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Chapter 4:
Why Were Emotions Ignored in OB?
The Myth of Rationality
Emotions were seen as irrational
Managers worked to make emotion-free
environments
View of Emotionality
Emotions were believed to be disruptive
Emotions interfered with productivity
Only negative emotions were observed
Now we know emotions cant be separated from the
workplace4-1
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What are emotions and Moods
Affect: A broad range of emotions that people
experience
Emotions
Intense feelings that are directed at someone orsomething
Moods
Feelings that tend to be less intense than
emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus
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The Basic Emotions
While not universally accepted, there appear to be sixbasic emotions:
1. Anger
2. Fear
3. Sadness
4. Happiness
5. Disgust
6. Surprise
All other emotions are subsumed under these six
May even be placed in a spectrum of emotion:
Happiness surprise fear sadness angerdisgust4-3
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Basic Moods: Positive and Negative Affect
Emotions cannot be neutral.
Emotions (markers) are grouped into general moodstates.
Mood states affect perception and therefore perceived
reality.
4-4
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What Is the Function of Emotion?
Emotions can aid in our decision-making process.Many researchers have shown that emotions are
necessary for rational decisions
Thinking + Feelings Decision making
4-5
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Sources of Emotion and Mood
Personality
There is a trait component affect intensity
Day and Time of the Week
There is a common pattern for all of us
Happier in the midpoint of the daily awakeperiod
Happier toward the end of the week
Weather
Illusory correlation no effect Stress
Even low levels of constant stress can worsenmoods
Social Activities 4-6
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More Sources of Emotion and Mood
Sleep Poor sleep quality increases negative affect
Exercise
Does somewhat improve mood, especially for
depressed people
Age
Older folks experience fewer negative emotions
Gender Women tend to be more emotionally expressive, feel
emotions more intensely, have longer-lasting moods,
and express emotions more frequently than do men
Due more to socialization than to biology4-7
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Emotional Labor
An employees expression of organizationally desiredemotions during interpersonal transactions at work.
Emotional Dissonance:
Employees have to project one emotion while
simultaneously feeling another Can be very damaging and lead to burnout
Types of Emotions:
Felt: the individuals actual emotions
Displayed: required or appropriate emotions Surface Acting: displaying appropriately but not
feeling those emotions internally
Deep Acting: changing internal feelings to
match display rules - very stressful4-8
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Affective Events Theory (AET)
An event in the work environment triggers positive or
negative emotional reactions
Personality and mood determine response intensity
Emotions can influence a broad range of work variables
4-9
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Implications of AET
1. An emotional episode is actually the result of a series of
emotional experiences triggered by a single event2. Current and past emotions affect job satisfaction
3. Emotional fluctuations over time create variations in jobperformance
4. Emotion-driven behaviors are typically brief and variable
5. Both negative and positive emotions can distractworkers and reduce job performance
Emotions provide valuable insights about behavior
Emotions, and the minor events that cause them, should
not be ignored at work; they accumulate4-10
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Emotional Intelligence (EI)
A persons ability to:
Be self-aware Recognizing own emotions when experienced
Detect emotions in others
Manage emotional cues and information
EI plays an important role in job performance
EI is controversial and not wholly accepted
Case for EI:
Intuitive appeal; predicts criteria that matter; isbiologically-based.
Case against EI:
Too vague a concept; cant be measured; its validity is
suspect.4-11
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OB Applications of Emotions and Moods
Selection
EI should be a hiring factor, especially for social jobs. Decision Making
Positive emotions can lead to better decisions.
Creativity
Positive mood increases flexibility, openness, andcreativity.
Motivation
Positive mood affects expectations of success;
feedback amplifies this effect. Leadership
Emotions are important to acceptance of messagesfrom organizational leaders.
4-12
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More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods
Negotiation
Emotions, skillfully displayed, can affect negotiations Customer Services
Emotions affect service quality delivered to customerswhich, in turn, affects customer relationships
Emotional Contagion: catching emotions from others Job Attitudes
Can carry over to home, but dissipate overnight
Deviant Workplace Behaviors
Negative emotions lead to employee deviance (actions thatviolate norms and threaten the organization)
Managers Influence
Leaders who are in a good mood, use humor, and praise
employees increase positive moods in the workplace.4-13
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Global Implications
Do people experience emotions equally?
No. Culture can determine type, frequency, and depthof experienced emotions
Do people interpret emotions the same way?
Yes. Negative emotions are seen as undesirable and
positive emotions are desirable
However, value of each emotion varies across cultures
Do norms of emotional expression vary?
Yes. Some cultures have a bias against emotionalexpression; others demand some display of emotion
How the emotions are expressed may make
interpretation outside of ones culture difficult4-14
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Summary and Managerial Implications
Moods are more general than emotions and less contextual
Emotions and moods impact all areas of OB
Managers cannot and should not attempt to completely
control the emotions of their employees
Managers must not ignore the emotions of their co-workers
and employees
Behavior predictions will be less accurate if emotions are
not taken into account
4-15
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Chapter 5: Personality and Values
What is Personality?
Personality: The sum total of ways in which an individualreacts and interacts with others.
Personality Traits: Enduring characteristics that describe an
individuals behavior.
Personality
DeterminantsHeredity
Environment
Situation
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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Personality Types
Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I)
Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N)
Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F)
Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
A personality test that taps four characteristics and
classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types.
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Myers-Briggs
Sixteen
Primary
Traits
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The Big Five Model of Personality Dimensions
-Extroversion: Sociable, gregarious, and assertive
-Agreeableness: Good-natured, cooperative, and
trusting.
-Conscientiousness: Responsible, dependable, persistent,
and organized.
-Openness to Experience
Imaginativeness, artistic, sensitivity, and intellectualism.
-Emotional Stability: Calm, self-confident, secure (positive)
versus nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative).
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Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB
Locus of control (master of own fate)
Machiavellianism (ends justify means)
Self-esteem (like yourself)
Self-monitoring (adjust actions to fit-in)
Risk taking (ability to overcome fear)
Type A personality (I, Now, Do)
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Locus of Control
Locus of Control: The degree to whichpeople believe they are masters oftheir own fate.
Internals: Individuals who believe that
they control what happens to them.
Externals: Individuals who believe that
what happens to them is controlled byoutside forces such as luck or chance.
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Machiavellianism
Conditions Favoring High Machs
Direct interaction
Minimal rules and regulations
Emotions distract
Machiavellianism (Mach)
Degree to which an individual is pragmatic
(realistic), maintains emotional distance, and
believes that ends can justify means.
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Self-Esteem and Self-Monitoring
Self-Esteem (SE): Individuals degree ofliking or disliking themselves.
Self-Monitoring:A personality trait that measuresan individuals ability to adjust his or her behaviorto external, situational factors.
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Risk-Taking
High Risk-taking Managers
Make quicker decisions
Use less information to make decisions
Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial
organizations Low Risk-taking Managers
Are slower to make decisions
Require more information before making decisions
Exist in larger organizations with stable environments
Risk Propensity
Aligning managers risk-taking propensity to job
requirements should be beneficial to organizations.
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Personality Types
Type As
1. are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly;
2. feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place;
3. strive to think or do two or more things at once;
4. cannot cope with leisure time;
5. are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in termsof how many or how much of everything they acquire.
Type Bs
1. never suffer from a sense of time urgency with itsaccompanying impatience;
2. feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or
accomplishments;
3. play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their
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Personality Types
Proactive Personality
Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action,
and perseveres until meaningful change occurs.
Creates positive change in the environment,regardless or even in spite of constraints or obstacles.
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Achieving Person-Job Fit
Personality Types
Realistic
Investigative
Social
Conventional
Enterprising
Artistic
Personality-Job Fit Theory(Holland)
Identifies six personality types
and proposes that the fit
between personality type andoccupational environment
determines satisfaction and
turnover.
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HollandsTypology of
PersonalityandCongruentOccupations
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Relationships among
OccupationalPersonality Types
The closer twofields are in thehexagon, the
more compatible
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VALUES
What are VALUES?
Where do Values and attitudes originate?
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Values
Values
Basic belief that a specific mode of conduct will
lead to a desired end state (Life, life after death)
Do Values change with time?
Value System
A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individuals values
in terms of their intensity.
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Importance of Values
Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation,
and behaviors of individuals and cultures.
Influence our perception of the world around us.
Represent interpretations of right and wrong.
Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred
over others.
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Types of Values- Rokeach Value Survey
Terminal Values
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a
person would like to achieve during his or her
lifetime.
Instrumental ValuesPreferable modes of behavior or means of
achieving ones terminal values.
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Mean Value Rankings of
Executives, Union
Members, and Activists
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Dominant Work Values in Todays Workforce
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Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior
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Hofstedes Framework for Assessing Cultures
Power Distance: The extent to which a society accepts that
power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
Individualism: The degree to which people prefer to act as
individuals rather than a member of groups.
Collectivism: A tight social framework in which people
expect others in groups of which they are a part to look
after them and protect them.
Achievement: The extent to which societal values are
characterized by assertiveness, materialism and competition.
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HofstedesFramework (contd)
Nurturing: The extent to which societal values
emphasize relationships and concern for others.
Uncertainty Avoidance: The extent to which a society
feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous
situations and tries to avoid them.
Hofstedes Research Highlights
China and West Africa - High on power distance
S and Netherlands scored lowMost Asian Countries were high on collectivism
US ranked highest on individualism.
China and Hong Kong had long term orientation
France and US had short term orientation.
Chapter 6: Perception and Individual Decision Making
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Chapter 6: Perception and Individual Decision Making
What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?
Peoples behavior is
based on their
perception of whatreality is, not on reality
itself.
The world as it is
perceived is the world
that is behaviorally
important.
Perception
A process by whichindividuals organize and
interpret their sensory
impressions in order to
give meaning to theirenvironment.
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Factors That
Influence
Perception
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Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others
Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in differentsituations.
Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.
Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
Attribution Theory: When individuals observe behavior, theyattempt to determine whether it is internally or externally
caused.
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Errors and Biases in Attributions
Fundamental Attribution ErrorThe tendency to underestimate the influence of external
factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors
when making judgments about the behavior of others.Self-Serving Bias
The tendency for individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors while putting the blame for
failures on external factors.When judging themselves
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Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
-Selective Perception: People selectively interpret what
they see on the basis of their interests, background,experience, and attitudes.
-Halo Effect: Drawing a general impression about an
individual on the basis of a single characteristic-Contrast Effects: Our evaluation of a persons characteristics
that are influenced by other persons in a similar situation
(public speakers)
-Projection: Attributing ones own characteristics toother people.
-Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis of ones
perception of the group to which that person belongs.
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Specific Applications in Organizations
Employment Interview
People are hired based on the perception of theinterviewer.
Performance Expectations
Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): People
tend to meet leaders expectation
Ethnic Profiling
A form of stereotyping in which a group of
individuals is singled outtypically on the basis ofrace or ethnicity. (Usually for a negative cause)
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Performance Evaluations
Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental)
perceptions of the employees job performance by
the supervisor. Appraisals may be Subjective or Objective.
Objective appraisals meting a measurable goal
Employee Effort
Assessment of individual effort is a subjective
judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias.
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The Link Between Perceptions and Individual
Decision Making
Perception
of thedecisionmaker
Outcomes
Problem
Aperceiveddiscrepancy
between the current state of
affairs and a desired state.
Decisions
Choices made from among
alternatives developedfrom data perceivedasrelevant.
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Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making Model
Rational Decision- Making Model
Describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize
some outcome.
1. Define the problem.
2. Identify the decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the criteria.
4. Develop the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Select the best alternative.
Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model
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The Three Components of Creativity
Creativity
The ability to produce
novel and useful ideas.
Three-Component
Model of Creativity
Proposition that individual
creativity requires expertise,creative-thinking skills, and
intrinsic task motivation.
How Are Decisions Actually Made in Organizations
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How Are Decisions Actually Made in Organizations
-Bounded Rationality: Individuals make decisions by
constructing simplified models that extract the essentialfeatures from problems without capturing all their
complexity. (Hiring process- matching job description to
resume) Using short cuts, rule of thumb, gut feeling
How problems are identified
Visibility over importance of problem
Attention-catching, high profile problems
Desire to solve problems
Self-interest (if problem concerns decision maker)
Most significant decisions are made by judgment
Decision Tree
C Bi d E
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Common Biases and Errors
Overconfidence Bias
Believing too much in our own decision competencies.
Anchoring Bias
Fixating on early, first received information.
Confirmation Bias
Using only the facts that support our decision (failureanalysis w/o customer input)
Availability Bias
Using information that is most readily at hand. (Car vs.Air)
Representative Bias
Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying tomatch it with a preexisting category. (Coke Classic &New)
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Common Biases and Errors (cont)
Escalation of Commitment (How could I bewrong?) Increasing commitment to a previous decision in spite
of negative information.
Randomness Error Trying to create meaning out of random events by
falling prey to a false sense of control or superstitions.
Hindsight Bias
Falsely believing to have accurately predicted theoutcome of an event, after that outcome is actuallyknown.
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Intuition
Intuitive Decision Making
An unconscious process created out of distilledexperience.
Conditions Favoring Intuitive Decision Making
A high level of uncertainty exists
There is little precedent to draw on
Variables are less scientifically predictable
Facts are limited
Facts dont clearly point the way
Analytical data are of little use
Several plausible alternative solutions exist
Time is limited and pressing for the right decision
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Decision-Style Model
Analytical = Higher
tolerance
Directive = Low
tolerance
Conceptual = creativesolutions
Behavioral = Avoid
conflict & seek
acceptance
The more rational your
thinking the lower your
tolerance for
ambiguous info
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Organizational Constraints on Decision Makers
Performance Evaluation (what gets measured gets done)
Evaluation criteria influence the choice of actions. Reward Systems (PAC)
Decision makers make action choices that are favored by
the organization.
Formal Regulations
Organizational rules and policies limit the alternative
choices of decision makers.
System-imposed Time Constraints
Organizations require decisions by specific deadlines.
Historical Precedents
Past decisions influence current decisions.
Selection of Problems Time orientation
Importance of logic and rationality
Belief in the ability of people to solve problems
Preference for collective decision making
(decision making by Japanese managers is more group oriented)
Cultural Differences in Decision Making
Ethics in Decision Making
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Ethical Decision Criteria
Utilitarianism
Seeking the greatest good for the greatest number-based on outcome.
Rights
Respecting and protecting basic rights of individuals
such as whistleblowers.
Justice
Imposing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially.
Ethics and National Culture There are no global ethical standards.
The ethical principles of global organizations must reflect
and respect local cultural norms to maintain high standards
and consistent practices.
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Ways to Improve Decision Making
1. Analyze the situation and adjust your decision making
style to fit the situation.
2. Be aware of biases and try to limit their impact.3. Combine rational analysis with intuition to increase
decision-making effectiveness.
4. Dont assume that your specific decision style isappropriate to every situation.
5. Enhance personal creativity by looking for novel
solutions or seeing problems in new ways, and using
analogies.
d d i i d
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Toward Reducing Bias and Errors
Focus on goals. Clear goals make decision making easier and help to
eliminate options inconsistent with your interests.
Look for information that disconfirms beliefs.
Overtly considering ways we could be wrong
challenges our tendencies to think were smarter than
we actually are.
Dont try to create meaning out of random events.
Dont attempt to create meaning out of coincidence.
Increase your options.
The number and diversity of alternatives generated
increases the chance of finding an outstanding one.
Chapter 7: Basic Motivation Concepts
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p p
Defining Motivation
58
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Motivation
The processes that account for an individuals
intensity, direction, and persistence of efforttoward attaining a goal.
Hi h f N d Th (M l )
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Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
59
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needsphysiological,safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; aseach need is substantially satisfied, the next needbecomes dominant.
Self-Actualization: The drive to become what one iscapable of becoming.
Lower-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological
and safety needs.
Higher-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied
internally; social, esteem,
and self-actualization needs.
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Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
60
Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike work, lackambition, avoid responsibility, and must bedirected and pushed to perform.
Theory Y
Assumes that employees like work, seek
responsibility, are capable of makingdecisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.
h ( d i k b )
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Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)
61
Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) TheoryIntrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, whileextrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction.
Hygiene Factors
Factorssuch as company policy and administration,supervision, and salarythat, when factors are adequate,people will not be dissatisfied.
Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are independentthereforeif you remove a dissatisfaction factor, you cannot conclude
that the person is satisfied.
Satisfiers and
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Dissatisfiers
62
Factors characterizing
events on the job that led toextreme job dissatisfactionFactors characterizing
events on the job that
led to extreme job
satisfaction
ERG Th (Cl Ald f )
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ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
63
Core Needs
Existence: provision ofbasic materialrequirements.
Relatedness: desire forrelationships.
Growth: desire forpersonal development.
Concepts:
More than one needcan be operative at thesame time.
If a higher-level needcannot be fulfilled, thedesire to satisfy alower-level need
increases.
ERG Theory
There are three groups of core needs: existence,relatedness, and growth.
David McClellands Theory of Needs
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David McClellands Theory of Needs
64
nAch
nPow
nAff
Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, toachieve in relation to aset of standards, to
strive to succeed.
Need for Affiliation
The desire forfriendly and closepersonal
relationships.
Need for Power
The need to makeothers behave in away that they wouldnot have behaved
otherwise.
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Matching High Achievers and Jobs
65
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Cognitive Evaluation Theory
66
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been
previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease theoverall level of motivation.
The theory may only be relevant to
jobs that are neither extremely
dull nor extremely interesting.
G l S i Th (Ed i L k )
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Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
67
Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals, with
feedback, lead to higher performance.
Self-Efficacy
The individuals belief that he or she is capable
of performing a task.
Factors influencing the goalsperformance
relationship: Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy,
task characteristics, and national culture.
R i f t Th
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Reinforcement Theory
68
Concepts:Bevior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing(controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
The assumption that behavior is a function of its
consequences. (Operant Conditioning)
Job Design Theory
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Job Design Theory
69
Characteristics:
1. Skill variety
2. Task identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
Job Characteristics Model
Identifies five job
characteristics and their
relationship to personal and
work outcomes.
Social Information Processing
(SIP) ModelThe fact that people respond to
their jobs as they perceive them
rather than to the objective jobs
themselves.
Concept:
Employee attitudes and
behaviors are responses
to social cues by others.
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Job Characteristics Model
Any job can be described in terms of 5 core dimensions:
Skill variety (use number of skills)
Task identity (identifiable whole or part)
Task Significance (importance) Autonomy (freedom to do)
Feedback (results)
70
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-Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewardsamong individuals.
Equity Theory (fairness)
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others andthen respond to eliminate any inequities.
-Procedural Justice
The perceived fairness of the process to determine thedistribution of rewards.
Equity Theory (contd)
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72
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than equitablyrewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higherquality piece work.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees
Expectancy Theory
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Expectancy Theory
73
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)Your willingness to act in a certain way depends on:
1. the strength of an expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and2. on how attractive that outcome is to the individual.
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Is Money the ultimate motivator or is it the root of all evil?
Value of Money