the
governing board, Init has no vote in it. He is appointed
by the Commission under civil service rules which
require him to be aljle to speak and write Spanish, The
provincial secretaries are without exception Filipinos.
The treasurer is, as has been said, the collector of
revenues for all branches of the government. He is
appointed by the Commission, also under civil service
rules, and is required to give a large bond as security.
All of these officials are Americans and, it seems, must
be for some time to come.
The supervisor has charge of roads, bridges, and
internal improvements ;he is appointed by the Com-
mission in accordance wdth the rules of the civil service,
and must be a civil engineer and surveyor. All these
are Americans, though their assistants and agents in
the different municipalities are natives.
Tlie fiscal, likewise appointed by the central gov-
ernment, is the attorney for the governing board and
prosecuting attorney for the provinces. He must be
a member of the Philippine bar, and must Ije able to
speak and write Spanish. All of the provincial fiscals
are Filipinos. After January, 1906, English is to be
substituted for Spanish in this requirement affecting
these various officials.
Thus the ruling body of the provinces, that is, the
governing board, is made up of a chief executive chosen
every two years by the local governing bodies of the
various towns; the treasurer, who is a classified bonded
GOVERNMENT 363
officer, always an American, and a man versed in finan-
cial matters;and a supervisor, who must be a profes-
sional engineer, and hence, for some time to come, an
American. The majority of the members of the board,
that is, two out of the three, are Americans, and thus,
in theory, provincial affairs are under American control.
The act establishing various provinces is so framed, in
theory at least, that a governor who is capable and ener-
getic can do much good ;and also, that one Avho is inca-
pable or not well intentioned cannot do much harm. In
practice, however, these theoretical qualities sometimes
do not possess great value, and in spite of the American
majority as a check, an inefficient native governor has
it in his power to do a considerable amount of evil.
Fortunately only one or two of the provinces have
shown this possibility to be true, and with this small
exception the native governors as a class have mani-
fested both real ability and an appreciation and proper
use of their power, and by the results which have been
gained during their short periods of incumbency have
proved themselves efficient heads of these important
political divisions.
In establishing this system of provincial government
the Commission provided a further check upon the prov-
inces by granting the central government the power to
veto the selection of a governor, or after such selection
to suspend him should there be reasons for suspecting
his loyalty, should he be proved guilty of dishonest
practices, or for other sufficient reasons.
364 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Provincial government in the Philippines, it is to be
noted, corresponds more closely to our comity than
to our state administration. It is at best only a sem-
blance of self-srovernment, and vet in view of such facts
as to the character of the people, especially their inca-
pacity for self-government, as have already been set
forth here, the only wise policy for the Commission
was to keep the control of affairs firmly in its own
hands. In the practical operation of this provincial
scovernmental machine it is to be feared that various
governors, who are neither loyal nor incorruptible, will
remain in office. In participation in provincial affairs
the natives have reached, if indeed they have not
passed beyond, tlie limit of their capacity to legislate
wisely, and the granting of even the degree of power
which we have given to these native governors is a
liberal step to say the least, the prudence of which
we can judge only in later years when, after things
have been running in -working order for some time,
the consciousness of strict surveillance by the central
government will not be felt so strongly. Yet it must
be said that results to date are exceedingly promising.
The whole scheme is a distinct advancement over the
Spanish plan of provincial rule and one that well
satisfies both American philanthropists and Filipino
patriots ;native executives with authority that savors
something of real sovereignty are now realities; and
there is nothing to prevent the posts of treasurer and
supervisor from being filled likewise by Filipinos as
GUVEILWME.NT 30-3
soon as they are able to demonstrate their fitness for
holding such positions.
This general scheme of government was further
elaborated by the enactment, early in 1901, of a muni-
cipal code under which the local governments through-
out the archipelago were organized. Mention was
made previously of the inauguration of civil muni-
cipal government under the direction of the military
authoritv bv virtue of general orders issued in 1899
and 1900. Comparatively few towns, however, had
been ors-anized under these orders before the Commis-
sion beo;an to exercise its legislative functions;and it
postponed further action upon any general plan of local
administration until the following year, when the code
was passed.
By this nmnicipal code the natives have in the main
the same control over their local affairs as is enjoyed
by residents of towns of corresponding size in the
United States;
it is like a blanket charter for small
cities in our country, adapted to the special conditions
existing there. It has been translated into Spanish,
Tagalog, Visayan, Bicol, and Ilocano, and distributed
to the people, and as amended is now in operation in
al^out seven hundred towns.
The government of each municipality is vested in a
president, a vice president, and a municipal council, all
of whom are chosen at large by qualified electors of the
towns for a two years' term of office. According to
population the various municipalities are divided into
366 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
four classes, each class entitled to a certain number of
councilors, as follows : (1) 25,000 or more, 18 councilors;
(2) 18,000 to 25,000, 14 councilors; (3) 10,000 to 18,000,
10 councilors; (4) 10,000 and less, 8 councilors.
The electorate is limited to those who speak and
write Spanish or English, who pay a tax of fifteen dol-
lars a year, or who have filled municipal offices.
Although the municipal laws were drawn up on the
same general plan as those of the United States, some
of the leading characteristics of the Spanish system
were also preserved, particularly the custom of the
town president or mayor presiding over the meetings
of the council and in the case of a tie casting the
deciding vote. He also enjoys a veto power which can
be overruled only by a two thirds' majority of the mu-
nicipal council. The powers of the president or mayorin general are almost those of a person holding a similar
position here in the United States; in his absence the
vice president assumes charge of the affairs of govern-
ment;
the councilors are elected from among their
townspeople by popular vote;and thus the municipali-
ties enjoy to a great extent autonomy in local matters.
Although wide powers of initiative are thus given to
the towns and although they are practically independent
in managing their own affairs, a strict supervisory con-
trol is retained by the Insular Government, especially
in matters relating to sanitation, education, and police
powers; the provincial governor, further, has the powerto suspend any one suspected of malfeasance in office;
GOVERNMENT 367
and the treasurer of the province has charge of the
taxes and supervises all municipal accounts.
That local self-government as far as was possible was
given to these towns is shown especially in the matter
of local expenditures, for there is little or no control
outside of the municipal council over the disposition
of municipal funds. By experience already gained the
Municipal Officials
saving feature of what seems to be almost too great
a degree of liberty in this system of local administra-
tion is the quarterly examination of accounts by the
provincial treasurer for the purpose of determining
whether all revenues are properly accounted for and
are expended for the public weal and not for private
or sectarian purposes.
368 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
As is the case in the provincial governments, a fair
judgment of the efficiency of these town organizations
can be given better after a somewhat longer period
of time has elapsed and the period of trial has ended;
yet outside of the handling of public funds for which
the local authorities have not yet been trained, the
municipal administrative machine is beginning to run
smoothly, the people take an interest in its operation,
a feeling of satisfaction is perceptible among them, and
a certain degree of efficiency that is quite hopeful is
being attained by the local administrators.
Thus step by step, under the gravest difficulties, the
foundations have been laid for a fully developed struc-
ture of civil government, to be realized later. From the
awful chaos of affairs in the Islands and the complexity
of questions and duties, incapable of imagination at
this distance, the Commission has evolved a system of
order and plans of detail, all of which have been very
largely put into execution. At the same time that
it created the municipal and provincial codes and the
various departments of government, a multitude of
other measures, such as the incorporation of the city
of Manila, a code of civil procedure for the Islands, and
new tariff provisions, occupied its attention.
More civil government has been established over a
greater extent of territory than the leading Filipinos
themselves thought wise. So far as has been possible,
the Commission has brought the nati\'es themselves into
active governmental relations, and in its appointments
GOVERNMENT 369
has given the Filipino first consideration whenever it
was possible to do so. Several former insurgent generals
and other sympathizers with the movement have been
appointed to positions of trust and responsibility, and
with good effect, for the appointees are anxions to do
their duty, and they do it. The plans in this general
scheme of administration have been as wise as human
Palace in Walled City: the Seat of Government
good will and the best ability obtainable could make
them;and an expression of American good feeling
such as has never before been displayed in any colo-
nial work has been given these people. No suggestion
from the home government has influenced in any waythe appointments in the Islands, and the fairness
with which they have been made has involuntarily
elicited respect from the masses of Filipinos wlio were
370 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
watching this work of civil reconstruction. As time
goes on a certain feeling of confidence which the more
intelligent Filipinos begin to experience increases and
finds frequent expression. The views of this class may
Hotel Oriente, now Goveknment Office Building
be seen from the following extracts from opinions which
have come from the three Filipino memljers of the
Commission, and may be taken for what they are worth,— in any event, they represent the attitude of the ma-
jority of the thinking inhabitants to-day.
Senor Tavera wrote :
The promises of the lamented President, Mr. McKinley, that
America comes to the Philippines to aid them, and to give themthe principles of free government which rule the United States
and make it great, are being fulfilled. The complete autonomywhich the municipalities now have could not be— I do not say"proposed
" — even hinted at under the former regime. Fili-
pinos are convinced that the era of justice has begun.
Seilor Legarda said :
The autonomy now enjoyed by the pueblos organized under
the provisions of the municipal code, promulgated by the United
States Philippine Commission, could not be more liberal. Neverhave the Filipinos enjoyed such equal rights, eitlier under
Spanish rule or under the short-lived Malolos government.
GOVERNMENT 371
The right of suffrage as exercised to-day is an entirely new
tiling to the Filipinos. So also is the exercise of all the indi-
vidual rights which they enjoy under the American flag ;and it
is only those who obstinately refuse to see what is taking place
under their very eyes— those incorrigible obstructionists who
oppose all civilization and progress, and systematically find fault
with every measure that the American government has proposedto carry out in these Islands— who will deny the rapid advance
that has been achieved here in so short a time, not by restricting
liberty, but by extending it, and by fostering public education
everywhere.All the above-mentioned advantages, coupled with the added
value which necessarily pertains to all rights guaranteed by a
Company of Philippine Constabulary undek CommandOF American Inspector, Cuyo
strong and stable government, we in this archipelago have
enjoyed since the day that it pleased Providence to plant the
American flag on our soil. Even though many Filipinos cannot
for the present appreciate these advantages for the reason that
the ravages of war— cruel and bloody in some of the districts
372 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
of tlie arcliipelago, but now liappily drawing to a close— are
still too obvious, it is hoped that in time these evils will be
forgotten and that they will then be convinced of the sincerity
of the American government.
And Senor Liiznriaga added :
As a result of the authority of tlie United States we have to
acknowledge the great benefits that peace and all its wholesome
and profitable conditions have brought to the provinces as well
as to the pueblos under civil rule, where, aside from the advan-
tages of the municipal autonomy and the provincial regime,
the administration of justice is speedy and upright. Moreover,
schools have been so organized that the Americanization of this
country will be an accomplished fact within a few years if all
elements join, as it is to be hoped they will, for the purpose of
accomplishing this meritorious work in favor of the culture and
welfare of these peoples.
So long as abnormal conditions exist it does not appear to methat it would be prudent or politic to introduce any change in
the established srovernment of these Islands.&^
The first great work in connection with this civil
machine— its estaljlishment— lias been accomplished;
the developing and perfecting of its operation remain
as further problems. As to the whole there is no doubt
of the quality and the results, and experience will be
the means of remedying minor defects. The develop-
ment of this system will 1)e further hastened by the
formation of the Philippine Assembly, and with it, as
an added element in the Insular Government, popular
rule on an even more extensive scale than obtains now
will be the result.
CHAPTER XIV
EDUCATION
The story of educational development in the Philip-
pines rightly begins with the advent of the Spanish
conquerors and their religious companions, whose early
activities we have just discussed;for though certain
enthusiastic investigators are confirmed in the opinion
that a native written language and literature existed
among the different tribes previous to the arrival of
the Spaniards, the only fair conclusion to be deduced
from the weight of reliable evidence is that, with the
exception of a written alphabet of Arabian origin known
to the Moros and possibly to those peoples of Luzon and
the Visayas with which these Mohammedans came into
contact by their inroads into the northern islands, learn-
ing had made no real progress in the archipelago. And
notwithstanding the fact that some of these early peoples
had already become acquainted with certain practices,
particularly those of an industrial nature, which we com-
monly associate with a condition of semicivilization, even
this much could not have been true of the majority;
and the missionary fathers were the true pioneers in
the education of the inhabitants. In treating of the his-
tory of the Islands and of the work of the church in
374 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
converting these people to Christianity, we were able
to see how rapidly the missionary movement extended
and how active became the efforts of its agents, who
carried the word of God into the interiors where civi-
lized man had never set foot. We saw, too, how schools
were established in the very wilderness for the purpose
of teaching the catechism, explaining the faith which
seemed to have such powerful attraction for these
pagans, and making the 23rinciples of the church better
known. The masses who came over to the new creed
necessitated the extension of this school system, and the
founding of seminaries where natives could be trained
in church doctrine and thus be fitted to preach the
new gospel to their people. And this was the beginning
of the school system which we Americans found in
operation on our arrival,— a beginning founded upon
the necessity of extending the influence of the church
and making permanent converts to the Christian reli-
gion. During the earlier years school training had no
other object than this, and naturally so, for even in
Spain at this time education had not yet branched out
into the broader fields; only such a system as the
religious needs of the Islands demanded became estab-
lished, and not for some time were higher institutions
even of a religious nature found, while a general
scheme of elementary schools somewhat more secular
in character never quite became a reality.
As the church began to l)e firmly established we
saw, however, that it became conscious of the need of
EDUCATION 375
something higher as a means of training, and that con-
sequently a series of more advanced institutions tlian the
catechism schools of the missions began to be founded :
'
San Ignacio, at the close of the sixteenth century, under
the supervision of the Jesuits ; Santo Tomas, soon
afterward in 1611, in charge of the Dominicans; and
San Juan de Letran, in 1640, by a philanthropic Span-
iard^ and later taken over by the Dominican fathers. At
about this time seminaries for the advanced education
of girls began to spring up : Santa Isabel in 1632;
Santa Catalina in 1606;
Beaterio de San Ignacio in
1699; and Santa Rosa somewhat later in 1750.
In this way came al^out the abnormal development
of the system by the growth of higher institutions and
so-called colleges, soon after the establishment of the
strictly religious missionary schools and long before
anything like a general scheme for real elementary edu-
cation had been put into eifect. Thus for some two
centuries the work proceeded under the direction of the
ecclesiastical authorities and was shaped to carry out
best the ends of the church. The scope of the various
institutions which were established was, it is true, en-
larged from time to time; departures from the strict
study of church dogma and Catholic theology were
made at various times, and courses in science and in
pharmacy and medicine^ were introduced. From the
viewpoint of contemporaneous standards it cannot be
1 See chapters on history.^ juan Geronimo Guerrero.
3University of Santo Tomas.
37G THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
denied that work of good quality was done, evidencing
real efficiency.
The Jesuits in particular were the teacher missionaries
in tlie Islands, and their efforts more directly than
those of any of the other orders were devoted to the
primary instruction which seemed to be so neglected
during these years. Had they been allowed to remain,
it is possible that the charge which can with a consider-
able degree of justification be brought to-day against
the Spanish administration— that general elementary
education was too long forgotten—would be unfounded.
By a decree of Charles III, however, they were expelled
from the Islands and did not come back until 1859.
Immediately upon their return educational matters,
which had begun to lag, received a new impulse, and
additional agencies were created. These trained school-
men soon established the Ateneo de Manila, one of the
most flourishing church schools in the capital to-day ;
and a few years later, in 1805, they organized a nor-
mal school for the training of teachers for primary
work, which had by this time been taken in hand by
the government.
Just at tliis time, too, additional higher institutions
for girls were founded, particularly the Escuela de
Maestras in 1804 and the Colegio de la Inmaculada
Concepcion in 1808. Within the next score of years
seminaries for prejDaring natives for the priesthood
were established in the archdiocese of Manila and the
episcopal seats of Vigan, Nueva Caceres, and Jaro.
EDUCATION 377
During all this time the burden of carrying on the
work of education fell ahnost wholly upon the church,
and it was likewise regulated to the interests of the
church. A nautical school, it is true, had been founded
as early as 1620 and an academy of drawing and paint-
ing very much later, in 1845, both outside of church
control; but the government itself made no important
Prize Scholars in Jksiht School
move toward establishing a system of secular educa-
tion until 1863, when, to fill the urgent need for better
educational facilities in the Islands, particularly in the
way of a general elementary instruction, a royal decree
was passed providing for the establishment throughout
the archipelago of schools for primary teaching, and
also for the founding of higher schools for secondary
instruction, special schools, normal institutions, and
378 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
colleges. According to the decree, schools for girls as
well as boys were to be opened, at least one of each
kind in every town;common branches such as read-
ing, writing, geograj^hy, history, arithmetic. Christian
doctrine, Spanish, agriculture, and music were included
in the curriculum;
attendance was made compulsoryfor those between the ages of seven and thirteen
;and
a supervising committee composed of the governor gen-
eral, the archbishop, and seven others was appointed.
The measure was indeed adequate and would have been
productive of sul)stantial results if carried out properly;
owing, however, to a small degree of interest at the time
in subjects so purely secular, to the inefficiency of the
native teachers charged with carrying on the work, and
to lax supervision, the purpose of the educators at home
fell short of its mark. The curriculum was followed
only half-heartedly by instructors who had themselves
received hardly sufficient training to instill confidence
in their own ability, with the result that Christian doc-
trine, a little reading, writing, and geography, together
with the elementary processes of arithmetic, were all
that the children usually had a chance to learn.
The provision requiring one male and one female
teacher was not carried out;and there were no good
schoolhouses, modern furniture, or suitable text-books.
The schools were held in the residences of teachers or
in buildings rented by the municipality and used by
principals as dwellings, in some of which there were
wooden benches and tables, and in others not even
EDUCATION 379
these. Very little of the instruction outside of that
given in a few large towns was in Spanish, since the
majority of the native teachers did not understand that
language ;and the pupils were compelled to learn
tediously by heart the exact words of the text-book,
and then in the manner of a phonograph they gave
back to the teachers what they had memorized without
seeming to have exercised any thinking power. To
the casual visitor instruction by the native master
seemed tiringly mechanical and noisy, hardly effective
or economical, and lacking in vitalizing power.
The teachers themselves were only partly trained, and
had no opportunity of perfecting themselves by attend-
ing normal institutes. They were inadequately com-
pensated for their services, even such as they were;
therefore (perhaps we should add), quality of work
seemed to be less important than quantity, and profes-
sional enthusiasm was apparently absent.
In all this work there was lacking a centralized sys-
tem;there was no definite guiding head
;and though
Manila and Mindanao were subcenters, they were inde-
pendent of each other and in no close connection with
their respective fields. The system lacked completeness
and sufficiency, and although it is true that at the time
of the coming of the Americans some 2150 public pri-
mary schools were in operation, a knowledge of the char-
acter of the work carried on in them detracts seriously
from the importance with which such a statement as
this might otherwise be received.
380 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Meanwhile the higher church institutions had become
well estaljlished and dominated this elementary public-
school system. Higher education was fur the select
class;and when a person w^ished to pursue such a
course he naturally attended the ecclesiastical schools.
With the more advanced colleges in existence so much
earlier than the great majority of lower schools, the
tendency was to deny the masses even a good elemen-
tary education and to center attention upon the few who
were hurried to so-called colleges or universities;and
as a result a few persons among the inhabitants have
stood out as educated Filipinos, while the great mass of
the people have either not been educated at all or only
up to a certain point,— the acquisition of the mechani-
cal processes of reading and writing. Whatever doubts,
controversies, and conflicts of views there may be, the
American teachers, who have been in a position to make
careful observation, have but one opinion of the train-
ing heretofore provided, and that is briefly that the
Filipino children have been compelled to grow up with
a meager outfit as far as the quantity and quality of
schooling was concerned.
Just as with various nations in the past there have
been awakening's in educational interest coincident with
political crises which they have experienced,— Ger-
many, in a measure after the Peace of Westphalia, our
own country after the Civil War, and France after the
Franco-Prussian struggle,— which have resulted in
renewed effort, additional vigor, broader interpretation,
EDUCATIOX 381
and new ideas, similarly tlie Philippines after the revo-
lutions of 1896 and 18U8 and through tlie intervention
of the American government have awakened to pres-
ent needs, and since our coming have experienced an
enlivened interest in educational matters. A thirst for
western education was felt even before the American
occupation, and in every revolutionary propaganda there
was a provision for the establishment of sch<5ols and
colleges. Respect for learning is one of the redeeming
traits of the oriental, the Filipino being no exception ;
and under American management education was bound
to have a wider popular extension and a broader and
more liljeral character.
No clearer expression of the purposes of our govern-
ment with regard to the Philippines could have been
made than that rendered by the reopening and organ-
izing of schools under the supervision of the military
othcials, as soon as it became evident by the Treaty of
Paris that the sovereignty of the Islands was to be
transferred to the United States. The work of educa-
tion was immediately taken in hand;and even after
the outbreak of the insurrection the plan of furnishing
free public-school instruction was not al)andoned, for
wherever the conditions were at all favorable schools
were established and soldiers detailed as teachers. The
central military government purchased and distriljuted
large quantities of American schoolbooks and supplies,
and aided towns that were too poor to pa}^ the salaries
of native teachers and the rentals of school buildings.
382 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
The character of the work done in this transitional
period from the former Spanish methods to the present
American system was naturally far from systematic and
ideal, carried on as it was largely with the old machinery
and often necessarily in a desultory way; yet it was
an important steptoward the organization
as it now is, the children
Ijeing given an introduc-
tion to the English lan-
guage, and the people
in part becoming ac-
quainted with the idea
of American schools.
The value of such a sys-
tem was recognized bythe military authorities,
to quote the command-
ing general at the time,^
as" an adjunct to mili-
tary operations, cal-
culated to pacify the
people and to procure
and exjDedite the restoration of tranquillity throughout
the archipelago." The spectacle of the American soldier
acting; in the role of teacher of his enemies was one that
might well have caused thoughtful Filipinos to reflect
and wonder if there were not something genuine in this
.SoLDIKK TeAC'IKU ON LeAVE OF
Absence in Amehica and TwoFilipino Students in Amekica
1 Major General MacArthur.
EDUCATION 383
conduct of the agents of the new government,— some-
thing that seemed to substantiate in a small way the
declarations of what American policy was to be.
With the establishment of civil government the pres-
ent educational organization came into being. Under
the immediate direction of the writer, and amid diffi-
culties with which this pioneer work fairly bristled
GiKLb' hcHOOL, Manila
and which at times seemed almost insuperable, an
elementary school system was founded, which, in its
later development, in the writer s candid opinion, has
promise of a degree of success that was almost beyond
expectation. No precedent existed which might afford
helpful suggestion ;the field and its occupants were
utterly unknown to western educators; the problem
was unique. Yet by an immediate determination to
make English the basis of instruction in spite of expert
384 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
warning from certain quarters and the practical diffi-
culties involved in such a step, and by a steadfast adher-
ence to this decision, together with the aid of a corps of
efficient American supervisors and teachers to carry it
into effect, a progress that points to an ultimate suc-
cessful issue has resulted.
Immediately upon the writer's arrival in the Islands
in July, 11)00, he began a careful study of the educa-
tional proljlem ;and by personal observation, and con-
sultation and correspondence with army officers, local
native officials, and others in a position to know, he
endeavored to learn the exact situation and the general
opinion as to the educational policy to be pursued. As
a great diversity of views was encountered, due undoubt-
edly to the variety of local conditions, and as the prob-
lems to Ije solved had already been formulated, he came
to believe that on some matters judgment must be sus-
pended until trips of personal inspection could be made
throughout the Islands; and, furthermore, a new force
was recognized in the axiom about going slowly. After
an extended preliminary study of the conditions, the
general superintendent made recommendations to the
Commission in the form of a bill for the establishment of
a centralized system of free public schools;and this meas-
ure in slightly modified form was passed by that bodyon January 1, 1901. Its chief features were as follows.
A centralized system of free })ublic schools was estab-
lished under the supervision of a general superintendent
who should have the entire work of organizing and
EDUCATION 385
inaugurating, with ample and necessary powers grantedfor the administration of his office. It further provided
for the appointment of ten division superintendents,
increasing the number later by amendment to eighteen ;
for deputy division superintendents, one for each organ-
ized province ;for one thousand trained teachers from
the United States;and for the establishment and main-
tenance of normal, agricultural, and manual training
schools. The expenditure, furthermore, for the succeed-
ing- year, of four hundred thousand dollars for the con-
struction and equipment of school buildings, and of two
hundred and twenty thousand dollars for the purchase
of text-books and supplies, was authorized. A superior
advisory board of education, to be composed of the
general superintendent, together with four qualified
natives, the latter to act in an advisory capacity to the
superintendent, and the board as a whole to make rec-
ommendations to the Commission for legislation, was
also provided for. The representation of the people in
a consultative and auxiliary way was also aimed at in a
provision for the construction of local school boards, of
which the president of the town was to l)e ex officio
chairman, while the other four or six members were
to be chosen one half by the municipal council and one
half by the division superintendents. The curriculum
to be followed throughout the Islands was that outlined
by the general superintendent ;the appointment of
Filipino teachers was provided for, their salaries to be
fixed by the division superintendents ;and all school
386 THE PHILIFPIXE ISLANDS
buildings were to be designed after plans of the general
superintendent, subject to the aj)proval of the division
superintendents. By this measure the central govern-
ment undertook to support the entire supervisory ma-
chine, pay the salaries of all the American teachers,
and provide text-books and school supplies. The towns
as a rule were to supply buildings either by construc-
tion or rental, equip them, and pay the salaries of native
teachers. The English language, as soon as it should
be practicable, was by the act made the basis of all
public-school instruction; the Faribault plan of religious
instruction, giving to every denomination the right to
send religious teachers at various times during the week
to the schools to give instruction to the children of
those parents who desired it, was adopted; and no public-
school teacher was permitted to teach religion, and no
pupil was required to receive religious instruction.
Unlike the state systems of puljlic instruction, the one
outlined ])y this school law showed a decided tendency
to centralized control, which was a natural consequence
of the social and political conditions of the Islands.
Owing to a lack of school accommodations, the edu-
cational act contained no general requirement com-
pelhng school attendance, though, as is the case in the
United States, it was felt that such a measure was
necessary for the attainment of the best results.
Immediate steps were taken for putting into operation
the new educational machine which had sprung into
definite form by legislative enactment, and the warfare
EDUCATION 387
against superficiality was begun. Instead of making
any flourishes by establishing high schools, colleges, and
ambitious universities first, in spite of the fact that
these were most in demand, primary schools were fos-
tered and an endeavor was made to insure to the Fili-
pino child a knowledge of English, clear ideas on a few
subjects, and a receptive and awakened intelligence.
388 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
trained in the profession were brought from the United
States, and without any knowledge of Spanish or the
native dialects were started on the very dilHcult workof imparting instruction to their charges in an unknown
tongue. The old texts were removed from the schools,
and more than half a million of American schoolbooks
and a vast quantity of supplies were soon distributed
throughout the various towns;some twenty thousand
modern school desks were supplied as a start in the
equipment of the schoolhouses on something like a mod-
ern basis. During this earlier period instruction was
provided for in more than a thousand schools; and
by the opening of evening schools an opportunity for
learning English w^as offered those of mature age.
The salaries of the Filipino teachers were raised, and
a definite announcement made to them that the Ameri-
can teachers had come not to displace them but to pre-
pare them to take charge of their own schools. Theyreceived daily instruction in the new language at the
hands of the American teachers, and plans w^ere madefor furthering their education after they had progressed
sufficiently with the language itself. Vacation normal
courses began to be held in several of the school divi-
sions, and the normal, industrial, agricultural, and nau-
tical schools received a definite impetus. Every townwhere peace had been restored was visited, its conditions
investigated, and its needs in so far as possible supi)lied.
In this way very definite steps were taken toward estab-
lishing our present educational organization.
3SS5S:
-^' \mtfi0 I ji'r-'^mrj
OaoCO
a'A
O
Ed
<'A
HS5
t4
o33
DO
389
390 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Certain difficulties were naturally to be expected in
this earlier part of the work, and though at the time
these were severe enough, as months went by they
seemed to work out their own solution. The matter of
appointing and assigning this large number of American
teachers was itself a serious one. Owing to the impos-
sibility of personal conference with the applicants, more
than half of the appointments were made through vari-
ous heads of normal schools and colleges together with
state officials on whom it was deemed wise to confer
a limited appointing power; many of these, too, and
practically all of the later ones, were made directly by
letter on the basis of several thousand personally written
applications with various testimonials attached. The
character of these teachers and applications was indica-
tive of a great interest in Philippine affairs. While
men of nearly every profession and doubtless a large
number without any profession applied for appoint-
ment, many capable and enthusiastic teachers hold-
ing good positions in the United States and vouched
for in the highest terms signified their willingness to
accept work in the Islands at the same salaries they
were receiving at home, and in some instances at even
smaller ones. In making the various appointments care
was taken to secure professional teachers,— men and
women in sympathy with the work, who are makingit their vocation in life. During the earlier months of
their new service unfavoral^le climatic conditions, dif-
ficulty in obtaining food supplies (particularly in the
EDUCATION 391
interim between the closing of the military commis-
saries to civilians and the opening in an adequate
way of the civil supply stores), slight illnesses inev-
itable for new arrivals in the Islands, salary delays
owing to the inefficient mail service at the time, and
currency difficulties due to the depreciation of the
Mexican coins commonly used, combined to form a
source of considerable dissatisfaction on the part of the
American Teachers, Tarlac
teachers and presented serious problems for those direct-
ing the new movement. But the difficulties proved in
a large part temporary, and the teachers, after becoming
settled in their stations, became satisfied, interested,
and enthusiastic in their work. The comparatively
small amount of complaint from them was proof of
their determination to overcome ordinary discomforts,
often severe, which were attendant upon life in such
392 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
a country as the Philippines. Means of communica-
tion and transportation, moreover, were so poor that
close connection between the central authorities and
those in the field was practically impossible ;on account
of the lack of good roads the supervising oflicers were
often unable to reach all their schools within the time
prescribed ;and for
a long period the
sending of supplies,
particularly after
the military officials
were compelled to
withdraw the aid
that had become
almost indispen-
sable, was a matter
attended with most
serious delays and losses. Certain weaknesses, too, were
discovered in the school law, especially in the control
given to local officials over the disbursement of the
funds for school purposes and the payment of native
teachers. Epidemics, particularly of cholera, and also
of other tropical diseases, played havoc with the system ;
various pests threatening the crops from time to time
kept the children away from school;
«ind in many
parts the spirit of revolt and ladronism was so active
as to handicap heavily the school work. Perhaps most
serious of all was the lack oi anything like suitable
buildings for housing the children;
but in spite of
Building Dksks of Commissary Box
Lumber, San Jose, Batangas
EDUCATLOX 898
drawbacks the department forged ahead, remedyingdefects and developing itself by the addition of new
features just as soon as the conditions justified their in-
troduction. The policy followed throughout was steady,
slow-going, careful, fundamental work, looking to the
distant future alone for results, with hope centered in
the new generation. No attempt was made at display ;
nothing for wliich a need
did not exist was intro-
duced; and patience has
become a cultivated
characteristic. The fact
that to-day, after a four
years' period of trial has
passed, English is spoken
in some degree by at
least a few in almost
every part of the archi-
pelago, and is used more
than Spanish in most of
the towns, not to mention
the various provincial
centers, is of no little significance and promise. There is
no doubt that English is much desired by the Filipino.
The past two or three years have witnessed certain
changes and additions to the system as first put into
operation, which have had the effect of making it more
complete ;and to-day it has reached a stage of develo}>
ment that really invites attention.
Native Teac iiku
A Taoillou"
394 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS
The present organization comprises the secretary of
public instruction, who has general supervision of the
bureau, and with w^hom lies the power of initiative in
school legislation ;the
general superintendent,
in active control; thirty-
five school divisions,
each generally coincid-
ing with a province, in
charge of division super-
intendents who are
directly res^jonsible to
the general superintend-
ent; some seven hun-
dred and twenty-fiveAmerican teachers and
twenty-five hundred
native ones, having in
charge approximately
two hundred and fifty
thousand children for whom two thousand or more
schools are provided ; thirty-eight provincial secondary
schools, many with industrial departments; an insular
nautical school; agricultural schools in embryo ;
an
insular trade school; a series of normal schools, the
central one in Manila and the tributary institutes in
five important provincial centers; evening schools; va-
cation normal institutes; and tlu; superior advisory
school board together with local boards.
Two Native Teacheks, Victoria,
Tarlac
The one at the left is a Pampango,the other is an Ilocano
EDUCATIOX 395
In all this primary instruction, which is itself the
first oljject of the department, the American teacher
with his Filipino aids is the one who becomes most
intimate with the natives and holds the key to the
situation;and if true to himself, his profession, and his
country, he is the chief factor at present. The success
of this entire experiment depends upon his ability to
estaljlish sympatlietic relations with Filipino pupils,
teachers, and parents by the exercise, aside from his
professional training, of ready tact, plain common sense,
a warm heart, and colossal patience. Many are far
removed in the interior, living on native food, miles
Boys' School, Malate
away from the nearest American, with only a glimpse
now and then of the outside world through the medium
of a poorly equipped mail service; yet they see a bright
side withal, and are satisfied. Their responsibilities are
396 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
great when the situation is viewed from a broad stand-
point; but it is a grand opportunity to bring out man-
hood and womanhood, and that the majority are rising
to meet it augurs well for the success of the movement.
The influence of this American teaching body has been
a profound one in the work of pacification which our gov-
ernment has been fostering. The almost sacred regard in
which the teacher is held has been everywhere noticeable;
and even political enemies have been friendly to him.
One of the handicaps which the work has thus far
felt most seriously is the common lack of efficient native
teachers,—
something that is hardly surprising in view
of the poor facilities for normal training which previ-
ously existed. The supervisory character of the work
of the American teacher often takes him away from
his own particular school, which is left in charge of
some native assistant;and the imperative need for
better trained Filipino instructors then becomes appar-
ent. This is, however, not true of many individual
teachers who are doing excellent work; and in criticis-
ing them as a class perhaps we are expecting too much
too soon. Their position and their compensation, too
often dependent upon an uncertain source,— a local
treasury easily depleted,— are not yet what they ought
to be;and though their salaries have been increased
something like 33^ per cent since the institution of the
American school system, they are still inadequate.^ As
1 A possible monthly average of from twenty to twenty-five dollars local
currency for males and from fifteen to twenty dollars for females.
EDUCATION 397
to their compensation, a remedy is promised by granting
to the division superintendent a controlling power over
the disposition of local school funds;and as regards
their training, a solution has already been arrived at in
the creation of a normal school system and the vacation
normal institutes.
This normal work is without doul3t only second in
importance to the general primary instruction itself, and
First ^Manila Xukmal Schooi. Faculty
indeed is a part of the latter, supplying the means for
its furtherance. In conjunction with the central normal
school in Manila have been organized five tributary
institutions in certain important provincial centers,—
Vigan, Neuva Ciiceres, Iloilo, Cebu, and Zamboanga.
Their cm-ricula embrace many of the higher branches
extending over a four years' com^se;and the central
398 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
school in Manila is distinctly a secondary institution.
It has an attendance of some three hundred and twenty-
five students from the various provinces, a corps of
special American teachers, and a dormitory system for
the young women. The grade of w^ork done is excel-
lent, and a trained body of young men and women is
being graduated that will without question raise the
quality of the native teaching force to the degree that
is desired.
The industrial school in Manila is another important
development of the educational system, and with facili-
ties for teaching all of the practical trades and also
telegraphy and stenography, it has already made its
value felt. Antipathy to manual lal^or, a trait of the
Filipino people in general, which has been a powerful
opposing force to American endeavors to introduce a
system of education fundamentally industrial and utili-
tarian in character, was one of the difficulties which
threatened for the time its successful operation. But
after this brief period of comparative indifference to
the opportunities offered by such a training, the school
became popular, and to-day, with an attendance of
some one hundred and twenty from various parts of
the Islands, and a demand for its graduates by the
government and private concerns, its success seems
assured. This industrial work is also carried on as a
separate course in connection with the different second-
ary schools;and in some cases, as among the Igorots
and the Moros, manual training alone is taught.
EDUCATION 399
The nautical school was among the first to start
operations after the American occupation, and was
really a continuation of the institution which existed
under the Spanish regime for preparing the natives for
service at sea. It has pupils from different parts of the
archipelago, one hundred and fifteen in numl^er, who
are securing a training in navigation that w^ill fit them
Girls' School, Binang
to take positions in the merchant marine. The school
may later, according to plans which have not yet crys-
tallized, develop into a real Philippine naval academy
conducted on the lines of modern institutions of such
character, with students appointed from each province.
Evening schools have been opened at practically
every place where an American teacher has been sta-
tioned, and their attendance now in the vicinity of
400 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
twenty-five thousand indicates the interest taken by the
older people, particularly local officials and other ambi-
tious adults, who find English helpful in their work or
a desirable acquisition as a language.
Besides this system of primary, secondary, and special
schools, other work, such as music, drawing, sewing,
a n d, a m o n g the
Moros, weaving to a
certain extent, has
been done, in some
of which particular
aptitude has been
shown. Tn certain
cases the practical
side is prominent, for
in the case of weav-
ing and sewing the
products are sold and
thus the school be-
comes the seat of an
industry.
As yet industrial
education, the common bread-winning means of the
masses, has not advanced to the degree which the con-
ditions in the Islands demand. A model agricultural
school has been established and a certain amount of
common manual training has been going on in some
of the provincial centers ;l)ut the progress in the
ordinary schools has far outdistanced that done in an
Igorot Schoolboys
EDUCATION 401
industrial way, with the exception of the central trade
school in Manila. The growth of the two kinds of work,
academic and industrial, should be more nearly parallel
at least, and the only sense of comfort in the situation
at present as regards the latter is that it is still in its
infancy. The agricultural nature of the entire country
Igorot School
demands its extension;the masses must always remain
dependent upon the soil for their maintenance ;and the
first step that has been taken will be followed soon, it
is hoped, by other more definite ones.
Another feature of the development of this system
is the provision for educating certain of the Filipinos
in the United States, whereby one hundred students
are now studying in southern California, preparing
402 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
themselves to take up at home the active part in edu-
cational matters for which they will be fitted by their
four years' course here. This is the reahzation of a
recommendation which early seemed a w^ise one;and
the benefits to be derived from the plan of sending
native students to the States for some time to come
cannot be over-
estimated.
With such a
system now in
successful opera-
tion the question
arises, W hatfurther is to be
provided for the
satisfaction of
the desire for
education once awakened ? The need for hio;her institu-
tions hardly exists as yet, but nevertheless in the plan-
ning of the educational work for these people it w^as
impossible to avoid looking to the future and seeing
what might then be possible of realization. The step
has in some places already been made from primary to
secondary institutions,—
grammar-high schools are nowin existence
;and something higher should be held out
for that class, perhaps not yet numerous, which will
pursue advanced courses. And so, early in the work, the
foundiug of a technical school with courses in miningand civil and electrical engineering, to prepare young
bciIUOLllUlSE AT AkKVALO, PaNAY
EDUCATION 403
men for practical work in developing their country, was
within view;also schools of fine arts, music, and paint-
ing; and as an apex to the system, a university with
schools of law and medicine. Such an extension is at
present, of course, speculative, and yet it seems within
the bounds of possibility. Along with the academic side
of this development, however, should come the practical ;
and remembering experiences that we have had at
home, we should keep the utilitarian standpoint always
in view.
The decision on the part of those who had this educa-
tional work in charge to make English the language of
instruction has at various times been subjected to severe
denunciation on the part of certain critics at home, who
in the exposition of their views have shown what was,
to say the least, a lamentable lack of knowledge of the
conditions in the Islands upon which this decision was
based. "Destruction of their national literature and
tongue by foisting the English language upon these peo-
ple"was hardly the proper expression to be used in con-
nection with a land where, as we have shown in this book,
there never was a common dialect, not to mention a lan-
guage ; nothing of importance in the way of native liter-
ature existed; and there was such a confused number of
different tribes, each with its own tongue, that ethnolo-
gists themselves have not yet worked out their solution.
When the American educational authorities finished
their investigations there was but one thing to do,—
adoj)t English. This was the unanimous opinion of the
404 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
military officials who had come to learn the people and
the conditions ;it was the eager desire of the people
themselves ;it was the only course open. Spanish, asso-
ciated with all that had gone on before, was out of the
M
EDUCATION 405
fusion. Furthermore the paucity of the dialects and
their inexactness would never permit of the carrying
on of advanced instruction through their channels.
Various additional difficulties j^ractically insurmount-
able would have pre-
sented themselves in the
adoption of the policy
of teaching in the differ-
ent native languages:neither American nor
Fihpino teachers had a
grammatical knowledgeof the dialects, and there
would have been no
available instructors in
the newly adoptedtongue except possibly
the expelled friars;there
was no native dialect
susceptible to such
changes as the English,
and none possessed such
a possibility of varietySanta Terksa
of expression ;also— a
^^^^"^''^ '*"'"' ^"''^^^ ^^ "" ^^^^^'^^^
most serious practical difficulty— suitable books could
not have been secured. Worse than this, however, would
be the tendency of any such educational policy toward
the disunion rather than the union of the Filipinos ;the
Tagalog would become more intimately Tagalog, and
400 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
the Visayan would hold himself aloof with even more
earnestness than to-day ;and so would the other tribes
in which the spirit of exclusiveness would by this means
become more carefully fostered.
In the endeavor to give the Filipinos a language that
would bind them into an official and commercial, if not
domestic, nationality, the bull was taken by the horns
and English introduced not as an exotic but as an
actual teaching language. The results of the past four
years have demonstrated to the complete satisfaction of
the writer that this language lias been accepted by the
Filipino people as a substantial necessity. The natives
favor the introduction of it, for soon it will become the
official language^ and they wish their children to acquire
it in order that they may become eligible for office.
Again, Spain never made general education in Spanish
a possibility, but in fact rather discouraged it;the con-
trast offered by the present policy flatters and pleases
the native, and he therefore desires it. English-speaking
Filipinos, further, are drawing larger salaries than those
who speak only the native tongue or Spanish, and the
others want this larger salary. Finally, the natives want
English because of the social position acquired by its
knowledge.
Common interests should be one of the chief objects
in our efforts among these people, and such will never
be possible through native dialects. For common inter-
course, as well as for training, these j^eople need a foreign
1 In 1906.
Ij
•
Xiy^t-i
oo
'•J
407
408• THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
speech ;to restrict them to their own dialect would be
to continue the condition of isolation in which we found
them, stunt them in their growth, and deny them the
material and the intellectual possibilities offered bysuch a language as the English, with its wealth of lit-
erature and ideas and its value in the common inter-
course of life in the Orient, where it is the languageof the commercial and
industrial world. The
Filipinos have been
already convinced of
this;their sincere desire
to know the new tongue
proves it. Without doubt
English is then the most
valuable language in
every way for them ; ma-
terial prosperity, official,
political, commercial,
and social life are with-
in the grasp of its pos-
sessor. And more tlian this, it is the great equalizer of
the natives inter se.
Up to the present time, aside from the public schools
and the church, there have been no other important
common sources of enlightenment among the Filipinos.
Public libraries, lecture courses, broad commercial re-
lations with foreign countries, a widespread daily press
to give publicity to all affairs of state and society,
A Bkight Pupil, TwelveYears Old
She has acted as teacher to fill vacan
cies for the past year
EDUCATION 409
modern theaters, active participation in public affairs,
street-corner political discussions,— these and other
agencies of essential importance for the advancement
of culture must later, too, be included in that larger
system of training which our government is directing.
What the future has in store for the Filipino people
no one knows;much will depend upon the character
of the coming generation of teachers. The capacity
School in San Fernando, Union Province
of the Filipinos for education gives to our efforts the
promise of permanent results. There may be interrup-
tions and setbacks in this unique experiment, for the
field is large and bestrewn with difficulties; yet the
educational representatives of the American people with
the saving grace of common sense will in the end bytheir genius and perseverance train up the Filipino
youths in a way that will regenerate their country. The
system that has been inaugurated will mean the elevation
410 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
of the people of the lower classes, and the distressing
gap between illiterate ignorance and discriminating cul-
ture will be lessened. Heterogeneity will give place to
nationality, and pacification and prosperity will be more
firmly secured.
Popidar interest has been aroused in education, and
in this lies in great part the success of the movement.
Too much we must not expect, however, for native
dialects will continue to be spoken ; yet English will
become the medium for the transmission of modern
currents of thought,— in brief, present-day civilization.
The outcome of a broad and fruitful education, wisely
regulated, will be tlie lifting of this future new nation
far above its present position in the world's class, and it
will share with Japan the important work of breathing
western life into all eastern civilization.
Conclusion
In the foregoing pages we have been able to gain
some idea of just what our possessions in the distant
Pacific are;
and if the information has in any wayaided in reconciling conflicting reports, correcting former
impressions, or creating new ones as to this country and
its possiljilities, and the nature of the work which our
American government is conducting, the writer feels
amply rewarded. Such is the variety of conditions that
confronts any observer there that it has been often-
times difficult to make unqualified statements of general
application with real accuracy. To state the situation
EDUCATION 411
briefly, our government is attempting by tbe exercise
of the best possible effort to create homogeneity from
the heterogeneity which it found on its arrival, furnish
a strong civil constitution for the archipelago, and fit
the people to take charge of themselves. In this work
it has secured the confidence and , the cooperation of
the main body of the Filipino people, and every sign
prophesies successful accomplishment.
The oj)eration of the civil machine is yet retarded in
a measure by ladronism, the outgrowth of the extended
period of strife, and by the still devastated condition of
different provinces where military operations were espe-
cially active. The late ravage of cholera, crop pests,
and disease among the native animals, and, again, unex-
pected weakness of character of a certain few amongthe administrative officers have been further impedi-
ments. These are surely disappearing, however, and an
unexpectedly rapid development in other ways has been
ample compensation; looking upon the movement as a
whole, one caimot avoid a feeling of proud satisfaction.
Even to-day the Islands are beginning to be able to
supply their own needs. In an administrative way this
is particularly true, for the general training in govern-
ment, which all the large office-holding class is receiv-
ing, and the special instruction in the governmentinstitutions are both calculated to teach the natives
self-reliance. On the practical side, the developmentof the agricultural industry by Chinese labor, by which
the natives will absorb the principles of husbandry,
412 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
will tend toward the same result. One thing that im-
presses the newcomer deeply is the wonderful possibility
of the archipelago in an agricultural way, and with the
transformation of these natives into a contented labor-
ing people the degree of self-support which is necessary
and possible will be realized.
The transition in this whole work must be a gradual
one; even in those respects in which we feel that
Philippine laws and institutions can be Americanized
with advantage, the work must be done slowly and
surely if we would avoid superficiality and gain security.
For some time to come no jury system is possible, and
all public moneys must be handled by American officials
of integrity. In judging of fitness for self-government
on the American plan, the character and intelligence of
the masses rather than of the few must determine how
fast innovations shall be introduced;and their natural
conservatism in many w^ays must be respected.
The outlook is bright for the Filipinos. They are
bound to develop in some way, and in the right one
if we persist in our present course. From their manyinnate gifts something substantial is certain to result if
the conditions are at all favorable;and it rests with the
people of tlie United States to determine the conditions.
They have already begun to participate in their govern-
ment, and as time goes on this participation will become
the more extensive. We have scratched a Malay and
at some future date we need not be surprised to find an
American, at least in spirit and initiative.
INDEX
Abaca. See Hemp, Manila
Abdominal band, 159
Abra : river, 42, 167; province, 42
Academy of drawing and painting,
377
Acapulco, 68, 78
Acclimation, 148
Acquisition of the Philippines, story
of, 3
Admission of Chinese, 259, 260
Admixture, 258-260
Aglipay, Padre Gregoria, 334
Agno river, 42, 167
Agrarianism, 324
Agriculture, 62, 96, 176, 177;bu-
reau of, 356
Aguinaldo, Emilio, 106, 108, 112,
113, 114, 116, 119, 273, 325,
334
Agusan river, 26, 44
Albay, province, 22, 30
Alexander VI, Pope, 47
Alphabet, written, 373
American army : tribute to, 121;
work of, 347, 348, 350
American and Filipino children com-
pared, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270
American ideal, 6
American guardianship, 6
American civilization, superiority
of, 6
Americans have greater capacity for
industrial activity, 6
American exploitation, 7
American occupation : events of,
briefly mentioned, 112-121;
of
Manila in 1898, 111
American priests, introduction of,
331, 334, 336
American Protestants, 335
American teachers, 11, 267, 268,
269, 380, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388,
390, 391, 394, 395, 396, 398
Americans and Filipinos, 8, 9
Ancestral ideas, 296
Ancestral spirits, 297
Ancestral worship, 296, 306, 307
Andaman islands, 242
Anderson, General, 112
Angat, 107
Animal life, 192, 193
Animists, 307
Anitos, 297, 298, 303, 307
Anthropology, 228
Antiexpansionists, 93
Anting-antlng, 309, 310
Antipathy to work, 266, 398
Antique, province, 24
Anti-Roman Catholic movement, 334
Ants, 149, 193, 216
Apo : a god, 297; volcano, 26, 33,
36, 303
Arabian influence upon Moro dia-
lects, 89, 90
Arayat, 30, 34
Archbishop (Fernando Manuel de
Bustamente), imprisoned, freed,
becomes governor, 79
Architecture, 284;and construction,
bureau of, 359
Area : of Philippines, 19, 20;of Lu-
z6n, 20;of Mindoro, 20
;of Mas-
bate, 20;of Samar, 20
;of Panay
20;
of Leyte, 20;
of Palawan,20
;of Negros, 20
;of Cebu, 20
;
of Bohol, 20;of Mindanao, 20
Arms, Moro, 251, 254
Artistic work, amount limited, 283
413
414 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Asiatic and Philippine archipelagoes,
26, 27, 28
Asuang 308, 309
Ateneo de Manila, 37(>
Atmospheric pressure, 128, 129
Augustinians, 55, 77, 310, 328
Australasia, 27, 200
Autonomy in local affairs desired
from Spain, 87
Awakenings in educational interest,
380, 381
Ayuntamiento, 28i
Azores, 47
Babuyan, 22
Bagobos, 303
Baguio, Benguet, 154
Baguios. See Cyclones and Typhoons
Bajans, or sea gypsies, 237
Balabac, 24, 26
Balangiga, massacre of, 290, 291
Bamboo, 188
Banajao, 30, 34
Bananas, 178, 180
Banks, bureau of, 359
Baptism, Chinese forced to receive,
80
Baptists, 335
Barangay, 61, 70, 337
Barbosa, 52
Barong, 254
Barrios, 232, 338
Basilan,237 ; peninsula, 22; strait, 26
Bataks, 230, 300
Batangas, province, 22
Bates Treaty, 251, 252
Bathing, 278
Bautista, monk, 71, 72
Beaterio de San Ignacio, 375
Beliefs, early, 02, 296. See ChapterXII
Benedictines, 310, 329
Benefits of American sovereignty, 13
Benguet, 42, 153
Beriberi, 150, 153
Biac-na-bat6 Treaty, 108
Bible, 335
Bicols, 00, 238, 256
Birth rate, 232
Bishop of Manila, first, 68,70, 311
Blanco, Governor General, 106, 107
Blood compact. See Katipunan
Blumentritt, 231, 232
Board of Authorities, 340, 341
Bohol : area, 20; mountains, 24
;
seismic centers, 36;
visited byLegaspi, 55
; uprisings in, 74, 83;
commercial geography, 199
Bolinao, 22
Bombon lake, 30
Borneo, 19, 24, 26, 27, 60, 68, 304
Bribery and corruption, 274
Brigandage, 119. See Ladrones
Brigands. See LadronesBubonic plague, 150, 153, 150, 165,
214
Buffaloes. See Carabaos
Bulacan, province, 107
Bulusan, 22, 30
Buquidnones, 236
Bureaus: organization of, 354-360;civil service, 354
; public health,
355; forestry and mining, 355
;
public lands, 350; agriculture,
356;weather and geodetic survey,
356;coast guard and transporta-
tion, 356; ethnological survey,
Philippine constabulary, posts,
357;insular treasury, 357, 358
;
insular auditor, 357; justice, 358,
359; customs and immigration, in-
ternal revenue, banks, 359;educa-
tion, printing, architecture, and
construction, 359
Burgos, Dr. Joseph, 84, 85, 98, 99, 100
Burial rites, 296, 297, 299
Burias, 22
Butuan, 26, 51
Caheza de barangay, 70, 337, 338
Cables, 8(i, 168, 169
Cacao. See Chocolate
Cagay<4n : province, 73;
river. 40,
167, 244; valley, 42, 256
INDEX 415
Cagayanes, 230, 256
rallies, General, 118, 119
Calantds, 182
Carnagdn, 182
Camarines, 22
Cambodia, 73
Carnpilan, 254
Canals in Manila, 3-1
Canla6n or Malaspina, 24
Cape Eugano, 22, 30
Cape Verde islands, 48
Capiz, province, 24
Capuchins, 310, 320
Caraballos de Baler, 22
Caraballos Occidentales, 21
Caraballos Sur, 21, 22
Carabaos, 165
Caribbean islands, 82
Catholicism, 315, 316, 331, 332
Cavite : city, 110, 111; province, 22,
74, 106, 107
Cavite insurrection : of 1872, 84, 85,
97; of 1896, 103, 106-108
Cebu, city, 51, 110 ; Magellan entered
harbor, 51; Legaspi entered har-
bor, 55;seat of government, 56
;
trade, 198; normal school at, 397
Cebu, island : area, 20; mountains,
24;
seismic centers, 36; rivers,
43; uprisings, 74, 83
;commercial
geograpliy, 198; language, 239
Cidida personal, 86
Celebes islands, 26, 27
Celebes sea, 19
Census, 352
Change of officials, too frequent, 97,
272
Change of residence, 91
Changes of government, 272
Character, native, 264-276
Characteristic of the Malay race in
the Islands, 60
Charles I, king of Spain, 48
Charles III, king of Spain, 376
Chico, 181
Children, Filipino, 266-270
China, 19, 78, 200
China coast, 73
China sea, 19, 42
Chinese, (S'i-m, 72, 73, 74, 76, 80,
177, 190, 212, 258-263
Chinese-Mestizos, 259, 260, 203, 294
Chocolate, 169, 176
Cholera, 150, 153, 157, 158, 165, 214,392
Christianity: accepted by natives, 76,
77; not accepted by Igorots, 245,246
Christian Disciples, 335
Christian tribes, 237-240. See Chap-ters X and XI
Church, 271,, 272
Church and state, 70, 71, 79, 92,
327, 328, 339
Church discipline, lack of, 326
Church processions, 224, 225, 318
Churches, 284
Cigars, 172, 173
Circumnavigation of globe, the first, 54
Cirrus clouds, 140, 141
Civil service, 354, 355
Civil War, 380
Classes of society in pre-Spanish
times, 61
Climate, 28. See Chapter VClothing, 158-160
Clouds, 137
Clubs in Manila, 221
Coal, 184, 185
Coast guard and transportation, bu-
reau of, 356
Coast line, length of, 166
Cockfighting, 282
Cockroaches, 149, 216
Coffee, 169, 176
Colegio de la Inmaculada Concep-cidn, 376
College of San Jose, 73
Colonization, 12
Color line, 271
Columbus, 46, 50
Commerce, 94. See Chapter VIICommon sources of enlightenment
wanting, 408, 409
416 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Comparative philology, 228
Compulsory school attendance, 386
Concealment of the sick, 158
Conception of colonization, Spanish,
92
Conclusion, 410-413
Conditions previous to the advent of
the Sjjanish, 01, 62, 373
Confiscation of property of the
orders, 325
Conflicts with the Dutch, 08, 72-
74
Conflicts with the Portuguese. See
Portugal and Spain
Congressional action, 352
Connection of the Philippines with
Asia, 26, 27
Consent of the governed, 5
Conservatism, 8, 9
Conspiracy in Pampangaand Manila,
08
"Constitution of 1812," 85, 86
Contact with Spanish civilization,
effect of, 88, 89
Contents, v
Convents, 310, 311
Conversion of natives to Christianity,
58, 76, 77, 293, 310-320, 339, 374
Copper, 184
Copra, 169, 175
Coral beds, 193
Cordage, 188
Cordillera Central, 22, 243
Cordillera Norte, 22
Corn, 169, 176
Corregidor, 22
Corvee or forced labor, 91
Cost of living, 223
Cotabato, province, 26
Council : of Trent, 84;
of the
Philippines, 340;
of Administra-
tion, 341
Courts, 358
Creeks or esteros, 34, 212
Curriculum of primary schools: in
Spanish times, 378, 379; in Ameri-
can times, 385
Customs and immigration, bureau
of, 359
Cyclones, 138-143. See Typhoons
Da Gama, 46
Danger, 8, 9
Dasmarifias : Gomez P^rez, 71, 72;Luis P(^rez, 72, 73
Davao, 236
Death : of Magellan, 52;of Legaspi,
58, 63
Death rate, 156, 232, 233
Defects of Spanish system of admin-
istration, 343, 344
De Juzman, Francisco Tello, 73
l^emand for native priests, 86
Demarcation Bull, 47
Democratic principles applied, 4
De Morga, Antonio. See MorgaDengue fever, 148
Destruction of Spanish fleet. 111
De Tavera, Pardo, 351; quoted, 370
Dewey, Admiral, 112
"Dhobie itch," 149
Diarrhoea, 153
Diaz, 40
Difficulties : of promoters of educa-
tion, 10;
in establishing school
system, 390-393
Dinatas, 303, 307
Discomforts, 150, 152
Discontent and hostility, cause of, 94
Discovery of the Islands, 51
Diseases, prevalent, 148, 150, 153
Division of Philippine archipelagointo earthquake districts, 34, 36,
38
Division superintendents, 385, 394,
397
Dominicans, 68, 77, 312, 328, 375
Dress : and conduct, rules of, 158-
103; native, 278, 279
Drinks, KiO
Droughts, 165
Dutch, 68, 72, 73, 74
Duty of the United States in the
Philippines, 3, 13
INDEX 417
Dyaks of Borneo, 60
Dysentery, 150, 153
Early times and conditions in the
Philippines, 228
Earthquakes, 28, 30;number regis-
tered in Manila (1880-1897), 34;
stations, 34, 75
Eastern Extension and China Tele-
graph Company, 169
East Indies, 46, 200
Ebony, 182
Ecclesiastical system established,
312, 313, 316
Edict of July 2, 1897, 108
Educated Filipinos, few in number,380
Education, 10-12; Filipino point of
view of, 265, 266; Filipino chil-
dren, 206-270;schools established
by the religious orders, 311; bureau
of, 359; previous to the advent of
the Spaniards, 373; Spanish at-
tempts at, 374-381; American
efforts, under military auspices,
381-383 ;American efforts under
military auspices by civil authori-
ties, 383-410. See Chapter XIVEducation of Filipinos in the United
States, 401, 402
Educational bill, 384, 385
Educational needs, future, 402, 403
Educational policy, American, 392
Effect of Philippine climate, 122, 127,
144, 145, 146, 147, 151, 152
El Dorado, 46
El Filibusterismo, 102
Embroideries, 283
Engano, cape, 22, 30
England, 80, 82
English : rudimentary, 10;
intro-
duced, 383;basis of instruction,
386; spoken, 393
;in evening
schools, 400; language of instruc-
tion, 403-409
Englishmen, opinion of certain, of
native character, etc., 293, 294
Epidemics, 150, 156-158
Episcopalians, 335
Equal rights, idea of, 94, 95
Eruptions of Taal volcano, 36
Escolta, 214
Escuela de Maestras, 376
Estimates of native character. See
Chapter XI
Ethnological elements of the popula-
tion, 233-241
Ethnological survey, bureau of, 234,357
Ethnology, 228
Evaporation, 129
Evening schools, 388, 394, 399
P^xclusion of Chinese, 259, 260
Executions of rebels in 1896, 99, 103
Exercise, 100, 221
Expeditions : of Magellan, 45, 48, 50-
52;of Villalobos, 54
; of Legaspi,55
Exports, 169
Expulsion : of friars, 108;
of the
Jesuits, 376
Extent of Philippines, 19, 20
Fables, 307, 308
Fajardo, Governor General, 75
Falsehood, 207
"Family Compact," 80
Family life, 62, 279
Famines, 75
Faribault plan of religious instruc-
tion, 386
Faura, Father, director of Manila
observatory, 123, 124
Feast days, 318
Ferdinand and Isabella, 47
Fertility, 12
Festivals or fiestas, 280-282, 284, 285
Fiestas. See Festivals
Filipino : term defined, 264;indirect-
ness, 274
Filipinos : incapable of self-govern-
ment, 5; childlike, 6
;and Ameri-
cans, 8, 9; and Spaniards, 9; in
official positions, 353, 354, 358
418 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Fishing, 190
Fleet of Magellan, 50; of Insular
Government, 168
Floods, 164
Flowers and fruits, 178, 180, 181
Foods, 160, litO, 192
Foreigners in the Islands, 85, 260,261
Forestry and mining, bureau of,
355
Formosa, 30
Fort Santiago, 82
Forts, 284
France and Spain allied against
England, 80
Franciscans, 08, 77, 311, 328
Franco-Prussian War, 380
Freemasonry, so-called, 97, 98
Free thought, 333
Friar missionaries, work of, 76, 77,
91, 92
Friar question, 320, 334, 339
Friars: of Magellan's party, 52; of
Legaspi's party, 55; Augustinians,
55, 77, 310; Dominicans, 68,77, 312;
Franciscans, 08, 77, 311; Jesuits,
68, 77, 311; Ilecoletos, 77; other
orders, 316
Fruits and flowers, 178, 180, 181
Funeral rites, 282
Funston, General, 119
Future, 6, 7, 409. See "Conclusion,"410-413
Galleons, 74, 78
Games, 268, 282, 283
Garcia, monk, 72
General policy, results of, 8
General superintendent of education,
384, 385, 386, 394
Geodetic survey, bureau of, 356, 357
Geology, 29
Glanders, 165, 219
Gods, native, 297, 299, 300, 301, 303,
304, 306, 307
Goiti, 65
Gold, 184
Government, 12; tribal, 337, 338;
Spanish form of, 338-345;Ameri-
can, 344-353; comparison of the
two systems, 353, 354; work of the
Commission, 354-363; provincial,
363, 364 ; municipal, 365-368 ; civil,
established, 368-373. See ChapterXIII
Great Britain declares war, 80
Guerrilla warfare, 119
Guidi, papal delegate, 330
Guijo, 182
Gutta-percha, 176
Half-castes, 59. See Mestizos
Harbors, 166
Hard woods, 182
Harris, W. T., United States Com-missioner of Education, quoted, 152
Havana, 82
Head hunters, 60, 230, 246
Health of American soldiers, 153, 154
Hemp, Manila, 169-171, 186, 188
High Court of Mexico, 63
Higher educational institutions, 375,
376, 377, 380, 387, 402
Historical data, 228
Hogs, 192
Holland, treaty of peace with, 74
Home life of natives, 279, 280
Home rule, 345
Honey, 193, 196, 199
Hongkong Junta, 112
Honolulu, 214
Hospitality, 222, 276, 277
Hostility against the friars, chief
ground for, 323, 324, 332
Hotel de Oriente, 370
House fly, 149
Houses, 279, 280
Howells, W. I)., quoted, 104
Hughes, General, quoted, 291, 292
Humidity, 129-131
Ide, Henry C, 348, 351
Iguacio, Friar Martin, ([uoted, 313,
314
IK1>EX 419
Ignorance, 270
Igorots, 60, 74, 236, 243-246, 296-
298, 335, 398
Iligan bay, 20
Illana bay, 26
Illanos, 237
Ilocanos, CO, 238, 239, 240, 256, 257,
258
Ilocos Sur, 42
Iloilo : province, 24, 43;seat of gov-
ernment transferred to, 56;situa-
tion, 197;normal school at, 397
Immigration, Malayan, 256
Imitativeness, 266, 267
Immobility of the natives, 233
Innnorality of the friars, 331, 332
Immortality, idea of, 310
Independence, 4, 5, 95, 114, 117,
344, 345
Indian, 264, 339
Indigo, 169, 176
Individuality, 9
Indolence of the natives, 165
Indonesian race in the archipelago,
58-60
Industrial education, 400, 401
Industrial school. See Trade school
Information conflicting, 2, 3
Inhabitants as they existed previousto Spanish conquest, 58-62, 90, 91
Insects, 149, 150
Insular auditor, 357
Insular treasury, 357, 358
Insurance companies investigate
health conditions, 150, 151
Insurgent Congress, 114
Insurgent government, 114
Insurgents, attack of the Spanish, 114
Insurrection : in Cavite, 84, 85;of
1896, 103, 106-108;in Cebii, 110
Intelligence : of Filipino children,
267;of Filipino adults, 270
Interest in public affairs, 271
Interisland communication, 160, 1(17
Intermarriage, 59, 259
Internal revenue, bureau of, 359
Internal strifes, 76
Investment of American capital, 165
ipil, 182
Irada, mountain, 22
Irrigation, 165, 232
Isabella, province, 73
Islands, area of eleven largest, 20,
21
Isthmian Canal, 200
Jaena, 99
Jalaur, 43
Japan, 19, 71, 72, 73, 78, 200; rela-
tions with the Philippines, 02, 71,
72, 106
Japanese, 62;and Filipinos, 270
Jaro, 316; episcopal seat of, 376
Java, 27, 28
Jesuit fathers, 29, 301, 304, 307
Jesuits, 33, 68, 77, 122, 123, 311, 329,
375, 376
John, king of Portugal, 47
Jol6, 237
Judicial system, organization of, 358,
359
Jusi, 186, 198
Justice, administration of, 94 ;bureau
of, 358, 359
Katipunan, 98, 272
Kiemon, 71
King of Cebii, 52
King Charles I of Spain, 48-52
King John of Portugal, 47
King Philip II of Spain, 54
King of Siao, 72" King of the Tagalogs," 83, 84
Kue-sing, leader of invasion, 76
Koran, 304, 305
Korea, 19
Labor, 91, 165, 287, 292
Labor problem, 12
Ladrone islands, 50
Ladrones, 50, 165, 166, 273
Laguna de Bay, 30, 43, 205
Lakntan, 180
Lake of Bay, 30, 43
420 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Lakes, 44
"La Llga Filipina," 98
Laiiao : i^rovince, 2G; lake, 44, 237,
248, 255
Lanaos, 237
Landing: of Magellan, 51; of Legaspi,55
Land tenure, 356
Language, 90, 256, 257, 373, 403-
409
Languages, 231, 232, 239
Lanzones, 181
Latitude and longitude, 19
Lavezares, 63
Legarda, Benito, 351; quoted, 370-
372
Legaspi, Miguel Lopez de, 54-56, 58,
70, 203, 310;followers of, 68, 70
Legaspi-Urdaneta monument, 284
Leo XIII, Pope, 330
Lepanto-Bontoc, 42
Leprosy, 150, 153
Leyte : area, 20; mountains, 24
seismic centers, 30; rivers, 43
name, 54;visited by Legaspi, 55
uprisings, 74;commercial geog-
raphy, 197 *
Life in the Philippines, 150
Lignite, 184
Limahong, 64-66
Lingayeu, gulf, 42
Lizards, 149, 216
Local customs retained, 276
Local school boards, 385, 394
Locusts, 165, 193
Longitude and latitude, 19
Los Bafios, springs of, 39
Lucban, General, 119
Luna, Juan, 283, 284
Luneta, 210
Luxuriant vegetation, 28
Luz(5n : area, 20;mountain system,
21, 22; volcanoes, 30, 32, 33
;
earthquake of 1852, 36;river sys-
tems, 40-43; uprisings, 74 ; revolt
of 1649, 75;
commercial geog-
raphy, 194, 195; inhabitants, 237,
238, 239; provincial governments
in Spanish times, 341
Luzuriaga, Sefior, 327, 328, 351;
quoted, 372
MacArthur, General, quoted, 273,
287, 288, 348, 350
Mactan island, 52
Magellan, 45, 48-52; route, 49-51
;
fleet, 50; straits, 50
; tomb, 284
Manguindanaos, 236
Maintenance of schools, 380
Malabang, 237
Malacca, 48
Malaria, 150, 153, 156, 193
Malaspina. See Canladn
Malay origin, 9, 58, 59, 256, 294
Malay peninsula, 242
Malay race, 60, 250;three invasions,
59, GO
Malfeasance in ofUce, 274
Malolos: the insurgent capital, 114,
118; constitution of, 325
Malvar, General, 119
Mandayas, 302, 303
Mangoes, 180, 181
Mangosteen, 181
Manguianes, 230, 298, 299
Manila: situation in relation to earth-
quakes, 34 ;number of earthquakes,
34; eartlujuake of 1803, 34
;earth-
quake of 1045, 30;
arrival of
Salcedo, 50; destroyed by fire,
68; improved, 72
; earthquake of
1645, 75, 204;taken by English,
82; uprising, 83
;taken by Amer-
icans, 111;mean annual tempera-
ture, 125; humidity, 130, 131
;
rainy days, 133; rainfall, 135
;
bubonic plague, epidemic of, 156;
harbor, 166;
commercial posi-
tion, 200; name, 203, 204
;foun-
dation by Legaspi, 203; walls,
204; site, 204-206 ; population,
200-208;Luneta. 210
; improve-ments under new government, 212,
214, 216; attractions, 216, 217;
INDEX 421
housekeeping, 217, 218; daily trans-
l^ortatiou, 219, 220;
meats and
groceries, 220; society, 220-222
;
newspapers, 221, 222;cost of liv-
ing, 223;
Taco cemetery, 223;
monuments, 224;church proces-
sions, 224, 225; Protestants, 225
;
government, 226;
inhabited by
Tagalogs, 238; language, 239; walls
and gates, 284; becomes metropol-itan diocese, 316; normal school
at, 397, 398
Manila bay, 22, 43, 205, 210
Manners and customs, 275-286
Manobos, 236, 303
Marble quarrying, 184
Marinduque, mountains of, 22
Mariveles, 208
Marriage, 62, 297
Masbate : area, 20; mountains, 22
;
seismic centers, 36;commercial
geography, 196
Massacre of Balangiga, 290
Maura, Sefior, 343
Maynila, 56. See Manila
May6n volcano, 30-32, 36
Mechanical industries, 186-191
Melanesia, 243
Memory, loss of, 151
Merritt, General, 346
Mestizos, 59, 271, 294. See Chinese-
Mestizos and Spanish-Mestizos
Meteorology ,character of work in, 1 42
Methodists, 335
Mexican code of laws, 68
Mexico, 95;and the Philippines, 63,
68, 74, 78
Military government, 346-351
Mincopies, 242
Mindanao : area, 20; mountains,
24;seismic centers, 36
; rivers, 44;
visited by Legaspi, 55;Indonesian
descendants in, 59; tributary to
Borneo, 68;
troubles with, 73;
uprisings, 74;
commercial geog-
raphy, 199; religion of inhabitants,
296, 304; military government, 341
Mindoro : area, 20; rivers, 43
;com-
mercial geography, 195, 196
Mineral resources, 184, 185
Mineral springs, 38, 39
Mining, early pursued, 61
Ministers for the colonies, created, 86
Mint, 96
Misamis, province, 26
Missionaries : Arabian, 304;Protes-
tant, 225; Jesuit, 304; sentout,311
Missions, number of, 328
Mohammedanism, 02, 304, 305
Mohammedans, 296, 373
Mulave, 182
Mollusks, 192, 193
Moluccas, 27, 48, 49, 68, 72, 73
Monastic orders, 315
Money, 62
Monsoons, 136, 137
Montescos, 236
Monteses, 236, 300, 301
Monuments, 284
Moral character, effect of Philippineclimate on, 152
Moral characteristics : of Filipino
children, 267, 268; of Filipino
adults, 271
Morga, 73, 314. See De Murga,Antonio
Moros, 60, 68, 74, 76, 80, 236, 237,
246-256, 304, 305, 373, 398; large
population centering around lake
Lanao, 44
Moses, Bernard, 348, 351
Moslems : and Americans, 44; and
Spaniards, 44
Mosquitoes, 149, 193, 216
Mountains : general direction, 21;
ranges, in Luz6n, 21, 22; subma-rine ranges, 22
; ranges, in Panay,
Negros, Cebu, Bohol, 24;in Leyte
and Samar, 26; Mindanao, 26
;
influence, 39, 40
Mount Isarog, 236
Municipal government : in Spanish
times, 342 ; under American rule,
347, 348, 300, 365-368
422 THE PHILIPPIKE ISLANDS
Municipality, 232
Music, 284, 285, 400
Narra, 182
National independence, 114
Native character, 1(3, 17
Native clergy, 312, 313, 324
Native medical skill, 156
Native officials, 273, 274
Native physician, testimony of, 292,
293
Native teachers, 378, 379, 385, 394,
395, 396
Nautical school, 377, 394, 399
Navidad, Mexico, 55
Neatness of garb, 278
^^egritos, the first inhabitants, 58, 59,
60, 234, 240-243
Negro problem, 14
Negros : area, 20; mountains, 24
;
seismic centers, 36; rivers, 44
;
rebellion, 84;
commercial geog-
raphy, 198; hostility to the friars,
327, 328; i^olitical conditions in
Spanish times, 341
Newspapers, 221, 222
Noli Me Tangere, 101, 104, 105
Non-Christian peoples, 233-237
Normal schools : Spanish, 370; Amer-
ican, 394, 397, 398
Nueva Caceres: episcopal seat of, 376;
normal school at, 397
Nueva Ecija, 42
Nueva Viscaya, 72, 73
Number of islands, 20
Observatory of Manila, 123, 128, 129
Occupation by the British, 80, 82
Oceanica, 27
Official Guide of the Philippines, 127
Opinions of the Filipino : by a sol-
dier, 273; by General Otis, 286,
287; by General MacArthur, 287
;
by Governor Taft, 288, 289; by
General Hughes, 291; by a native
physician, 292; by English resi-
dents, 293, 294
Opposition to the friars, 84
Oranges, 180
Origin of Spanish words in dialects,
88, 89
Otis, General : opinion of native char-
acter and political capacity, 286,
287; military governor, 347, 348
Outcome of American efforts, 295
Pacific, 19
I'acific-China sea watershed, 21, 22
Pacification of Islands by Legaspi,
56, 58
I'aco cemetery, 223, 224
Painting, 283
I'alawan : area, 20; mountains, 24
;
uniting Philippines with archi-
pelago, 26 ;commercial geography,
199
Talma brava, 182
Palms, 182
Pampanga : river, 43, 167 ; province,
75, 107, 239
I'ampangans, 239, 250, 258
I'anay : area, 20; mountains, 24
seismic centers, 36; rivers, 43
commercial geography, 197, 198
language, 239; political condition,
341
Panay river, 43
Pandita, 304, 305
Pangasinan, province, 42, 60, 76,
239
Pangasinanes, 238, 256, 258
Paragua. See Palawan
Participation of Filipinos in the gov-
ernment, 353, 354, 358, 361
Pasig river, 34, 43, 167, 205
Paterno, I'edro Alejandro, 108
Paulists, 31(), 329
Peace : of Paris (1763), 82;of West-
phalia, 380
Peaceful character of the people,
272, 273
Pearls, 184
People : Spanish influence, 227, 228;
population, 230, 231; languages,
INDEX 423
231, 232; distribution, 232
;com-
position, 233-241, 263, 204; char-
acter of Filipino, 285. See Chap-ters IX, X, and XI
Personal adornment, fondness of, 283
Personal rights,fundamental, wanted,345
Pessimism, 151, 152
Petition to emperor of Japan, 106
Philip II, king of Spain, 54, 70, 92,
204, 310
Philippine Assembly, 352, 353, 372
Philippine Catholic Church, 334
Philippine Commissions : first, 112,
343, 344, 345; second (see Taft
Commission)
Philippine constabulary, bureau of,
357
Philippine problem, 1-5, 7, 14
"Philippine Republic," 114
Philippines: situation, 19; area, 19,
20; points of union with Asiatic
archipelago, 26, 27;volcanic ori-
gin, 27; climate, 28; discovery, byMagellan, 51
; dependency of a
dependency, 63;and Mexico, 63
;
commercial position, 200, 201
Philological facts, study of, in con-
nection with Spanish colonization,90
Piua, 180, 186
Pineapple, 180
Pintados, 238
Pirates, Moro, 84
Plehn, Professor Carl C, quoted, 231
Poisoning of wells, 158
Polavieja, Governor General, 107
Police, 96
Political dependence, 5
Polygamy, 271, 310
Ponies, 219
Pope Alexander VI, 47
Population, 230-232, 263, 264
Portugal and Spain, 46, 47, 55, 56
Position of the Filipino woman, 275
Posts, bureau of, 357
Precautions against cUmate, 144-146
Precipitation, 129, 131-136
Presbyterians, 335
President P^liot, quoted, 14
President McKinley, 347
President Roosevelt, 6
Presidents, 348
Pressure, atmospheric, 128, 129
Prickly heat, 148
Primary instruction, 395
Primary schools, Spanish system of,
377, 378, 379
Principales, 338
Printing, bureau of, 359
Processions, 224, 225, 318
Proclamations by Aguinaldo : first,
113; second, 114
Products, 169-178
Protectorate, 113
Protestants, 225, 335
Provincial government : in Spanishtimes, 342
;under American rule,
360-365
Provincials of the monastic orders,312
Public health : bureau of, 355;labo-
ratories, 359. See Chapter VIPublic lands, bureau of, 356
Pueblo, 232
Pulangui river, 26
Racial antipathy, 261
Racial composition, 58, 59, 60, 233-
241
Racial divisions of the people, 233
Railroad, 100
Rains, 130-130, 104
Rainy season, 134
Rattan, 188, 190
Rats, 156, 193
Readiness for self-government, 275
Rebellion of 1719, 79
Recoletos, 77, 328
Reforms, 95, 98, 108, 342-345
Religion: Negritos, 296, 297; Igorots,
297, 298;certain primitive tribes,
298-304, 306, 307; Moros, 304,
305; Filipinos before the coming
424 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
of the Spaniards, 807, 308. See
Chapter XII
Religious activity, 76, 313
Religious ideas among the Igorots,
245
Religious instruction, 92, 311, 313
Religious liberty, 345
Remontados, 236
Representation in Spanish Cortes,
85, 86, 94
Residence in the tropics, effect of,
144,
Resources, 12, 13
Respect for leai-ning, 381
Revolts, 96
Rice, 169, 175, 176
Rinderpest, 165, 192
Rio Agno, 42
Rio Grande de Cagayan, 40, 42, 44
Rio Grande de la Mindanao, 44
Rio Grande de la Pampanga, 43
Rivera, Governor Genei'al, 107, 110
Rivers : Luz6n, 40-43; Ranay, 43
;
Negros, 44; Mindanao, 44
;as
highways, 40, 167
Rizal, Dr. Jos^, 98, 99-105, 244,
270, 284
Rizal Orchestra, 285
Roads, 97, 168
Roman Catholicism, 335, 336
Roman Catholics, 296
Romblon, mountains of, 22
Route of Magellan, 49, 50, 51
Royal decree of 1589, 70, 71
Royal delegate sent from Spain,
86
Royal court of justice, 73
Rubber, 176
Ruiz, monk, 71, 72
Sabians, 307
Sabo, 51
Salcedo, 56, (Hi, ()8
Sakais, 242
Salaries, 226, 351, 352, 385, 38(), 388,
396, 406
Samals, 237
Samar : area, 20; mountains, 24
;
seismic centers, 34; rivers, 43
;
name, 54; uprisings, 74
;revolt of
1649, 75;commercial geography,
196, 197
Sanchez, Alonzo, 70
Sanitation and hygiene : need of im-
provement in, 154, 155;common
principles of, enforced, 157, 158;
in Manila, 212;of the home, 232
San Ignacio, 375
San Juan de Letran, 375
San Lazarus islands, 52, 54
San Lucas, port of Seville, 50
San Mateo, 106
San Miguel, monk, 72
Sanquin, 26
Santa Ana, captured, 68
Santa Catalina, 375
Santa Isabel, 375
Santa Rosa, 375
Santo Tomas, 375
School system, free public, 10;or-
ganization of, 394
Schoolhouses, 378, 379, 385, 386, 392
Schools established by religious bod-
ies, 77, 78
Schurman Commission, 112, 343-345
Scientific study of the Filipino race,
228
Seasons, 125, 143
Seat of general government : Cebu,
56; Iloilo, 5('); Manila, 56
Sebu. See Cebu
Secondary schools, 394, 402
Secretary of public instruction, 394
Seismological disturbances, laws of,
33, 34^
Seismo-meteorological service, 34
Seismology, 33-38
Self-government, 5, 6, 295, 345
Self-sacrifice, examples of, 157
Seminaries, theological, 376
Serrano, 48, 49
Servants, 218
Sexual morality, 271
Share in offices of the government, 87
INDEX 425
Shipbuilding, 190
Shower bath, 158
Slam, 200
Siao, king of, 72
Siassi, 237
Siena Empinada, 24
Sierra Madre, 22
Signal corps, army, 1G8
Silver, 184
Silversmithing, l'.)0, 283, 284
Sinamay, 186
Situation, 19
Slavery, 71, 91, 248, 250, 251, 310
Sleep, 161
Sloan, Robert J., M.D., quoted, 150
Smallpox, 153, 105, 214
Smoking mountains, 30
Society in Manila, 220, 221, 222
Soil, 164, 233
Sorsog6n, province, 22
Soul, conception of, 310
South Caraballo. See Carahallos Sur
Spain and Portugal, 46, 47, 55, 56
Spain's conquest, justification of, 13
Spaniards and Filipinos, 9
Spanish code of law, 96, 97
Spanish colonization, 339
Spanish domination, 11, 13, 16, 87-
91, 95, 227, 274
Spanish education, 11, 96
Spanish influence, 1, 2, 60, 61, 87-
89, 226, 227, 275
Spanish legislation,character of, 85, 86
Spanish-Mestizos, 259, 294, 295
Spanish officials, strife between, 70
Spanish revolution, 95
Spanish system of schools, 379, 380
Spanish words in common use in the
different dialects, 88, 89
Spice islands, 46, 48
Spiders, 149, 193
Sports, 221
Statue of Sebastian del Cano, 284
Stockings, 159
Storms, 123. See Cyclones and
TyphoonsStraits of Magellan, 50 .
Straits Settlements, 200
Subanos, 230
Submarine ranges, 22
Sugar, 169, 173-175, 198
Sulu : tributary to Borneo, 68;
troubles with, 73; uprisings, 74
;
sultan of, 200, 251-253
Sulu archipelago, 26, 200, 296
Sulus, 237
Sumatra, 27, 28
Summer capital, 153, 154
Sumoroy, leader of revolt in Samar, 75
Sunda islands, 27
Superior advisory board of educa-
tion, 385, 394
Superstition, 62, 315
Superstitions: among Negritos, 296;
among Igorots, 297; among certain
other primitive tribes, 298-304;
among Moros, 305 ; among Christian
natives, 305-310. See Chapter XII
Supreme Court, 71
Surgeon general, report of, on health
of American soldiers, 154
Surra, 165, 219
Taal, 22, 32, 33, 34, 36
Taft Commission : report on public
health, 152, 153; report on friar
question, 329; appointment, 348
;
work, 349, 350; enlarged, 351
Taft, William H., civil governor, 7,
8, 119, 288, 289, 330, 348, 350
Tagalogs, 60, 238, 239, 256, 257,
258, 278, 405
Tagalos. See Tagalogs
Tagaytay range, 22, 30
Tagbanuas, 23fi, 299
Taking of Manila, 111, 346
Talut, 26
Tarlac, 42
Tavera. See De Tavera
Tawi Tawi, 237
Tayabas, province, 22, 83
Telegraphs, 168
Telephones, 168
Temperature, 125-128
426 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Ternate, 54
Text-books: Spanish, 378, 37!);
American, 381, 385, 386, 388
Ticao, 22
Tic-Balan, 301
Tlk-tik, 308
Timber, 13, 181-184
Tinguianes, 300
Tirurays, 230
Tobacco, 83, 90, 1G9, 171-173
Tornadoes, 132, 13(3
Towns, distribution of people in, 232
Trade, 78. See Cliapter VII
Trade school, 394, 398
Trades, common, 188, 190
Trading early carried on between
Bornese, Japanese, and Chinese, 02
Treaty : of Tordesillas, 48;of Biac-
na-bat6, 108; of Baris, 111, 118
Tribute : rate, collection, and distri-
bution, 71;fixed by Legaspi, 58
Turks, ascendency of, after conquestof Constantinople, 46
Typhoons, 123, 124, 129, 165
United States Bhilippine Commis-
sioners, 0, 7, 8, 9
Uprisings, 74, 75, 83
Value of archipelago, Spanish view
of, 93
Vargas, Governor General, 83
Variation of temperature, small, 126
Vegetation, 28; cause of humidity,129
Vigan : bishop of, 312 ; episcopal seat
of, 376;normal school at, 397
Villalobos, 54
Vines, Father, director of Havana
Observatory, 140
Visayan islands, 22
Visayans, 60, 237, 238, 239, 256, 257,
258, 341
Visayas, 75. See Visayan islands
Volcanic belt, 27, 28
Volcanic eruptions, 75
Volcanic origin, 27, 28
Volcanoes : influence, 29; number,
29; distribution, 34-38
Voting privilege, 6
War between United States and
Spain, 110, 111
Water buffaloes, 62, 165, 192
Water for drinking, 148, 149
Weather Bureau : seat of, 29; organ-
ized, 356, 357
Weaving, art of, early acquired, 61
Winds, 129, 130, 136, 137
Woman in economic affairs, 275
Wood carving, 190, 283
Woods, 182
Worcester, Dean C: quoted, 144,
234; appointed member of second
Philippine Commission, 348;be-
comes head of the department of
the interior, 351
Wright, Luke E., 348, 351
Writing, early known, 61
Young Men's Christian Association,
225
Zambales : province, 26; range, 22
Zamboanga, 26, 237;normal school
at, 397