Biological Control in IPM Programs in the Pacific
R. Muniappan, Program Director,
IPM CRSP, Virginia Tech
Biological Control Programs in the Pacific
• Invasive Alien Plants (IAP) – Terrestrial and aquatic plants in the natural ecosystems and fruit and plantation crops.
• Invasive Alien Arthropods (IAA) – In the fruit and plantation crops.
• Invasive Alien Arthropods (IAA) – In the vegetable crops.
• Invasive Alien Microbes (IAM) – In agriculture.
• Need for incorporation of Biocontrol in IPM (especially in vegetable crops)
Biological Control of Terrestrial and Aquatic Invasive Alien Plants (IAP)
• Chromolaena odorata
• Coccinia grandis
• Lantana camara
• Parthenium hysterophorus
• Mimosa diplotricha
• Mikania micrantha
• Clidemia hirta
• Eichhornia crassipes
• Pistia stratiotes
• Salvinia molesta
• Sida spp.
• Miconia calvescens and others
Chromolaena odorata(Asteraceae)
•Origin – Neotropics•Introduced to India – 1845•Introduced to Guam – 1960s•Current distribution: Humid tropics of Asia, Africa, Australia (Queensland), and Pacific
Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata(Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)
Insect induced defenseDefoliation of C. odorata
•Introduced to Guam –1986.•Cultures supplied to
Indonesia, South Africa, PNG, and Micronesia .
Cecidochares connexa(Diptera: Tephritidae)
Origin : Neotropics (Colombia)Introduced to Indonesia in 1993,and Guam 1998.Established in Micronesia, Indonesia, PNG, East Timor, India.
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International workshops held
• 1988 - Bangkok, Thailand• 1991 - Bogor, Indonesia• 1993 - Abidjan, Ivory
Coast• 1996 - Bangalore, India• 2000 - Durban, South
Africa• 2003 - Cairns, Australia• 2006 - Pingtung, Taiwan • (2010 – Nairobi, Kenya)
17 News letters published since 1988
Proceedings published- 7
International Organization for Biological Control – Working Group on Chromolaena
Pareuchaetes and Cecidochares
• Pareuchaetes proven to be partially effective in countries where it has been established.
• Insect induced defense in C. odorata reduces its effectiveness.
• Cecidochares connexa - Easy to establish
• Effective in reducing seed production
• Effectiveness may be affected by local parasitoids
Ivy gourd, Coccinia grandis
•Origin – Africa•Introduced as vegetable•Invasive – Hawaii and
Mariana Islands•Birds spread the seeds• Vines touching soil will
take root•Resistant to herbicides
C. grandis in Saipan
M. oedipus - adult
C. grandis in Guam
M. oedipus - larvaMelettia oedipus(Sesiidae)
Origin – Kenya, AfricaIntroduced:
Hawaii – 1996Guam – 2007Saipan – 2007
Leaf mining weevil, Acythopius cocciniae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Gall forming weevil, Acythopius burkhartorum (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Coccinia grandis – Before and after introduction of natural enemies
(slides – Hawaii Dept of Agriculture)
Lantana camara(Verbenaceae)
Efforts to biocontrol started in 1902
41 agents have been released on lantana
Effective agents:•Teleonemia scrupulosa•Ophiomyia lantanae•Uroplata girardi•Epinotia lantana•Lantanophaga pusillidactyla•Eutreta xanthochaeta
Uroplata girardi(Coleoptera: Chrysomelideae)
Adult beetle Leaf mined by larva
Adults feed on the leaves and larvae mine the leaves
Performs well under semi-shaded conditions
Established in Cook Islands, FSM, Fiji, Guam, Hawaii, New Caledonia, Niue, CNMI, Palau, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu
Teleonomia scrupulosa (Tingidae)Established in most of the Pacific Islands.Effective in dry season and not in wet season.Egg parasitoids recorded in India.Severe defoliation causes displacement of other natural enemies present.
Epinotia lantana (Tortricidae)
Established in FSM, Guam, Hawaii, CNMI, Marshall Islands, Palau, PNG
Hypana laceratalis (Noctuidae)
Established in CNMI, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Yap
Parthenium hysterophorus(Asteraceae)
Source: Modified from University of Queensland’s Centre for Biological Information Technology
Origin –Tropical North and South America
Distribution in the Pacific – PNG, New Caledonia Vanuatu and Hawaii
Natural enemies: 11 insect species and 2 fungi were introduced to Australia
Zygogramma bicolorata(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)
•Introduced to Australia in 1980
•Introduced to India in 1984
•Under quarantine – South Africa and Ethiopia
•Failed in quarantine – Sri Lanka and PNG
Parthenium defoliated by Zygogramma
FIRST ANNOUNCEMENT AND CALL FOR EXPRESSIONS OF INTEREST
Combined workshop:
8th International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata and Other Eupatorieae
and
Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Parthenium hysterophorus
Nairobi, Kenya, August/November 2010
Mimosa diplotrichaOrigin: Tropical America
Distribution: Most of the Pacific Islands except Marshall Is., Tonga, Kiribati, Tokelau, and Tuvalu
Natural enemy: Heteropsylla spinulosa –Effective – Established in Guam, CNMI, FSM, Cook Is., Samoa, Fiji, PNG, and Solomon Is.
Giant sensitive plant, Mimosa diplotricha(Mimosaceae)
Pictures: L. Kuniata
M. diplotricha infested area in Papua New Guinea
Heteropsylla spinosa – Effect of nirogen application
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Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crasssipes
Origin – NeotropicsWorld’s worst aquatic weed
Neochetina eichhorniae(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) introduced to Fiji, PNG, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.Neochetina bruchiintroduced to PNG.
Waterhyacinth in a lake before and after release of Neochetina eichornieiae and N. bruchi in
South Africa(Photos: Coetzee et al.)
Salvinia molesta contol by Cyrtobagous salviniaePhotos : P. Room and S. Bauer
Introduced – Fiji 1991, PNG
(Before and after in Australia)
Pistia stratiotes (Araceae) before and after introduction of Neodronomus affinis in a lake in Ivory Coast(Photos: M. Julien)
Introduced: PNG – 1985, Vanuatu 2006
Mikania micrantha
Liothrips mikaniae – Solomon Islands – 1988 (NE)
Puccinnia spegazzini – Fiji and PNG (2007)
Clidemia hirta
Liothrips urichi – Fiji (1930), Hawaii (1953), Palau (1972), Solomon Is. (1938, 73, 75), Samoa
Miconia calvescens
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides – Tahiti
Sida spp.
Calligrapha pantherina – Fiji (2002), Vanuatu (2004)
Weed Country Benefit/cost ratio
Acacia longifolia (Andr.) willd South Africa 104
Acacia pycantha Benth South Africa 665
Acacia saligna (Labill.) Wendl.) South Africa 800
Azolla filiculoides South Africa 2.513
Eichhornia crassipes BeninAustralia
12427.5
Lantana camara South AfricaAustraliaAustralia
225.69
Benefit cost analysis for the biological control of invasive
weeds in the tropics
Weed Country Benefit/cost ratio
Mimosa diplotricha Australia 17.6
Mimosa pigra Australia 0.8
Opuntia aurantiaca South Africa 709
Opuntia spp. Australia 312.3
Parthenium hysterophorus Australia 7.2
Pistia stratoides Australia 27.5
Prosopis spp. Australia 0.5
Salvinia molesta AustraliaSri LankaZimbabwe
27.553
10.6
Benefit cost analysis for the biological control of invasive
weeds in the tropics (Cont.)
Biocontrol of Invasive Alien Arthopods(IAA) in fruit and plantation crops
Papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatusPink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicocus hirsutusOrange spiny whitefly, Aleurocanthus spiniferusCoconut hispine beetle, Brontispa spp.Coconut rhinoceros, Oryctes rhinoceros Spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersusRed coconut scale, Furcaspis oceanicaBanana leaf roller, Erionota thraxFruit Piercing moth, Eudocima phaloniaCycad aulacaspis scale, Aulacaspis yasumatsui
Papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)
• Origin: Mexico• Polyphagous• Papaya more susceptible and
die out in 3 to 4 months after infestation
• Spread:• 1990s – Caribbean, Florida
and South America•2001-5 – Micronesia and
Hawaii•2008-9 – India, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Maldives
Biological control of Papaya mealybug
Papaya mealybug parasitoid
Papaya trees killed by mealybug
Parasitoids Introduced :
• Anagyrus loecki• Acerophagous papayae• Pseudleptomastrix mexicana• (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)
Impact of Parasites on Papaya Mealybug –Guam (Hibiscus and Plumeria)
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Pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccushirsutus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)
•Native to India•Found in Hawaii 1983 and Guam 1984•Present in CNMI and FSM•In 1993, reported in Grenada, now it has spread all over the Caribbean, Florida, California and S. America
Natural Enemies of PHMB
Anagyrus kamali female and an ovipositing female (Photos: Dr. Lance Osborne)
Anagyrus kamaliAllotropa sp. near mecridaCryptoleamus montrozieri (Coccinellidae)
Population dynamics of PHMB and its natural enemies in Guam
Orange spiny whitefly (OSW),Aleurocanthus spiniferus
(Hemiptera: Aleurodidae)
• OSW was first recorded on Guam in 1951
• 1952 – Five parasitoids were introduced from Mexico
Encarsia smithi - Established on Guam
Introdueced to Kosrae, Pohnpei.
Chuuk, and Yap
Orange spiny white fly (OSW)
Aleurodicus dispersus -Spiraling whitefly
• A native of the Caribbean
• Established in Hawaii –1978
• Spread throughout the world
Natural enemies introduced:
• Encarsia haitiensis(Aphelinidae)
• Nephaspis bicolor (Coccinellidae)
Red coconut scale, Furcaspis oceanica
Parasitoid, Adelencyrtusoceanicus introduced to Guam from Ulithi (Yap) in 1988.Parasitoid emergence hole
Red coconut scale –Endemic to Caroline Islands. Established in Guam in the 1970s
Brontispa spp.
• Brontispa longissima – South pacific
• Brontispa palauensis – Palau and Guam
• Brontispa marianensis – CNMI
• Brontispa chalybeipennis – Pohnpei, Marshalls and Hawaii
• Natural enemies: Tetrasticus brontispae, Asecodes hispinarum, Chrysonotomyia sp., Chelisoches morio, Oecophylla smaragdina
Brontispa palauensis
Oryctes rhinoceros
Metarhizium application to coconut logs
Baculovirus oryctes used in all over the Pacific Islands
Fruit Piercing moth, Eudocima phalonia (Noctuidae)
Moths feeding on Guava Citrus fruit pierced by a moth
Citrus fruit drop due to fruit piercing moth damage in Vanuatu Carambola fruit pierced by a
moth
Egg parasitoids Trichogramma, Ooencyrtus and Telenomus of Eudocima phalonia
Euplectrus maternae(larval ectoparasitoid of Eudocima spp.)
•Collected in India and introduced in Guam but did not establish
Netting Fields to prevent fruit piercing moth damage to crops
Banana leaf roller, Erionota thrax
Distribution: CNMI, Guam, Hawaii, PNG
Parasitoids introducedEgg parasitoid: Ooencyrtus erionotaeLarval parasitoid: Apanteles erionotae
Cycad aulacaspis scale, Aulacaspisyasumatsui
Natural enemies introduced to GuamRhizobius lophathaeCocobius fulvus
Biocontrol of Invasive Alien Arthropods (IAA) in IPM Programs of
Vegetables
• Crucifer crop pests
• Eggplant pests
Major Pests of Crucifers
• Diamondback Moth – Plutella xylostella
• Cabbage Web Worm – Hellula undalis
• Cutworm – Spodoptera litura
• Cabbage Cluster Caterpillar – Crocidolomiapavonana
• Flea hopper – Halticus tibialis
• Aphids – Lipaphis pseudobrassicae (L.) and Brevicoryne brassicae (L.)
• Leafminers – Liriomyza spp.
Parasitoids of Crucifer Pests in Guam
Plutella xylostella -
• Trichogramma sp.
• Cotesia plutellae
• Chelonus blackburni
Spodoptera litura -
• Telenomus sp.
• Cotesia variventris
• Euplectrus xanthocephalus
Cotesia plutellae
Plutella xylostella and its parasitoids
Diadromus collaris
Plutella xylostella
Diadegma semiclausum
Spodoptera litura and its parasitoids
Spodoptera - adultEgg parasitoid, Telenomus sp.
Larval parasitoid, Cotesia sp. Larval parasitoid, Euplectrus sp.
Crocidolomia pavonana and its damage of Chinese cabbage
Hellula undalis and its damage of radish
Trap crops for cabbage
Chinese cabbage- Tempest – Crocidolomia pavonana, Halticus tibialisRadish- Minowase Summer Cross 3 – Hellula undalisMustard- Indian – Plutella xylostella, aphidsCollards- Vates – Plutella xylostella?
Pests of Eggplant
Grubs of Epilachna
Eucanthecona, a pentatomid bug feeding on the grub
Pediobius foveolatus introduced from Philippines to Guam In 1954 to controlEpilachna philippinensis
Eggplant fruit and shoot borer: Leucinodes orbonalisPhilippine lady beetle: Epilachna philippinensisLeafhoppers: Amrasca sp.Spider mites: Tetrasticus spp.Thrips: Thrips palmae
Biological Control of Invasive Alien Microbes (IAM)
• For control of soil borne fungal, bacterial, nematode diseases such as:
Fungi - Fusarium, etc
Bacteria – Ralstonia, etc
Nematodes – Meloidogyne, etc
Office of International Research, Education, and Development, Virginia Tech
Biological Control of Plant Diseases
Trichoderma viride for control of soil fungal diseases
Pseudomonas fluorescens for control of bacterial and nematode diseases
Bacillus subtilis for induced resistance
Soil or Seed Treatment:
Trichoderma Application in IPM
Yield difference in cauliflower Trichoderma treated v/s untreated
Trichoderma production by farmers in Indonesia
Seed treatment with Trichoderma+Pseudomonas
No seed treatment
Nematode Control in Okra Plots
The Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support Program (IPM CRSP) is managed by Virginia Tech at the International Affairs Office Building, 526 Prices Fork Road (0378), Blacksburg, VA 24061. Phone: (540) 231-6338
IPM package for vegetables delivers food security and biodiversity
Biological control is one of
the major components of
IPM. The result is a
significant increase in plant
health and yield, a dramatic
reduction in pesticide use,
improvement in biodiversity
and an increase in farmer
income.
IPM plays a major role in the
management of Invasive
Alien Plants and especially
to manage Invasive Alien
Arthropods and Microbes.
An IPM vegetable package is a set of technologies that can be applied to a given crop to obtain increased yield and reduce pesticide use. It includes the following elements:
Soil PreparationTechniques to enhance the soil—such as soil
solarizationand the addition of growth
enhancers such as neem cake, VAM, and
fertilizers—provide vegetables with the
nutrients they need and deter pests such as
weeds and nematodes.
Seed SelectionQuality seeds should be chosen according to
need and availability. Pest resistance, yield,
marketability, and suitability to the environment
are important considerations.
Seed TreatmentSeed treatments such as Trichodermaspp.,
Pseudomonas fluorescensand Bacillus subtilis
protect the seedlings from pests.
Seedling Selection and GraftingAll seedlings in the nursery should be closely
examined for viral and other diseases, and
infected seedlings should be eliminated from
the planting material. Grafting for pest
resistance should be done when needed.
Traps and BiopesticidesSticky traps, pheromone traps, and bait
traps may be used for both monitoring
and reducing pest populations. When
these populations reach an economic
threshold, biopesticidessuch as NPV can
be used.
BioliogicalControlAdoption of biological control is a major
component of IPM. Local natural
enemies such as parasitoids can
significantly decrease the need for
pesticides.
Supplemental TacticsSupplemental tactics including physical
management techniques, such as using
stakes, nets, and planting trap crops or
nectar plants can be used to reduce pest
damage.
www.oired.vt.edu/ipmcrsp/
Strategic ActionStrategic action, such as irrigation and
rogueing, should be taken to keep plants
healthy, reduce re-infection, and
discourage pests. While this step is very
effective, it is often labor intensive.
This research was supported by the Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support Program (IPM CRSP), which was made possible by the United States Agency for International Development and the generous support of the American people through USAID Cooperative Agreement No. EPPA-00-04-000 16-00.
Integration of Biological Control in the IPM
Grafting to confer resistance to soil-borne diseases
Dead eggplant due to bacterial wilt Healthy field of grafted eggplant
•Eggplant yield ↑ 249% in Bangladesh
•Technology transferred to India, Nepal, Uganda, Honduras and Ecuador
•Technology transferred from Bangladesh to Ohio
IPM practice in bitter melon crop in Bangladesh
Cuelure trapMashed sweet melon trap Area-wide management of melon fly
• Application of compost with Trichoderma• Setting up cuelure traps• Setting up mashed sweet melon traps• Picking disposal of fruit fly infested fruits• Release of parasitoids
Nucleopolyhedrosis Virus Application in IPM
NPVs identified for tropical vegetable pests:
Helicoverpa armigera
Spodoptera litura
Spodoptera exigua
Maruca vitrata
Plutella xylostella
NPV production by a NGO in Indonesia
Commercial production of NPV in India
Peanut bud necrosis virus of Tomato
• Transmitted by thrips
• Common in Asia
• Rogueing is effective in controlling this virus
Peanut bud necrosis virus infected tomato
Unrogued field Rogued field
Gemini virus control in tomatoes
Field without host free period Field with host free period
Healthy tomato Virus infected tomato
Transmitted by white fliesPrimarily Bemisia tabaci
Host free period for 3 months is effective in reducing the incidence
Impact on crop yield in India
Crop
Yield ( Kg/Acre )
IPM practice Farmers
practice
Eggplant 13,987 7,484
Okra 5,125 2,425
Tomato 9,533 3,573
Conclusion
Pests that are threat to the Pacific Islands
•Asian citrus psyllid – Diaphorina citri (Hawaii)
•Coconut eriophyid mite - Aceria guerreronis
•Mango fruit borer – Citripetis sp. (Saipan)
•Mango fruit fly – Bactrocera invadens
•Melon fly – Bactrocera cucurbitae (Marianas)
•Other fruit flies
•Papaya fruit fly – Bactrocera papayae
•Papaya mealybug – Paracoccus marginatus (Guam, Tinian, Palau, Hawaii)
•Red palm weevil – Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
•Solenopsis mealybug – Phenacoccus solenopsis (New Caledonia)
• Banana leaf roller – Erionota thrax (Marianas, Hawaii)
• Chromolaena – (Micronesia, PNG)
• Citrus greening
• Cycad aulacaspis scale – Aulacaspis yasumatsui
(Hawaii, Marianas, Palau)
• Eggplant fruit and shoot borer – Leucinodes orbonalis
• Mango leafhoppers – Idiocopus spp. (Palau)
• Parthenium – (Hawaii, PNG, Vanuatu, New Caledonia)
• Orthezia insignis - (Guam)
• Western flower thrips – Frankliniella occidentalis (Hawaii)
Pests that are threat to the Pacific Islands Cont.
Tospo, Gemini, and Poti insect transmitted viruses:
•Tomato spotted wilt virus•Peanut bud necrosis virus on tomatoes•Tomato yellow leaf curl virus •Several other virus diseases
Thank You
Acknowledgements:Pacific Biocontrol Workshop Organizing Committee
Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Univ. of Hawaii
U.S. Forest Service
Land Care, New Zealand