Chapter 26: Heritage of the Middle East Section 4: Imperialism
and Nationalism Updated by Mr. Dougherty Sarah H.
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Lesson Questions What challenges did the Ottoman Empire face?
How did Imperialism spur the growth of nationalism in the Middle
East? What reforms did nationalist leaders introduce?
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Vocabulary mandate: territory administered but not owned by a
member of the League of Nations anti-Semitism: hatred or fear of
Jews
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Introduction The Suez Canal In ancient times, Egyptian pharaohs
began digging a canal that would link Mediterranean with Red Sea;
more than 2,000 years later, the French finally completed task
Egyptian workers labored for nearly 11 years to dig 100- mile Suez
Canal Europeans welcomed the canal because it reduced the ocean
voyage to Asia by thousands of miles By late 1800s, European
influence in Middle East was growing During Age of Imperialism,
European interference in Middle East would spur growth of
nationalist movements
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Suez Canal Important Route for Oil (1956)
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Challenges to Ottoman Power Reform Efforts National groups
within empire sought independence from Ottoman rule Greeks, Serbs,
Romanians, and Bulgarians Russia encouraged these groups to revolt
against Ottoman rulers France and Britain alarmed at Russias
ambitions and tried to prevent breakup of Ottoman Empire Turkish
nationalism Young Turks formed in late 1800s Young Turks wanted to
strengthen Ottoman Empire and end western imperialism 1908:
overthrew the sultan, placed a new sultan in power, forced him to
carry out program Young Turks supported policy of Turkish
nationalism; they abandoned traditional Ottoman tolerance of
diverse cultures and religion Young Turks tried to impose Turkish
language on Arabs and mistreated Arabs in many other ways; fueled
growing Arab nationalism World War I Ottoman Empires sided with
Germany against Russia, Britain, and France 1919: Versailles Peace
Conference, Allies stripped Ottoman empire of its Arab provinces
Britain received Iraq, Transjordan and Palestine as mandates France
received Syria and Lebanon as mandates
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ABD AL-HAMID II (1842-1918), Ruled from 1876-1909 Ottoman
sultan of Turkey he succeeded his brother Murad V (1840-1904), who
had been declared insane. Russia declared war against Turkey in the
second year of Abd al-Hamid's reign. He lost many battles. The
Treaty of San Stefano in 1878, resulted in the lost European
territory. Massacres of Armenians occurred in Turkey during 1895
and 1896, but Abd al-Hamid refused to intervene. His despotic rule
led to the development of the powerful revolutionary organization
known as the Young Turks. In 1909 Abd al-Hamid II was deposed and
exiled.
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Resting after battle during Turkish revolution Soldiers resting
after a battle during the 1911 Turkish revolution. A group of
Turkish revolutionaries called the "Young Turks" organized the
overthrow of the Ottoman regime in 1908. Power struggles and
political turmoil ensued, leading to several coups d'etat by 1913.
In the meantime, the Empire continued to lose control of its
provinces one by one.
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A battle in the first Balkan War (1912) In this first Balkan
War battle, the Turks are defeating the Bulgarians. In the years
before World War I, the Balkans were a locus of serious
international conflict, as they struggled to free themselves from
the last vestiges of domination by Turkey. In the first Balkan War,
fought in 1912, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro, encouraged
by Russia, fought the Turks. Then, in a 1913 quarrel over the
spoils, the Bulgarians attacked the Serbs.
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Armenian troops march through Baku, in Russia. Armenian troops
march through Baku, in Russia. Located on the western side of the
Caspian Sea, the Turks could easily march north and attack Russia
by crossing their border into the Caucasus. Combined British and
Russian forces fought fierce battles against the Turks from July
1918 until November, when they finally reoccupied Baku.
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The forgotten Holocaust: The Armenian Massacre During World War
I Armenia became a battleground for Russian and Turkish armies.
Between January and August 1916, the Russians conquered the greater
part of Turkish Armenia, but the revolution in 1917 forced their
withdrawal, and the Turks reoccupied the country. As the war raged
on, Turkish atrocities against Armenians increased, leading the
government of the U.S. to send a formal note of protest to Turkey
on Feb. 17, 1916. Deaths attributed to massacres and famine reached
an estimated 800,000 during the war. Many Armenians fled, seeking
homes in other lands, including the U.S.; about 200,000 found
refuge in Russia.
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Famous Armenian-Americans Arshile Gorky (Artist)
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Alex Seropian (Founder of Bungie Software Products
Corporation)
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Famous Armenian-Americans Family tradition had it that the head
of the company would only pass its secrets down to the oldest son,
but Avedis III gave the information to both his sons, Armand and
Robert. This led to a family feud and a legal squabble, resulting
in Robert leaving Zildjian to form the rival Sabian company. Avedis
Zildjian (Cymbal Manufacturer)
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Republic of Turkey Atatrks reforms Mustafa Kemal rallied
Turkish resistance to Greek advance 1923 Kemal had become strong
enough to overthrow Sultan, abolish Ottoman Empire and make Turkey
a republic He later took name Kemal Atatrk, or father of the Turks
Determined to make Turkey a modern secular state Used government
funds to build industries and also insisted on separation of
religion and government Women won right to vote and hold public
office; system of public schools separate from religious schools To
Atatrk, modernization meant adopting many features of western
culture He had support of Turkish nationalists, but many Muslims
opposed his policies because they feared that western ways would
destroy their traditions and values
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Flag of Turkey, Flag in use since 1844 and officially adopted
in 1936. The star and crescent are Muslim symbols. Many traditions
explain the star and crescent symbol even before Islam. It is known
that Diana was the patron goddess of Byzantium and that her symbol
was a moon. In 330, the Emperor Constantine rededicated the city -
which he called Constantinople - to the Virgin Mary, whose star
symbol was superimposed over the crescent.
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Atatrk's principal goal was to save his people from humiliation
after WWI and to transform Turkey into a modern, 20th-century
nation. Atatrk was born on March 12, 1881, in Salonika (now
Thessalonki, Greece. Atatrk died in Istanbul on Nov. 10, 1938.
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Among the radical reforms instituted by Mustapha Kemal in
Turkey after 1924 were changes in family law and the rights of
women. Women were granted equal rights with men in marriage,
divorce, and property inheritance, and in 1934 they gained the
right to vote. Traditional forms of dress were discouraged or even
abolished. In this 1934 photograph, the Turkish Republic has just
extended political rights to women. Sixth from the left is Mustapha
Kemal, President of the Republic.
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A woman judge holding court in Turkey A woman judge holding
court in Turkey, exemplifying the reforms in the rights of women
instituted by Mustapha Kemal between 1924 and 1938. Kemal's reform
program was summed up in six principles: republicanism,
nationalism, populism, statism, secularism, and reformism.
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Conducting a census in Turkey, October 20, l935 Borrowing
selectively from European law codes, President Mustapha Kemal aimed
to create a modern secular nation-state which would be able to
compete with the industrialized states of Europe. Censuses had been
conducted in Ottoman times to facilitate governmental control and
planning. In this 1935 census, the people of the country were
required to stay indoors until 6 p.m.
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Turkey Adopting a New Alphabet Atatrk turned Turkey toward the
west in several ways, changing the calendar, methods of
time-keeping, and systems of weights and measures. He replaced the
Arabic script with the Roman alphabet. Here a teacher is explaining
the new alphabet to students. Within the next few months, teachers
were retrained, printing presses were equipped and courses were
established to teach the masses the new alphabet. A three-year plan
was enacted. The literacy rates during this time increased from
around 10% to 75% for men and 45% for women.
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The Mausoleum of Atatrk at Ankara, Turkey Atatrk's remains were
interred here on November 10,1953, the tenth anniversary of his
death. This mausoleum was built in the years 1944 to 1953 according
to the plans of the architect Emin Onat.
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Bringing Turkey into the Modern Age
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President Obama Addressing the Turkish Parliament April 6 th
2009 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3PrM9W JZus
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3PrM9W JZus
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Famous Turkish-Americans, Harry, Varol, and Seckin Ablak
Founders of Vocelli Pizza Muhtar Kent, Chief Executive of Coca-Cola
Company Tunch Ilkin Steelers Player and Sport Commentator
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Famous Turkish-Americans Ersan lyasova, Milwaukee Bucks Mehmet
Okur, Utah Jazz
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Rise of Modern Egypt During Age of Imperialism, other parts of
Ottoman Empire came under European control; Egypt became the focus
of imperialist rivalry between Britain and France; Whoever held the
Isthmus of Suez would control shipping and trade between Europe and
Asia 1798, French general Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt, British
and Ottomans forced the French to retreat but French influence
remained strong in Egyptian culture
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1798- Napoleon Bonaparte The Battle of the Pyramids
(Egypt)
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Battle of the Pyramids, Franois-Louis-Joseph Watteau,
17981799
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Defeat of Napoleon in Russia (Russias winter has been nicknamed
General Winter because it defeated Napoleon and later Hitler)
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Exiled to Elba
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ESCAPE! Here I am. Kill your Emperor, if you wish."
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The Battle of Waterloo
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Exiled by the British (again)
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St. Helena
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Rise of Modern Egypt Continued Muhammad Ali Muhammad Ali 1805,
Muhammad Ali, an Albanian soldier who fought against the French,
became governor of Egypt 1805, Muhammad Ali, an Albanian soldier
who fought against the French, became governor of Egypt Ali invited
French experts to train Egyptians in the latest European military
and scientific techniques, established new farming methods,
improved irrigation, and promoted the growing of cash crops :
cotton, sugar, and tobacco Ali invited French experts to train
Egyptians in the latest European military and scientific
techniques, established new farming methods, improved irrigation,
and promoted the growing of cash crops : cotton, sugar, and
tobacco
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Muhammad Ali (1769-1849), the Founder of Modern Egypt This
Albanian soldier maneuvered his way to political power in 1805 in
the aftermath of the French and British invasions of Egypt. His
attempts to extend Egyptian influence in Arabia and Syria over the
following decades met Ottoman and British resistance. Muhammad Ali
embarked on an ambitious program of economic reform, expanding
irrigation and turning large areas into cash crop production. His
ruling dynasty lasted until 1952 when his descendant, King Farouk,
was overthrown.
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King Farouk of Egypt (c.) with Crown Prince Farouk at his left,
watching a Cairo parade around 1930. Farouk (1920-1965), The last
reigning descendant of Muhammad Ali in Egypt, came to power in 1937
and soon came under pressures from Europe. Farouk was discredited
in the eyes of many Egyptians by his dependence on the British, his
extravagant life style, and the poor Egyptian performance in the
first Palestine war of 1948-49. In 1952 he was overthrown and sent
into exile as a result of a coup organized by Gamal Abd al-
Nasser.
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Farouk's Palace
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Rise of Modern Egypt continued Growing foreign influence
Growing foreign influence Alis successors continued his policies
but had to borrow money from European banks in order to pay for
them; France and Britain used these debts as an excuse to interfere
in Egypts internal affairs Alis successors continued his policies
but had to borrow money from European banks in order to pay for
them; France and Britain used these debts as an excuse to interfere
in Egypts internal affairs French won the right to build the Suez
Canal; faced with huge debts, Egyptian ruler, Ismail, sold his
shares in the canal to the British French won the right to build
the Suez Canal; faced with huge debts, Egyptian ruler, Ismail, sold
his shares in the canal to the British Egyptians rebelled because
Britain and France took control of Egypts economy Egyptians
rebelled because Britain and France took control of Egypts economy
British forces occupied country in 1882 British forces occupied
country in 1882 Both Muslims and Egyptian Christians, known as
copts, supported efforts to end British control Both Muslims and
Egyptian Christians, known as copts, supported efforts to end
British control Egypt declared its independence from Britain in
1922, Suez Canal remained in British hands until 1956 Egypt
declared its independence from Britain in 1922, Suez Canal remained
in British hands until 1956
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The influence of the British and French in Egypt Khedive Ismail
Pasha of Egypt (r. 1863-1879) encouraged a massive influx of
Europeans into his country. The beginning of his reign was
prosperous, since the Civil War in the United States had brought a
great demand for Egyptian cotton. Prosperity encouraged European
bankers to lend the khedive great sums of money, although at high
rates. Unschooled in the ways of western finance, the khedive
became so much indebted to European bankers that his country was on
the verge of bankruptcy. Here, Britain and France, depicted as
sailors, tie up the khedive, after chiding him for having created
his own sorry situation.
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Famous Arab-Americans Steve Jobs, head of Apple, biological
father was Syrian John J. Mack, CEO of investment bank Morgan
Stanley (Lebanese parents)
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Famous Arab-Americans Maloof family, (The Maloof family is a
Lebanese family which owns numerous business properties in the
Western United States, majority owners of the Sacramento Kings and
the Palms Casino Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada Paul Orfalea, Nicknamed
"Kinko" because of his curly red hair, born in Los Angeles,
California, to parents of Lebanese descent, founded the copy-chain
Kinko's.
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Famous Arab-Americans Joseph Haggar, founder of Haggar Clothing
(Lebanese) Catherine Bell, actress on JAG, mother is Persian
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Famous Arab-Americans Justin Abdelkader, an American ice hockey
forward playing for the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey
League (NHL). (Parents of Jordanian Ancestry)
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Famous Arab-Americans Ralph Nader, consumer advocate and
frequent presidential candidate (Lebanese parents)
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Struggle for Iran Both Russia and Britain acquired spheres of
influence in Iran; both nations competed for influence elsewhere in
Asia, and each sought access to the Persian Gulf By early 1900s,
Iranian nationalists were demanding reform 1925; Reza Khan set up
the Pahlavi dynasty and made himself shah Khan set out to end
foreign control and create a modern industrial state; built roads,
factories, modernized the army, and reduced power of Muslim clergy
Men and women adopted western clothing, women gained more freedom
to move about in public, schools emphasized western courses of
study, and government used western models for its law code
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Reza Shah Pahlavi (1878-1944) Ruled Iran from 1925 to 1941. An
obscure military officer, he rose through the ranks and led the
overthrow of the government in 1921. He became prime minister in
1923 and then deposed the last Qajar Shah, having himself crowned
as Pahlavi Shah in 1925. Like Atatrk in Turkey, Reza Shah embarked
on ambitious plans to reform Iran culturally and economically. When
he refused to cooperate with the Allies at the beginning of World
War II, Britain and the Soviet Union forced him to resign in favor
of his young son, Muhammed Reza.
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Arab Nationalism Arabs felt betrayed by peace settlement that
ended World War I Britain and France gained control of many Arab
lands that had been part of the Ottoman Empire-only in Saudi Arabia
did an Arab ruler gain independence Throughout 1920s and 1930s,
Arab nationalists continued their demands for self-rule Growing
importance of oil from Middle East, made Britain and France
unwilling to withdraw from region 1932- Iraq gained independence,
1943-Lebanon won freedom, 1946-Syria independent
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Colonel Thomas Edward Lawrence (1888-1935), the legendary and
enigmatic "Lawrence of Arabia." When the British encouraged the
Arabs to revolt against Turkish rule in 1916, T. E. Lawrence led
the movement. He is shown here (second from right) with the Arab
delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, where the peacemakers
refused to grant independence to the Arabs. In center front is
Prince Feisal, who commanded the Arab army against the Turks.
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At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Lawrence joined the
British Military Intelligence Service in Cairo. From there he was
sent with a British relief column to the Arab prince Faisal (later
King Faisal I of Iraq) in the Hejaz (now in Saudi Arabia). Lawrence
then worked among the Arabs in revolt against Turkish rule and,
having been accepted as their military adviser, unified their armed
forces and led them against the Turks. In 1918 Lawrence and Faisal
triumphantly entered Damascus before the arrival of the British
army. Lawrence participated in the Paris Peace Conference in 1919,
but was unsuccessful in his efforts to gain Arab independence.
Played by Peter OToole
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Colonel T. E. Lawrence's house in Wadi Rum, Jordan. From this
cave-house Lawrence carried out operations and negotiations
connected with the Arab revolt against Turkey. Photo by Henry
Burroughs.
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Conflict Over Palestine Zionism During 1920s and 1930s, British
mandate of Palestine became the center of conflict between Jewish
and Arab nationalists During late 1800s, persecution of Jews led to
the modern form of Zionism; sought to reestablish a Jewish state in
Palestine AD. 70: Romans expelled Jews from Palestine; Jews dreamed
of returning
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Conflict Over Palestine As anti-Semitism increased, the desire
for a Jewish homeland grew In Eastern Europe and Russia, thousands
of Jews were killed in organized massacres; violence led many
European Jews to migrate to Palestine
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Liberation- Lord Balfour wrote a letter to Zionist leader
Rothschild, outlining the British position in support of a Jewish
homeland, of which the Arabs were unaware.
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Tents of newly arrived Jewish immigrants in Palestine around
1918. The Balfour Declaration, expressing support for a Jewish
national home, was incorporated into the British Mandate over
Palestine after World War I. Having replaced the Ottoman
authorities, the British facilitated Zionist immigration to
Palestine.
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Zionism continued 1897-Theodor Herzl, a Hungarian Jew living in
Austria, formed an organization to promote Zionism, so Jews from
Eastern Europe began migrating to Palestine: set up communities
there and called on Britain and other European powers to support
them 1917: British government issued Balfour Declaration declaring
that Palestine will be the home for the Jewish people
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The Second Zionist Congress, meeting in Basle, Switzerland in
1898 At the podium is Theodor Herzl, leader of the Zionist movement
to establish a Jewish state in Palestine. At the first Congress in
1897 and in subsequent meetings the delegates developed plans to
win Western support for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in
Ottoman-controlled Palestine. In 1901 Great Britain offered the
Zionist movement land for settlement in East Africa, but Zionist
sentiment favored settlement in Palestine, the historic homeland of
the Jewish people.
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Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) the father of modern political
Zionism. Herzl was an Austrian journalist and playwright who
witnessed the rise of anti-Jewish sentiment in western Europe in
the last decade of the 19th century. Convinced that an independent
Jewish state was the solution to Jewish vulnerability, Herzl
published his arguments in Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State) in
1896, and organized and presided over the first Zionist congress at
Basle, Switzerland in 1897. Zionism had relatively little appeal to
the Jews of western Europe, many of whom favored national
assimilation. Furthermore, Jews living in Palestine before World
War I constituted a small minority of the total population,
offering little hope for the creation of an autonomous
homeland.
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Arthur James Balfour (1848-1930). Politically a conservative
and socially an aristocrat, Balfour served as Prime Minister of
England from 1901 to 1905. The fall of his government ushered in a
long period of Liberal rule. During World War I, Balfour served as
foreign minister, and is best known for drafting the Balfour
Declaration.
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David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973) the first Prime Minister of
Israel, proclaiming Israeli independence on May 15, 1948. The new
state was immediately recognized by the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
Behind Ben-Gurion is a portrait of Theodor Herzl, the founding
father of political Zionism, who had called the first Zionist
conference almost exactly 50 years before. Born in Poland,
Ben-Gurion had emigrated to Palestine in 1906 and was active in the
labor movement after 1921. He served in the Israeli government
until 1963.
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David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973)
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Arab response At the time, Arabs- both Christian and Muslim-
greatly outnumbered Jewish settlers in Palestine; nationalism was
stirring In time, nationalism would lead Palestinians to call for
their own independent state During 1930s, Jewish immigration
increased as anti-Semitism worsened in Europe; tensions between
Arabs and Jews in Palestine heightened Zionist groups helped Jews
to buy land from Arab landowners Arab tenant farmers on those lands
were suddenly forced to leave and many migrated to the cities; with
no money and few skills beyond farming, they faced severe hardship
Arab peasants joined other Arabs in attacking Jewish settlements,
Jewish settlers fought back, and eventually, the conflict in
Palestine erupted into war
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Palestinian Arabs demonstrating against the Balfour Declaration
at Jaffa. To Arabs, the 1917 Balfour Declaration lending British
support to Jewish national aims in Palestine became a symbol of
British betrayal of promises which had been made to Arab leaders
during World War I. General promises of British support for Arab
independence had been contained in the correspondence between
Egyptian High Commissioner McMahon and Hijaz Emir Husayn in 1915-
1916.
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Lawrence presented a British committee his plan for Arabia and
launched a lobbying campaign to draw attention to the Arab cause.
Lawrence and Faisal used Wilson's Fourteen Points to argue their
case for Arab autonomy and persuaded the Peace Conference
organizers to give them a hearing.