Chapter 12Emotional and Social
Development in Adolescence
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Erikson’s Theory:Identity vs. Role Confusion
Identity Defining who you are,
what you value, and your direction in life
Commitments to vocation, relationships, sexual orientation, ethnic group, ideals
Exploration, resolution of “identity crisis”
Role Confusion Lack of direction and
self-definition Earlier psychosocial
conflicts not resolved Society restricts
choices Unprepared for
challenges of adulthood
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Self-Concept in Adolescence Unifies separate traits into more
abstract descriptors May describe
contradictory traits Gradually combines
traits into organizedsystem: qualifiers integrating principles
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Self-Esteem in Adolescence
Continues to gain new dimensions: close friendship romantic appeal job competence
Generally rises, but drops temporarily at school transitions
Parenting style affects quality and stability ofself-esteem
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Identity Statuses
Exploration
Commitment
High Low
High identity achievement
identity moratorium
Low identity foreclosure
identitydiffusion
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Identity Status and Cognitive Style
Identity-achievedInformation-gathering
Moratorium
ForeclosureDogmatic, inflexible
Diffusion
Long-term diffusion Diffuse-avoidant
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Factors That AffectIdentity Development
Personality Child-rearing practices:
attachment Peers, friends Schools, communities Culture Societal forces
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Kohlberg’s Stages ofMoral Development
Preconventional level
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose
Conventional level
Stage 3: “Good boy–good girl” (morality of interpersonal cooperation)
Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining
Postconventionalor principled level
Stage 5: Social contract
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle
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Research onKohlberg’s Theory
Few people reach postconventional morality
Stages 3 and 4 reflect morally mature reasoning
In real life, people often reason below actual capacity
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Sex Differences in Moral Reasoning?
Kohlberg: emphasis on rights and justice orientation
Gilligan: emphasis on “ethic of care” orientation
Each sex uses both orientations, but females may stress care more, because of greater involvement in activities involving care and concern for others
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Reasoning About Situations Raising Competing Issues
Moral Social-conventional Personal:
personal choice weighed against community obligations
personal rights integrated with ideal reciprocity
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Influences on Moral Reasoning
Child-rearing practices: caring, supportive discussions of
moral concerns Schooling: higher
education Peer interaction Culture
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Moral Reasoning and Behavior
Factors influencing behavior include maturity of moral reasoning emotions: empathy, sympathy, guilt temperament cultural experiences and beliefs moral identity parenting practices: inductive discipline,
moral standards schooling: just educational environments
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Religious Involvement and Morality
Formal religious involvement declinesin adolescence
Religious involvement linked to responsible academic,
social behavior; less misconduct
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Pragmatic Approachto Morality
Claims Kohlberg’s stages inadequately account for behavior in everyday life
Moral judgments are practical tools that depend on current context and motivation are frequently directed at self-serving goals
Critics: People often rise above self-interest to defend others’ rights
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Gender Intensificationin Adolescence
Increased gender stereotyping of attitudes and behavior
Not universal, more common in girls
Biological, social, and cognitive influences
Declines by late adolescence
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Parent–Child Relationships in Adolescence
Strives for autonomy Deidealizes parents Authoritative parenting:
balancing autonomy-granting with monitoring
extra challenging during adolescence
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Parent–Adolescent Conflict
Facilitates adolescents’ identity and autonomy
Signals parents to adjust parenting style
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Family Influences on Adolescents’ Adjustment
Family circumstances that affect appropriate autonomy-granting: financial security parental work pressures stable marriage
Sibling relationships: less intense, in both positive and negative
feelings attachment remains strong in most cases
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Characteristics of Adolescent Friendships
Fewer “best friends” Stress intimacy, mutual
understanding, loyalty Friends tend to be similar:
identity status educational aspirations political beliefs deviant behavior
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Sex Differences inAdolescent Friendships
Girls Emotional closeness Get together to
“just talk” Self-disclosure, support
Boys Shared activities Achievement, status Competition, conflict
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Self-Disclosure in Relationships
Figure 12.1
(From D. Buhrmester, 1996, “Need Fulfillment, Interpersonal Competence, and the Developmental Contexts of Early Adolescent Friendship,” in W. M. Bukowski, A. F. Newcomb, & W. W. Hartup [Eds.], The Company They Keep: Friendship in Childhood and Adolescence, New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 168. Reprinted with permission of Cambridge University Press.)
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Friendship Risks
Corumination: anxiety, depression
Relational aggression: girls’ closest friendships
of shorter duration Internet communication:
racial and ethnic slurs sexual obscenity harassment reduced quality of face-to-face interaction
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U.S. Teenagers’ Daily Use of Social Media
Figure 12.2
(Adapted from Lenhart et al., 2010.)
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Benefits of Adolescent Friendships
Opportunities to explore self
Opportunities to deeply understand another
Foundation for future intimate relationships
Help in managing stress Improved school attitudes
and involvement© oliveromg/Shutterstock
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Cliques and Crowds
Cliques: small groups: 5–7 good friends similar in family
background, attitudes, and values
Crowds: larger: composed of
several cliques membership based on
reputation, stereotype
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Changes in Dating During Adolescence
Mixed-sex cliques prepare teenagers for dating
Dating goals change with age: early adolescence: recreation, peer status late adolescence: intimacy, compatibility,
affection, social support Relationships with parents and friends
contribute to security of romantic ties
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Dating Problems
Too-early dating: drug use, sex,
delinquency poor academic
achievement dating violence
For gay and lesbianyouths: finding partners peer harassment, rejection
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Depression in Adolescence
Most common psychological problem: 15–20% have had one or more major episodes
Twice as many girls as boys: early-maturing girls gender intensification
Influential factors: heredity parental depression gender-typed coping styles
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Adolescent Suicide
Suicide rate jumps sharply at adolescence Related factors:
gender ethnicity family environment, high life stress sexual orientation personality:
intelligent, withdrawn antisocial
triggering negative events
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Preventing Suicide
Attend to warning signs Provide adult and
peer support Teach coping
strategies Remove access to
means: gun control legislation © Lisa F. Young/Shutterstock
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Delinquency Widespread in early and middle
adolescence, then declines Related factors:
gender SES, ethnicity difficult temperament low intelligence, poor school performance peer rejection, association with antisocial
peers family characteristics neighborhood
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Two Routes to Adolescent Delinquency
Early-onset: behavior begins in childhood: biological risks and inept
parenting combine linked to serious
antisocial activity Late-onset: behavior
begins around puberty peer influences
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Path to Chronic Delinquency
Figure 12.3
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Preventing Adolescent Delinquency
Positive family relationships High-quality teaching Communities with healthy
economic and social conditions
Multisystemic therapy Zero tolerance policies
are inconsistent, ineffective
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