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CGE 46
INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGY
TENGKU AMRAN TENGKU MOHD
Department of Oil & Gas Engineering
Faculty of Chemical Engineering
UiTM Shah Alam
BY:
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Overview of Petroleum Play3
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Source rocks, Generation, Migrationand Accumulation of Petroleum
Structural Geology, Petroleum Traps
Outline
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After completing this chapter, you should be ableto:
Describe the origin, generation, migration and
accumulation of petroleum. Discuss the five main controls/ elements on
petroleum accumulation.
Identify several structural geology features and
how they can serve as petroleum traps.
Objectives
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Overview
WHAT IS THE PETROLEUM PLAY???
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Overview
Petroleum Playis a perception (or model) of how
reservoir rocks, a petroleum charge system, and a
trapping configuration may combine to create
petroleum accumulations at a specific
stratigraphic level.
adapted from Allen, 1990
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Plants and
animals die
Organic
sedimentation
occur (primarily in
a waterenvironment)
Sedimentation
continue withincreasing
overburden
pressure
Organic debris
deposited together
with other materials
(through
lithification)
Primary theory (generation of HC by organic evolution)
Sediments
move
deeper into
the earth
Depth,Temp +
Geologic timepasses + chemical
action (Organic
debris HC)
Origin of Petroleum
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Origin of Petroleum
Conversion of the organic material is called
Catagenesis(assisted by pressure caused by burial,
temperature and thermal alteration and degradation.
The organic origin of petroleum is strongly suggested by
the great quantities of organic compounds continuously
being deposited in sedimentary basins around the world.
Plant and animals remains contain abundant carbon and
hydrogen.
Variations in the compositions of different crude oils (due
to chemical variation in the composition of organic
material)
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From transformation of biomatter.
The biogenic origin of petroleum is widely accepted on thebasis of geochemical studies.
In low-energy environment (shallow marine environment),
fine-grained sediments are slowly deposited. Oxygen depletion takes place lead to anaerobiccondition.
Anaerobic bacteria reduce the organic compound by theremoval of oxygen from molecules BUT did not attack
C-C bond of HC. This condition highly preserve the organic matter.
In high-energy environment (aerobic)the bacteriadecompose organic matter to CO2and H2O.
Organic Theory
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Cosmic sources: HCs found in meteorites.Consolidation of H and C during earth cooling.
Reaction of metal carbides in the earth (byMendeleve,1902 and Porfirev, 1974) :
iron carbide react with percolating water toform methane and other oil hydrocarbons.There is little evidence for the existence ofiron carbide in the mantle.
Inorganic Theories
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Petroleum System
WHAT ARE THE ESSENTIAL
ELEMENTS AND PROCESSESOCCUR IN PETROLEUM
ACCUMULATION???
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The essential elements and processes and all genetically-related hydrocarbons that occur in petroleum occurrencesand accumulations whose provenance is a single pod ofactive source rock.
Source Rock
Migration Route
Reservoir RockTrap
Seal
Elements
Generation
Maturation
MigrationAccumulation
Retention
Processes
Petroleum System
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Arrangement of oil and gas source rocks, a reservoir, a seal, and a trap in a
way that has allowed the natural accumulation of oil and gas.
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Petroleum system
Petroleum System
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1. Source Rock
Source rock is defined as rock formed throughlithification, from original sediments containingorganic debris.
A source rock is a rock that is capable of producing
hydrocarbons.
Requirements for source rocks; they need to have a high enough concentration of
organic matter
they should have been heated to a high enoughtemperature to reach thermal maturation.
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Source rocks are:sedimentary rocks that were deposited in very quiet
water (still swamps on land, shallow quiet marine bays,or in deep submarine settings)
Organically rich, black-colored shales depositedin a quiet marine, oxygen depleted environmentare considered to be the best source rocks.
comprised of very small mineral fragments. Inbetween the mineral fragments, are the remains oforganic material, usually algae, small wood fragments,or pieces of the soft parts of land plants (Figure).
1. Source Rock
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Petroleum/Oil: complex
mixture of naturallyoccurring organiccompounds.Organic rich sediments
are buried in a basin.Through time, underpressure and temperatureassociated with deepburial, organics undergophysical and chemicalchanges, eventuallyforming oil.
Fossil fuel formation
1. Source Rock
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Graphite
Dead Carbon
Te
mperature
Organic
Material
fate of o rganic matter
Smaller
Fragment
Humic
Substances
Kerogen
methane
oil
Wet GasThermallyMatured
OrganicMatter
60
120
150Dry Gas
Oil window
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KEROGEN FORMATION
DIAGENESIS
CATAGENESIS
METAGENESIS
Processes
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DIAGENESIS
Occurs in the shallow subsurface near normaltemperature & pressure
Net result is reduction of its oxygen content;
H:C ratio unaltered
Organic
MaterialHumic
Substances Kerogen
MethaneCO2H2O
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CATAGENESIS
Occurs in the deeper subsurface as temperature& pressure increase
Net result is the reduction of its H:C ratio
no significant change in oxygen:carbon ratio
KerogenMatured
Organic
Materials
Oil Gas
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METAGENESIS
Occurs in the deeper subsurface at temperature& pressure verging on metamorphism
Net result is the H:C declines until only carbon left (graphite)
Porosity & permeability are now negligible
Matured
Organic
MaterialsGraphite
Last HC released
Dry gas
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PAB 1023 Petroleum Geoscience 25
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As organic matter is buriedit is heated andtransformed into kerogen,oiland gas.
Most oil is produced
between temperatures of60 and 120 degrees C, ata depth range known asthe oil window.
Deeper source (>150oC),thermogenic gas isgenerated
When kerogen is cracked,
the resulting mobile (volatile)
components are called HC
Petroleum Maturation and Generation
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After petroleum has been generated, it mustmigrate out of the source rock and into the trapwhere it will accumulate and form an oil or gasfield.
Some oil forms close to the reservoir and canreach it vertically but in many cases oilmigrates tens to hundreds of kilometers beforecoming to rest in a reservoir.
2. Migration
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Petroleum migrates as a mixture of oil, gas andwater through water-saturated rocks.
In the reservoir these phases separateaccording to density with the most dense waterat the bottom, least dense gas on top and oiloccur in between.
2. Migration
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Primary migration is the process by which petroleummoves from source rock to carrier beddriven by
pressure build-up caused by HC generation.
Secondary migration is the migration from the source
kitchen to the reservoir trap through the carrier
gravity driven process (buoyancy) controlled by pore-
entry networks.
The petroleum had to migrate through rocks with enough
permeability and porosity to allow the fluids to flow to the
surface.
Migration Routeavenues in rock through which oil
and gas moves from source rock to trap
2. Migration
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Primary and secondary migration
2. Migration
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RESERVOIR
ROCK
They contain
interconnected
passageways of
microscopic pores or
holes that occupy the
areas between the
mineral grains of therock
POROUS AND
PERMEABLE
Most oil and gasreservoir rocks are
sandstones, limestones,
or dolomites
Most major sourcerocks are shales andbiogenic limestones.
3. Reservoir Rock
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The term reservoir implies storage.
Reservoir rock is rock where hydrocarbons are stored and
from which they can be produced.
They are characterized by high porosity and
effective permeability.
An example of a good reservoir rock is sandstone
Once oil and gas enter the reservoir rock, they are
relatively free to move. Most reservoir rocks are initially
saturated with saline groundwater. Because oil and gas are less dense than the ground water,
they rise upward through the water-saturated pore spaces
until they meet a barrier of impermeable rockSEAL
3. Reservoir Rock
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POROSITY
Two types
Primary Porosity
Original porosity (between grains)
Secondary Porosity
Chemical Leaching
Fractures
Vuggy
%100)(
T
v
VVporosity
Where, Vv= Void-space volume
VT= Total or bulk volume of material
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Effective Porosity
is the fraction of the porosity that is availablefor transporting fluid(excludes fraction ofpores too small to hold fluid, or those that arenot inter-connected.
Can be measured in the lab directly by saturating adried sample of known volume and measuring wateruptake in a sealed chamber over time
For unconsolidated coarse- grained sediments there isno significant difference
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Which sedimentary rock type is most likely to
be a potential reservoir rock?
The most porous
reservoir rocks are
generally well-sorted,
poorly cementedsandstones, and
these make up some
of the most important
petroleum reservoirsaround the world.
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Porosity of Sedimentary Rocks
(Clastic)
The porosity depends on grain size, the
shapes of the grains, and the degree of
sorting, and the degree of cementation.
Well-rounded coarse-grainedsediments usually have higher
porosity than fine-grained sediments, because the grains do
not fit together well.
Poorly sorted sedimentsusually have lower porosity
because the fine-grained fragments tend to fill in the open
space.
Highly cemented sedimentaryrocks have lower porosity.
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Examples of Reservoir Porosity
a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of unconsolidated sands
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Examples of Reservoir Porosity
Unconsolidated sand
Note the void spaces
(porosity) produced by
the stacking of irregular
shaped grains
POROSITY ??
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Examples of Reservoir Porosity
Cambrian Bliss
Sandstone.
The clear grains are
quartz sand and theblack material is
hematite cement.
POROSITY ??
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Examples of Reservoir Porosity
North Sea Sandstone.
This rock was
impregnated with blue
epoxy so it would be
easier to identify theporosity.
POROSITY ??
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Examples of Reservoir Porosity
limestone, a biologic
sedimentary rock.
Some of the fossil
fragments were
dissolved to form
porosity.
POROSITY ??
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Permeability
Permeability needs to be measured, either
directly (using Darcy's law) or through estimation
using empirically derived formulas.
A common unit for permeability is the darcy(D),
or more commonly the millidarcy (mD) (1 darcy
1012m).
Other units are cm and the SI m2.
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In order to prevent the HC rising
to the surface and escaping theymust be caught in a confinedspace, termed a trap.
A trap is a place where oil andgas accumulates.
Porous rock covered byimpermeable rock
Example
Structural Traps
Folds (Anticline)
Faults
Stratigraphic Traps
Pinch out
Unconformity
5. Traps
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4. Seal
A rock through which oiland gas cannot move
effectively (such as
mudstone, claystone or
salt) and which blocksthe upwards migration
of oil and gas.
Relatively impermeable.
Seal at surface
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A seal is a fine-grained rock that preventsthe oil migrating to the surface @ vertical
migration (which happens in many parts of
the world - leading to natural oil seeps).
The seal is an important component in a
prospect.
4. Seal
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Common seals include
salt evaporites, chalks provides an effective
seal
Muddy @ clay-rich rocks, shale representmost seals.
Siltstones (very find-grained)
4. Seal
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Siltstone
10-5
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
101
102
103
104
105
10-6
Gravels
Very Fine
Sand
Silt
PureClay SandyClay
FineSand
Coarse
sand
F Gravel
K (m/day)
Can be effective seal/ cap rock if the capillary entrypressure into the pores of the seal rock above anaccumulation is in excess of the buoyancy drive of theunderlying hydrocarbon column.
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Overview
WHAT IS STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY &HOW THE FEATURES CAN SERVE AS
PETROLEUM TRAPS???
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Structural Geology
Structural geology is a component of petroleum
geology. Structural geology is concerned with shapes
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1. Faults
A fault is a more or less planar surface orzone, across which the rocks on either side
have been moved by shear displacement(i.e.
displacement parallel to the fault surface)
Faults can be sharp and can be wide zone
Majority are not vertical (most are inclined)
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1. Faults
DIPof the fault planeThe angle down fromhorizontal.
STRIKEof the fault planeThe compass direction of
the horizontal line lying in the fault.
VERTICAL FAULThas a dip of 90o.
NON-VERTICAL FAULThas dip that range from
very shallow (10-30o) to moderate (40-60o) to steep
(70-89o)
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1. Faults
Each faults separates the entire rock mass into
two fault-blocks.
Non-vertical faults the fault-block lyingbelow the fault plane is called footwall, andthe block above the fault is called the
hangingwall (Figure)
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Types of fault defined by displacement along the fault plane
1. Faults
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Slip Direction
1. Faults
The names of
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DIP SLIP FAULTS
(Fault slip parallel to the dip direction)
REVERSE FAULTSNORMAL FAULTS
The hanging wall has slipped
down in comparison to thefootwall. (associated withextensionlateral increase indimension)
Gravity causes the hanging wallto slip down.
Normal Faults are from layersbeing pulledapart.
Also known as a GRAVITYFAULT.
The hanging wall has slipped up
in comparison to the foot wall.(associated with shorteninglateral decrease in dimension).
When layers are pushed
together this is the kind of faultthat occurs.
Also known as a THRUSTFAULT.(dip is low- less than 25o)
1. FaultsThe names of
faults aredefined by the
sense ofmovement
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NORMAL FAULT
Normal Fault
1. Faults
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Normal Fault
1. Faults
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REVERSE FAULT
Reverse Fault
1. Faults
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Two layers of rock are shifted horizontally or
parallel to the fault plane.
STRIKE SLIP FAULT
Strike Slip Fault
1. Faults
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2. Fold
The term fold does not imply any particularscale.(can apply to structures of any size.
If a fold makes the trap for a petroleumreservoir, the size of the fold must be quitelarge (on the order of km).
Fold can be very small too.
There are three main types of folds:
Anticlines
Synclines
Monoclines
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2. Fold
Feature where rock layers or other markers
become non-planar due to deformation
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2. Fold
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Anticlines
Anticlines: This is when layers are folded upwards in
what looks like arch. The layers are symmetrical (lookalike) to either side of its center.
Rock layers in anticlines dip away from the center axis.
The oldest rocks are exposed on the center axis.
S li
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Synclines
Synclines: This is when the rock layers are
folded downward. The youngest layers of rock are exposed on
the center axis.
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M li
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Monoclines
Monocline:This is when the rock layer has a gently
dipping bend in the horizontal rock layer. Fold structures with only one tilted limb; beds on either
side of tilted limb are horizontal typically arise from
vertical offset on steeply dipping fault in subsurface
near tilted limb
3 Di i
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3. Diapirs
Diapirsis a body of flowable rock that migrates upwards (and
possibly, sideways) due to its lower density (compared tosurrounding rocks). Rock salts (low density)commonly forms
diapirs, but underconsolidated mudstones (often associated
with overpressure) also can become diapiric. Large granit ic
in t rus ions that rise into the middle crust also diapiric.
Diapirs that pierces lower layers and flexes upper layers.
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1 St t l T
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Structural traps are formed:
where the space for petroleum is limited by
a structural feature
when the reservoir rock and overlying seal
have been deformed by folding or faulting.
the deformation of rock strata within the
earths crust
1. Structural Traps
1 St t l T
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Folded strata that form a structural trap.
1. Structural Traps
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Structural Traps
:
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ANTICLINALTRAP
FAULT TRAP
SALT DOME
EXAMPLE OF STRUCTURAL TRAP
Anticlinal Trap
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An anticline is an example of rocks which were previouslyflat, but have been bent into an arch. Oil that finds its way
into a reservoir rock that has been bent into an arch will
flow to the crest of the arch, and get stuck (provided, of
course, that there is a trap rock above the arch to seal
the oil in place).
Anticlinal trap
Anticlinal Trap
Anticlinal Trap
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The rock layers in an
anticlinal trap wereoriginally laid down
horizontally then folded
upward into an arch or
dome. Later, hydrocarbons migrate
into the porous and
permeable reservoir rock.
A cap or seal (impermeablelayer of rock) is required to
permit the accumulation
of the hydrocarbons Anticlinal traps
Anticlinal Trap
Anticlinal Trap
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Anticlinal traps
Anticlinal Trap
Salt Dome Trap
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Salt Dome or Salt Plug Trap
A trap created by piercement orintrusion of stratified rock layers
from below by ductile
nonporous salt.
The intrusion causes the lower
formations nearest the intrusionto be uplifted and truncated
along the sides of the intrusion,
while layers above are uplifted
creating a dome or anticlinal
folding.
Hydrocarbons migrate into the
porous and permeable beds on
the sides of the column of salt.
Salt dome traps
Salt Dome Trap
Salt Dome Trap
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Hydrocarbons accumulate in the traps aroundthe outside of the salt plug if a seal or cap rock
is present.
Under the weight of overlying rock layers,
layers of salt will push their way toward the
surface in salt domes and ridges. Oil and gas
are trapped in folds and along faults above the
dome and within upturned porous sandstonesalong the flanks of the dome.
Salt Dome Trap
Salt Dome Associated Traps
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PAB 1023 Petroleum Geoscience 80
Salt Dome Associated Traps
Fault Trap
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Fault TrapThe faulting of
stratified rock occurs as a result
of vertical and horizontal stress.
At some point the rock layers
break, resulting in the rock faces
along the fracture moving or
slipping past each other into an
offset position.
A fault trap is formed when the
faulted formations are tilted
toward the vertical.
When a non-porous rock face ismoved into a position above and
opposite a porous rock face, it
seals off the natural flow of the
hydrocarbons allowing them to
accumulate.Fault traps
Fault Trap
Sealing Faults
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PAB 1023 Petroleum Geoscience 82
2 Stratigraphic Traps
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Stratigraphic traps are formed:
when the reservoir rock is deposited as a
discontinuous layer. Seals are deposited
beside and on top of the reservoir.
by the limits of the reservoir rock itself, without any
structural control.
as a result of differences or variations between or
within stratified rock layers, creating a change or loss
of permeability from one area to another. These traps
do not occur as a result of movement of the strata. e.g. Reef, Lenticular, Pinch out, Unconformity
2. Stratigraphic Traps
2 Stratigraphic Traps
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A discontinuous layer of sandstone that forms a stratigraphic trap.
2. Stratigraphic Traps
EXAMPLE OF STRATIGRAPHIC TRAP
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EXAMPLE OF STRATIGRAPHIC TRAP
REEF LENTICULAR
UNCONFORMITYPINCH OUT
CONT
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CONT
Here is an example of a reef trap.
The diagram shows a cross-sectionthrough the reservoir and overlyingrocks.
Stratigraphic traps are also formed inclastic rocks: here, in a cross-sectionthrough a continental margin, twosandstone beds form traps withinmuddy coastal deposits.
River channels may form long, thintraps corresponding to the formerposition of the river or deltadistributary. Beach sands may formsheet-like bodies along an ancient
shoreline etc. Stratigraphic traps
Reef
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Reef
Porous ancient coralreefs grew in the warmseas.
They now provide prolificoil and gas reservoirs.Often overlying porous
rock layers are "draped,"or folded over the reefsand form separate traps.
Overlying impermeableshales act as seals to the
reservoirs.
Reef
Lenticular
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Lenticular trapA porous area
surrounded by non-porous strata. They may be formed from ancient buried
river sand bars, beaches, etc.
Lenticular traps
Pinch-Out
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Pinch-out or
lateral graded
trap A trap
created by lateral
differential
deposition when
the environmental
deposition changesup-dip.
Pinch-out or lateral graded traps
Pinch-Out
Cont
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This occurs where the
porous limestonereservoir loses itsporosity and becomesimpermeable
limestone, or theporous sandstonereservoir simply thinsand pinches out.
Overlyingimpermeable rocksact as seals.
Stratigraphic Pinch-out
U o fo it
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A stratigraphic trap formed byfolding, uplift, and erosion of porousstrata, followed by the deposition oflater beds which can act as a seal for
oil, gas, or water.
Uncomformity
Cont
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Unconformity
3. Hydrodynamic Traps
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A downward movement of water prevents the upward
movement of oil or gas.
Pure hydrodynamic traps are extremely rare, but a
number of traps result from the combination of
hydrodynamic forces and structure or stratigraphy.
There are also a number of fields with tilted oil-water
contacts where entrapment is a combination of both
structure and hydrodynamic forces.
3. Hydrodynamic Traps
3. Hydrodynamic Traps
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Ideal hydrodynamic trap
3 yd ody a c aps
3. Hydrodynamic Traps
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Combination of both structure and hydrodynamic Forces
y y p
4. Combination Traps
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Combination traps result from two or more of thebasic trapping mechanisms. (structural,
stratigraphic, and hydrodynamic ).
p
4. Combination Traps
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Several types of traps(Combination traps) in Piercement
p
4. Combination Traps
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Several types of traps(Combination traps) in Piercement
p
4. Combination Traps
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Combination traps (faulted anticline)
p
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