Chapter 22: Mechanisms of Evolution
Ms. KlinkhachornMarch 14, 2011
AP Biology
Homework
• Test Corrections – due Friday– Give the correct answer and explain why yours
was incorrect
We’re Running Out of Time!
28 days until the AP Exam
(12 more days until Jonisha’s birthday)
What this means
• Outside reading and packets• Essays for homework• Weekend/afterschool sessions• Online laboratories
Quick Write! (10 min)
1. Genes are located on chromosomes and are the basic unit of heredity that is passed on from parent to child, through generations.
a) Explain how a chromosome mutation could occur and why mutations are detrimental to the organism in which they take place
b) Explain why it is that – although there are very few genes located on the Y chromosome – human males may suffer from having just one copy of the X chromosome, whereas females have two
Evolution
• Evolution = descent with modification • Evolution = changes in the genetic
composition of a population from generation to generation
Historical Background
• The Old Testament says that species were individually designed by God and therefore perfect. – Scientists believed that the match of organisms to
their environment was evidence that God had created them for a particular purpose
Linnaeous and Cuvier
• Linnaeous – Grouped species by similarities based on patterns of their
creation• Developed taxonomy, how we name and classify organisms
• Cuvier– Developed the area of paleontology, the study of fossils– Observed that fossils that were deeper down looked less
similar to current life-forms– Opposed the idea of evolution and was a proponent of
catastrophism• Idea that past events were sudden (catastrophes) that destroyed
many species at one time
Fig. 22-2
American Revolution French Revolution U.S. Civil War1900185018001750
1795
18091798
18301831–1836
1837
1859
18371844
1858The Origin of Species is published.Wallace sends his hypothesis to Darwin.
Darwin begins his notebooks.Darwin writes essay on descent with modification.
Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle.
Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.”
Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.Lamarck publishes his hypothesis of evolution.
Hutton proposes his theory of gradualism.
Linnaeus (classification)
Cuvier (fossils, extinction)Malthus (population limits)
Lamarck (species can change)Hutton (gradual geologic change)
Lyell (modern geology)Darwin (evolution, natural selection)
Wallace (evolution, natural selection)
Fig. 22-3
Younger stratumwith more recentfossils
Layers of depositedsediment
Older stratumwith older fossils
Lyell
• Lyell– Uniformitarianism says that mechanisms of
change are constant over time• Geologic processes that occurred in the past occur at
the same rate in the future
– Important because it indicates that Earth is old
Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Evolution
• Lamarck– the one other person besides Darwin to propose a
mechanism for HOW organisms actually changed– Believed in evolution, but didn’t get the process– Two guiding principles:
• Use and disuse – parts of the body that are used a lot get stronger, while those that aren’t used get weaker
• Inheritance of acquired characteristics – acquired characteristics can be passed on to the next generation
Charles Darwin
• Father of Evolution• Did most of his
observational studies on the Galapagos Islands off the coast of South America
• Focused on ideas of adaptation and natural selection
Adaptations
• Adaptations are characteristics of organisms that enhance their survival and reproduction in specific environments– Examples:
• Beak shape
• Darwin says that the descendants of the earliest organisms spread out to different habitats– Based on these habitats, they adapted differently
Fig. 22-6
(a) Cactus-eater (c) Seed-eater
(b) Insect-eater
Fig. 22-8a
Elephas maximus(Asia)
Stegodon
Mammuthus
Loxodontaafricana(Africa)
Loxodonta cyclotis(Africa)
010425.52434
Millions of years ago Years ago
Platybelodon
Natural Selection
• Survival of the fittest• Natural selection is the mechanism behind
evolution– Individuals that have characteristics better-suited
to the environment are able to have more offspring than others
– Over time, NS increases the match between organisms and their environment
– If an environment changes, NS will result in adaptations or new species
Fig. 22-12a
(a) A flower mantid in Malaysia
Fig. 22-12b
(b) A stick mantid in Africa
Misconceptions
• Evolution takes time. Populations evolve, not individuals.
• Natural selection only works for heritable traits– Acquired characteristics cannot be inherited
• Your work ethic is not encoded into your genes
• Favorable traits depend on the environment– Polar bears wouldn’t be happy at the equator
Evidence for Evolution
• Direct Observation• Fossil Record• Homology• Biogeography
Direct Observation - Guppies
• Adult male guppies are brightly colored– Females are more attracted– Predators are more attracted
• Observation: The more predators there are, the less colorful the males are– Hypothesis: intense predation caused natural
selection in male guppies, favoring drab colors
Fig. 22-13a
Predator: Killifish; preysmainly on juvenileguppies (which do notexpress the color genes)
Guppies: Adult males havebrighter colors than thosein “pike-cichlid pools”
Experimentaltransplant ofguppies
Pools withkillifish,but noguppies priorto transplant
Predator: Pike-cichlid; preys mainly on adult guppies
Guppies: Adult males are more drab in colorthan those in “killifish pools”
EXPERIMENT
Fossil Record
• By examining fossils, scientists can figure out similarities between organisms– Figure out ancestry
• Do radioactive testing to figure out the age of certain fossils– Can infer the age of other fossils
Fig. 22-15b
Bristolia harringtoni
Bristolia mohavensis
Latham Shale dig site, SanBernardino County, California
12
14
16
18
2
Dep
th (m
eter
s)
1
1
2
Fig. 22-16ab
(a) Pakicetus (terrestrial)
(b) Rhodocetus (predominantly aquatic)
Fig. 22-16cd
(c) Dorudon (fully aquatic)
Pelvis andhind limb
Pelvis andhind limb
(d) Balaena (recent whale ancestor)
Homology
• Homology = similarity resulting from common ancestry– Species that are in some way
related have characteristics that are similar, though the function might be very different
• Example: Humans and chimpanzees share 99% of their DNA (and about 60% with a banana)
Homologous Structures
• Anatomical structures that are similar within organisms but may have different functions
• Example: arm of humans, cats, whale and bats
Embryonic Homology
• Studying the embryos of organisms can reveal anatomical homologies that aren’t visible in adults
• Example: All vertebrate embryos have a tail
Fig. 22-18
Human embryoChick embryo (LM)
Pharyngealpouches
Post-analtail
Vestigial Structures
• “Leftovers” of features that used to serve an important function in a different time period
• Example:– Some whales have a pelvis and leg bones in their
skeleton• What does this indicate?
Evolutionary Tree
Hawks andother birds
Ostriches
Crocodiles
Lizardsand snakes
Amphibians
Mammals
Lungfishes
Tetrapod limbs
Amnion
Feathers
Homologouscharacteristic
Branch point(common ancestor)
TetrapodsAmniotes
Birds
6
5
4
3
2
1
Convergent Evolution
• Organisms can be distantly related but still share similar traits– Faced similar environmental challenges that
favored specific traits
• These are called analogous structures• Example:
– Penguins, dolphins, and sharks have torpedo-shaped bodies
Fig. 22-20
Sugarglider
Flyingsquirrel
AUSTRALIA
NORTHAMERICA
Biogeography
• Biogeography = geographic distribution of species– Species are more closely related to species within
their geographic area than species in distant areas
• Example: An animal found in the South American desert is more closely related to another SA desert animal than an African desert animal
Continental Drift
• Drift = slow movement of continents over time
• 250 million years ago, all of the Earth’s continents were one giant piece of land called Pangea
Application of Information
1. Graph the data found in the table
2. Examine the graph and hypothesize why the percentage of mosquitoes resistant to DDT rose rapidly
3. Suggest an explanation for the global spread of DDT resistance
Evidence for Evolution
• Direct Observation• Fossil Record• Homology• Biogeography