Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
11CHE 116: General Chemistry
CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO
Copyright © Tyna L. Heise 2001 - 2002
All Rights Reserved
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
22Chemistry of Nonmetals
We are ready to discuss the aspect of Chemistry called descriptive chemistry.
This will allow us to examine the elements and their compounds in a systematic fashion.
Our focus begins with nonmetals, starting with hydrogen, and progressing across the periodic table from left to right.
Most important nonmetals: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
33General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Except for hydrogen, nonmetals occupy the upper right hand portion of the table.
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
44General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Compounds formed between nonmetals are molecular substances and are often gases, liquids, or volatile solids at room temperature.
Among the nonmetals, we have seen that the chemistry exhibited by the first member of a group can differ in several important ways from that of subsequent members
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
55General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Differences occur because:nonmetals in third row and below can
accommodate more than eight electrons in their valence shells
the first element in any group can more readily form pi bonds than can lower members, due, in part, to atomic sizecarbon and silicon prove this point well
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
66General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
A) Select the element that has the lowest electronegativity
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
77General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
A) Select the element that has the lowest electronegativity
* bottom left has lowest ability to gain electrons due to size and the fact it would rather lose than gain to achieve full octet
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
88General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
A) Select the element that has the lowest electronegativity
* bottom left has lowest ability to gain electrons due to size and the fact it would rather lose than gain to achieve full octet
Cs
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
99General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
B) Select the element that has the greatest nonmetallic character
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
1010General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
B) Select the element that has the greatest nonmetallic character
* upper right has greatest nonmetallic character, nonmetals gain electrons and the smallest nonmetal gains the best
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
1111General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
B) Select the element that has the greatest nonmetallic character
* upper right has greatest nonmetallic character, nonmetals gain electrons and the smallest nonmetal gains the best
Cl
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
1212General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
C) Select the element that is most likely to participate in extensive pi bonding
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
1313General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
C) Select the element that is most likely to participate in extensive pi bonding
* nonnmetals at top of group has most extensive pi bonding capabilities, and the most available single electrons in outer p shell adds to that
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
1414General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
C) Select the element that is most likely to participate in extensive pi bonding
* nonnmetals at top of group has most extensive pi bonding capabilities, and the most available single electrons in outer p shell adds to that
C
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
1515General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
D) Select the element that is most likely to be a metalloid
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
1616General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
D) Select the element that is most likely to be a metalloid
* metalloid are found on the staircase
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
1717General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Consider the following list of elements: Be, C, Cl, Sb, Cs.
D) Select the element that is most likely to be a metalloid
* metalloid are found on the staircase
Sb
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
1818General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
As we proceed, do NOT memorize reactions, simply observe common trends, several types of reactions already considered are:combustionmetathesisBronsted-Lowry acid-base redox
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
1919General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Because O2 and H2O are so abundant in our environment, it makes sense to consider the possible reactions of these substances with other compounds1/3 of reactions discussed in this chapter
involve either O2 or H2O
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
2020General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Combustion Reactionsreaction of a hydrogen containing
compound with O2 produces H2Oreaction of a carbon containing compound
with O2 produces CO2 (or CO or even C, if not enough oxygen is present)
reaction of a nitrogen containing compound with O2 produces N2 or NO
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
2121General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Bronsted-Lowry acid-base reactions:remember the weaker the acid, the
stronger its conjugate basestrong bases will strip an H from water to
leave OH-
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
2222General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Write a balanced equation for the reaction of solid sodium hydride with water.
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
2323General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Write a balanced equation for the reaction of solid sodium hydride with water.
NaH + H2O
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
2424General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions
Sample exercise: Write a balanced equation for the reaction of solid sodium hydride with water.
NaH + HOH NaOH + H2
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
2525Hydrogen
Henry Cavendish first isolated hydrogen.Named because hydrogen produces water
when burned in airhydro - watergennao - produces
the most abundant element in the universenuclear fuel for our sun70% of universe is composed of hydrogen,
but it is only 0.87% of Earth’s mass
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
2626Hydrogen
Henry Cavendish first isolated hydrogen.Most of the hydrogen on planet is
associated with wateralso an important part of petroleum,
cellulose, starch, fats, alcohols, acids and other materials
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
2727Hydrogen
Isotopes of Hydrogen1
1H is the most common isotope, consisting of a single proton, is sometimes referred to as protium
21H consists of a proton and a neutron,
called deuterium3
1H consists of a proton and 2 neutrons, called tritium
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
2828Hydrogen
Isotopes of HydrogenDeuterium
not radioactiveoften given the symbol of Dcompounds with D are slightly
different than comparable compounds with hydrogen
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
2929Hydrogen
Isotopes of HydrogenTritium
is radioactiveformed continuously in upper
atmosphere in nuclear reactions induced by cosmic rays
has a very short half-life so only trace amounts exist naturally
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
3030Hydrogen
Isotopes of Hydrogendeuterium and tritium have been
valuable in studying the reactions of compounds containing hydrogen
a compound can be labeled by replacing the H with deuterium or tritium; by comparing the location as the compound changes allows for the study of the reaction mechanism
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
3131Hydrogen
Properties of Hydrogenthe only element that is not a member of a
group in the periodic table; due to its 1s1 configuration it is placed above lithium, but it is NOT an alkali metal. It could be placed above fluorine in the halogen group because it will gain 1 electron to complete its noble gas configuration, but it is NOT a halogen either.
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
3232Hydrogen
Properties of Hydrogenexists at room temperature as a colorless,
odorless, tasteless gas composed of diatomic molecules
H2 is nonpolar and has only 2 electronsattractive forces between molecules are
extremely weak, therefore, melting point and boiling point are very low
H-H bond energy is pretty high for a single bond
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
3333Hydrogen
Properties of Hydrogendue to the strong bond, most reactions of H2 are
slow at room temperaturethe molecule is readily activated by heat,
irradiation, or catalysis. The activation process generally produces hydrogen atoms, which are very reactive
once H2 is activated, it reacts rapidly and exothermically with a wide variety of substances
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
3434Hydrogen
Properties of Hydrogenforms covalent bonds with many elements,
including oxygenthe strong bond with oxygen makes
hydrogen an effective reducing agent for many metal oxides
H2 can be ignited in air to form water, as little as 4% by volume is potentially explosive
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
3535Hydrogen
Properties of Hydrogencombustion of hydrogen-oxygen mixtures
is commonly used in liquid-fuel rocket engines such as those in the space shuttle
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
3636Hydrogen
Preparation of Hydrogen:
Small quantities - easily obtained by reacting an active metal with dilute strong acid
- H2 does not dissolve in water and bubbles quickly to the
surface and can be collected
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
3737Hydrogen
Preparation of Hydrogen:
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
3838Hydrogen
Preparation of Hydrogen:
Large quantities - react methane, CH4, with steam at 1100°C
- product is known as water gas and is an industrial fuel
- electrolysis is too expensive and consumes too much energy
to be a viable source
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
3939Hydrogen
Uses of hydrogen:
Commercially important substance, 200,000 tons produced annually in US
- 2/3 is used in Haber process to synthesize ammonia
- used to manufacture methanol, CH3OH
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
4040Hydrogen
Binary Hydrogen Compounds:
Hydrogen reacts with other elements to form compounds of three general typesionic hydridesmetallic hydridesmolecular hydrides
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
4141Hydrogen
Ionic Hydrides: formed by the alkali metals and heavier alkaline earth metals
- metals are much less electronegative than hydrogen
- high melting solids
- hydride ion is very basic
- convenient, but expensive, source of H2
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
4242Hydrogen
Metallic Hydrides: formed by the transition metals
- retain their metallic properties and conductivity
- not a whole number ratio, bonding with hydrogens vary, interstital hydrides
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
4343Hydrogen
Molecular Hydrides: formed by the nonmetals and metalloids
- either gases or liquids at room temp.
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
4444Group 8A: The Noble Gases
Aforementioned, noble gases are chemically unreactive
relative inertness of these elements is due to the presence of a completed octet of valence-shell electrons
stability of such an arrangement is reflected in the high ionization energies
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
4545Group 8A: The Noble Gases
All gases at room temperaturecomponents of Earth’s atmosphere,
except radonargon most abundant, used in
lightbulbsneon used in electric signshelium is used as a coolant, found in
relatively high concentrations in many natural gas wells
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
4646Group 8A: The Noble Gases
Gases are exceedingly stable and only undergo reaction under rigorous conditions
the heavier noble gases would most likely to form compounds because their ionization energies are lower
formation of a covalent bond with these molecules requires an extended octet
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
4747Group 8A: The Noble Gases
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
4848Group 8A: The Noble Gases
Sample exercise: Describe the electron-pair geometry and the molecular geometry of XeF2.
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
4949Group 8A: The Noble Gases
Sample exercise: Describe the electron-pair geometry and the molecular geometry of XeF2.
Xe - 8
F - 2(7)
22/2 = 11 pairs
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
5050Group 8A: The Noble Gases
Sample exercise: Describe the electron-pair geometry and the molecular geometry of XeF2.
F
Xe
F
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
5151Group 8A: The Noble Gases
Sample exercise: Describe the electron-pair geometry and the molecular geometry of XeF2.
F
Xe
F
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
5252Group 8A: The Noble Gases
Sample exercise: Describe the electron-pair geometry and the molecular geometry of XeF2.
F
Xe
F
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
5353Group 8A: The Noble Gases
Sample exercise: Describe the electron-pair geometry and the molecular geometry of XeF2.
5 pairs
trigonal bipyramid F
Xe
F
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
5454Group 8A: The Noble Gases
Sample exercise: Describe the electron-pair geometry and the molecular geometry of XeF2.
5 pairs
trigonal bipyramid F
*linear Xe
F
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
5555Group 7A: The Halogens
The halogens have played an important role in the development of chemistry
outer electron configuration s2p5
large electron affinitiesgain one electron to achieve noble
gas configuration
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
5656Group 7A: The Halogens
The halogens have played an important role in the development of chemistry
fluorine is always -1other halogens can have positive
oxidation states when combining with a more electronegative atom
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
5757Group 7A: The Halogens
The halogens have played an important role in the development of chemistry
chlorine, bromine, and iodine are found in seawater and in salt deposits
fluorine occurs in mineralsastatine is radioactive with very short
half lives
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
5858Group 7A: The Halogens
Properties of Halogens: most of the properties vary regularly down the groupelectronegativity decreases as you go
down the groupexist as diatomic molecules, but
change phase as you go down the group due to intermolecular forces
excellent oxidizing agents
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
5959Group 7A: The Halogens
Uses of Halogens:
Fluorineimportant industrial chemicalprepare fluoro-carbons used as
refrigerants, lubricants, and plastics
teflon is a polymeric fluorocarbon
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
6060Group 7A: The Halogens
Uses of Halogens:
Chlorinemost commercially important
halogenHCl or chlorine containing organic
compounds - poly vinyl chloridebleaches
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
6161Group 7A: The Halogens
Uses of Halogens:
Bromine and Iodinenot used muchbromine is used in photographyiodine is used in table salt for the
thyroid
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
6262Group 7A: The Halogens
The hydrogen halides:
- all the halogens form stable diatomic molecules with hydrogen - very important acidic molecules
- these molecules are prepared through the combination of a salt of the halide and a nonvolatile acid
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
6363Group 7A: The Halogens
Sample exercise: Write the balanced equation for the preparation of HI from NaI and H3PO4.
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
6464Group 7A: The Halogens
Sample exercise: Write the balanced equation for the preparation of HI from NaI and H3PO4.
NaI + H3PO4 HI + Na H2PO4
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
6565Group 7A: The Halogens
Interhalogen Compounds: the halogens are most stable as diatomic molecules. They will combine with other halides to form mixed diatomics.
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
6666Group 7A: The Halogens
Sample exercise: Use the VSEPR model to predict the molecular geometry of IF5.
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
6767Group 7A: The Halogens
Sample exercise: Use the VSEPR model to predict the molecular geometry of IF5.
I 7
F 5(7)
42/2 = 21 electron pairs
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
6868Group 7A: The Halogens
Sample exercise: Use the VSEPR model to predict the molecular geometry of IF5.
F F
F I F
F
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
6969Group 7A: The Halogens
Sample exercise: Use the VSEPR model to predict the molecular geometry of IF5.
F F
F I F
F
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
7070Group 7A: The Halogens
Sample exercise: Use the VSEPR model to predict the molecular geometry of IF5.
F F
F I F
F
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
7171Group 7A: The Halogens
Sample exercise: Use the VSEPR model to predict the molecular geometry of IF5.
F F AX5E1
F I F octahedral
F square pyramidal
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
7272Group 7A: The Halogens
Oxyacids and Oxyanions:
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
7373Group 7A: The Halogens
Oxyacids and Oxyanions:strength of acid increases with
increasing oxidation state of the central halogen atom
oxyacids are relatively unstableall oxidizing agents
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
7474Oxygen
Oxygen is found in combination with other elements in a great variety of compounds.
Oxygen is the most abundant element by mass both in Earth’s crust and in the human body
Oxygen has two allotropes: O2 and O3
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
7575Oxygen
The bond is O2 is very strong, and also forms strong bonds with other elements.
Many oxygen containing compounds are thermodynamically more stable than O2..
In the absence of a catalyst, most reactions of O2 have high activation energies and thus require high temperatures to proceed at suitable rate.
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
7676Oxygen
Preparation of Oxygenobtained from air - air is liquefied
and nitrogen boils off first leaving liquid oxygen contaminated with traces amounts of nitrogen and argon.
Thermal decomposition of KClO3 with MnO2 will also produce oxygen
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
7777Oxygen
Uses of OxygenOne of the most widely used
industrial chemicals - 30 million tons used by Us annually.
Shipped or stored either as liquid or in steel containers of compressed gas
Most widely used oxidizing agent
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
7878Oxygen
Ozonepale blue poisonous gasproduces headaches, burning eyes,
and irritation to the respiratory passages
most widely used oxidizing agentprepared by passing electricity
through O2
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
7979Oxygen
Ozoneuses of ozone are relatively limitedsometimes used in treatment of
domestic waterlargest use is in pharmaceuticals,
synthetic lubricants, and other useful organic compounds
important component of upper atmosphere
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
8080Oxygen
Oxideselectronegativity is highest only
second to fluorinenonmetals form covalent oxides,
and combine with water to give oxyacids
oxides that react with water to form acids are called acidic oxides
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
8181Oxygen
Peroxides and superoxidescompounds containing O-O bonds
and oxygen has an oxidation state of -1 are called peroxides
having oxidation states of -1/2 are called superoxidesvery active metals (K, Rb, and
Cs)
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
8282Oxygen
Peroxides and superoxideshydrogen peroxide is the most
familiar and commercially important peroxide, H2O2
peroxide ion is very important in biochem
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
8383The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
General characteristicss2p4 electron configurationsobtain noble gas configurations by
the addition of two electronsthese remaining 6A elements have
possible positive oxidation states, some requiring an extended octet
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
8484The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
Sulfurlarge underground deposits are the
principal source of elemental sulfurFrasch process is used to obtain the element
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
8585The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
SulfurFrasch process
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
8686The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
Sulfuryellow, tasteless, and nearly
odorlessinsoluble in water and exists in
several allotropic formsused to manufacture of sulfuric
acid, vulcanizing rubber
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
8787The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
Selenium and telluriumcrystalline substances containing
helical chains of atomsselenium is used in photoelectric
cells and light meters
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
8888The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
Sulfidessulfur forms compounds by direct
combination with many elementsif the element is less electronegative
than sulfur, sulfides formhydrogen sulfide is not a direct
combination, but when it is created, you’ll know
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
8989The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur
sulfur dioxide is formed when sulfur is combusted in air, it has a choking odor and is poisonous - particularly toxic to lower organisms
used for sterilizing dried fruit and wine
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
9090The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur
salts of sulfites are well knownused as food additives to prevent
bacterial spoilagesome people are allergic to sulfites
so they must be labeled
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
9191The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur
commercial sulfuric acid is 98% H2SO4
dense, colorless, oily liquidstrong acid, a good dehydrating
agent, moderately good oxidizing agent
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
9292The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
9393The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po
Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur
thiosulfate ion, replaces an O in SO4 with an S to produce S2O3
used in photography to remove excess AgBr
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
9494Nitrogen
Discovered by Daniel Rutherfordconstitutes 78% by volume of
Earth’s atmospherediatomic moleculekey element in living organisms,
but not abundant in Earth’s crust
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
9595Nitrogen
Properties of Nitrogencolorless, odorless, and tasteless gasvery unreactive due to triple bond
in diatomic moleculeburning in air refers to oxygen not
nitrogenreactive Group 1 and Group 2
metals will react with nitrogen
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
9696Nitrogen
Oxidation states +5, 0, and -3 are most prominent
More electronegative than all elements except fluorine, oxygen and chlorine, so + states only exist with these
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
9797Nitrogen
Preparation and uses for Nitrogenelemental nitrogen is obtained by
fractional distillation of liquid airused as an inert gaseous blanket to
exclude oxygen during the packaging of food, manufacture of chemicals, fabrication of metals , and production of electronic devices
liquid nitrogen is used to freeze foods
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
9898Nitrogen
Preparation and uses for Nitrogenlargest use is in the manufacture of
nitrogen containing fertilizers
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
9999Nitrogen
Hydrogen Compounds of NitrogenAmmonia is one of the most
important compounds of nitrogencommercial production is Haber
process20 million tons produced
annually
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
100100Nitrogen
Hydrogen Compounds of NitrogenAmmonia is one of the most
important compounds of nitrogenhydrazine is similar to ammonia
as hydrogen peroxide is to watermuch more unstable, and used
as rocket fuel in the form of methylhydrazine
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
101101Nitrogen
Oxides and Oxyacidsthree common oxides
nitrous oxide - laughing gasused as compressed gas in aerosols and foams
nitric oxide - slightly toxicimportant neurotransmitter in the human body
nitrogen dioxide - poisonousmajor constituent of smog, due to internal
combustion engines
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
102102Nitrogen
Oxides and Oxyacidstwo common oxyacids
nitric acid - strong acidused in making of explosives
nitrous acid
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
103103The other Group 5A Elements: P, As, Sb and Bi
General Characteristics: s2p3 electron configurationsobtain noble gas configurations by
the addition of three electronsvariation in properties is more
extreme
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
104104The other Group 5A Elements: P, As, Sb and Bi
Phosphorous: occurs on Earth in the form of
phosphate minerals (Ca2(PO4)3)phosphorous produced from these
minerals is white phosphorousconsists of P4 with 60° angles - very
reactive converted to red phosphorous in the
presence of air at 400°C
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
105105The other Group 5A Elements: P, As, Sb and Bi
Phosphorous Halides:forms a wide range of
compounds with halogensphosphorous trichloride
soaps, detergents, plastics and insecticides
phosphorous pentachloride
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
106106The other Group 5A Elements: P, As, Sb and Bi
Phosphorous Oxy Compounds:most significant compounds are
those in which the element is combined in some way with oxygen
a characteristic of phosphorous oxyacids is their tendency to undergo condensation reactions when heated
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
107107The other Group 5A Elements: P, As, Sb and Bi
Phosphorous Oxy Compounds:phosphoric acid and salts are most
important in detergents and fertilizer
phosphorous compounds are important in biological systems
phosphate groups in RNA and DNAmolecules responsible for control of protein
biosynthesis and transmission of genetic information
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
108108Carbon
Only 0.027% of Earth’s crustelemental form is graphite or
diamondmostly it is found in a combined
formover 1/2 occurs in carbonate compoundsfound in coal, petroleum, and natural gas
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
109109Carbon
Importancestems from its occurrence in all
living thingsonce believed that organic
compounds could only be produced by living things, however this was disproved
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
110110Carbon
Elemental Carbonthree crystalline forms
graphitediamondbuckminsterfullerene
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
111111Carbon
Elemental CarbonGraphite
soft, black, slippery solid that has a metallic luster and conducts electricity
consists of parallel sheets of carbon atoms
sheets are held together by London forces
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
112112Carbon
Elemental CarbonDiamond
clear, hard solid, denser than graphiteconverted from graphite at very high
temperatures and pressuresnetwork covalent bonds have formed
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
113113Carbon
Elemental CarbonBuckminsterfullerene
molecular form discovered in late 1980’sconsists of C60 that resemble soccer ballschemical properties are currently being
explored
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
114114Carbon
Oxides of CarbonTwo principle oxidesCO2
produced when carbon containing elements burn in oxygen, carbonates are heated, or as a by-product of fermentation
COcolorless, odorless, and tastelesstoxic because of its ability to bind to hemoglobin
faster than oxygenheadaches, drowsiness than death
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
115115Carbon
Oxides of CarbonCO
unusual due to lone pair of electronsforms wide variety of covalent bonds with transition metals
burns readily, forming CO2, and is used as fuel
important reducing agent in blast furnace
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
116116Carbon
Oxides of Carbon
CO2minor component of the Earth’s atmosphere but a major contributor to the greenhouse effect
high concentrations can increase respiration rate and cause suffocation
liquefied by compression, solid normally sublimes
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
117117Carbon
Oxides of Carbon
CO2valuable as a refrigerantcarbonated beverageswashing sodabaking soda
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
118118Carbon
Carbonic Acid and Carbonatescarbonic acid is formed by the
dissolving of CO2 in watercarbonic acid can not be isolated
itself, however two salts can be easily obtained by neutralization
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
119119Carbon
Carbonic Acid and Carbonatesminerals containing carbonate
are plentifullimestone dissolves readily in the slightly
acidic ground watermost important reaction of limestone is
conversion into lime or quicklime
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
120120Carbon
Carbidesbinary compounds of carbon with
metals, metalloids, and certain nonmetals
3 typesionicinterstitialcovalent
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
121121Carbon
Carbidesbinary compounds of carbon with
metals, metalloids, and certain nonmetals
3 typesionic - more active metalsinterstitial - transition metalscovalent - boron and silicon
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
122122Carbon
Other Inorganic CompoundsHydrogen cyanide - HCN
extremely toxic gas, smells like bitter almonds
toxic action caused by its combination with iron in blood
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
123123Carbon
Other Inorganic CompoundsCarbon disulfide - CS2
important industrial solvent for waxes, greases, celluloses, and other nonpolar substances
vapor is very poisonous and highly flammable
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
124124Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb
General Characteristics: s2p2 electron configurationselectronegativities are generally lowvast majority of the compounds of
the group are covalently bondedcarbon forms only four bonds, but
other 4A elements have potential for expanded octets
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
125125Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb
General Characteristics: strength of a bond between two
atoms decreases as you go down the group
carbon has unique ability to form bonds with itself in chainlike and cyclic structures
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
126126Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb
Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon:
second must abundant element in Earth’s crust
obtained by reduction of molten silicon dioxide with carbon
elemental silicon has a diamond like structure - gray metallic looking solid
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
127127Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb
Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon:
silicon is a semi-conductor used in solar cells and transistors
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
128128Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb
Glass: silicon dioxide and other components
that contain silicon and oxygen comprise over 90% of Earth’s crust
silicates are compounds in which a silicon atom is surrounded in a tetrahedral fashion by four oxygens
talc, asbestos, quartz
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
129129Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb
Glass: when quartz is melted it creates a tacky
liquid in which many silicon-oxygen bonds are broken
rapidly cooling the liquid reforms the bonds, but the arrangement is now in a regular fashion
results are glasschemicals can be added during
melting/cooling to add color
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
130130Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb
Silicones: O - Si - O chains in which bonding
positions on each silicon are occupied by organic groups
depending on length of chain and the degree of cross linking, silicones can either be oils or rubberlike materials
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
131131Boron
Only one additional element to add to nonmetals.
Boron is the only nonmetal in Group 3A.Electron configuration [Li]s2p1
most prominent group of molecules are the boranes
Chem 116, Prof. T. L. HeiseChem 116, Prof. T. L. Heise
132132Boron
Boranesmolecules containing only boron
and hydrogenBH3
B2H6 - sharing of hydrogens between borons helps complete the needed octet