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Bernice G. Segal
BARNARD COLLEGE
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
Chemistry
Experiment
and Theory
Second Edition
John Wiley Sons
NEW YORK • CHICHESTER • BRISBANE • TOR ON TO • SINGAPO RE
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Detailed Contents
Introduction
1
Some Fundamental Definitions
2
Units of Measurement
4
Mass and Weight 5
Length 6
Volume 6
Density 7
Temperature 8
Physical and Chemical Properties
10
Intensive and Extensive Propertie s 10
Dimensional
A nalysis
10
Significant Figures
12
Rounding Numbers
13
Determining the Number of Significant
Figures in a Calculated Value
14
Exact versus Experimental Numbers
16
Computational
Techniques
16
Problems
18
Chapter 1 Atom ic S tructure and
Stiochiometry 22
1.1
Subatomic Particles and the Structure of
Atoms 23
1.2 Isotopes ofan Element 25
1.3 The
Atomic Weight Scale
25
4
Avogadro's Numb er and the Concept ofa
Mole
28
1.5
Molecular Formulas and Molecular
Weightsfor Discrete Molecules
30
1.6
The Significance o f Molecular Formulas
and Molecular Weigh ts for Ionic Crystalline
Solids
34
1.7
Distinction between the Terms Molecular
Weight, Formula Weight, and Gram Atomic
Weight
36
1.8 Empirical Formulas 37
1.9 The Significance ofBalanced Chem ical
Equations
39
Significance of the CoefBcients in a Balanced
Equation 42
1.10
Stoichiometric Calculations
46
1.11
The Limiting Reagent and the Yield of
Product 51
Summary 54
Exercises 55
Multiple Choice Q uestions 58
Problems
59
Chapter 2 Introduction to the Periodic Table,
Some Families of Elements, and Inorganic
Nomendature 63
2.1
The Sections ofthe Periodic Table
64
2.2
The Metals
67
The Active Me tals 69
2.3
The Noble Gases
71
2.4
The Nonm etals
72
The Halogens 73
The Chalcogens 74
2.5 The Unique Position ofHydrogen 76
2.6 The Transition Metals 11
2.7
Ionic Crystalline Solids
78
2.8
M olecular Compounds
78
2.9
Some Simple
Inorganic
Nomendature
80
2.10
Nonstoichiometric Compounds
83
Summary
84
Multiple Choice Q uestions
85
Problems
86
Chapter 3 T he Gas Laws and Stoichiometry
Involving Gases 89
3.1
Avogadro's Law a nd Its Use in
Determining
Molecular
Formulas
90
Avogadro s Law 90
3.2
The Pressure of Gases: D efinition,
Measurement, and U nits
93
3.3
Boyle's Law
96
3.4
The Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac
100
3.5
The Ideal Gas L aw
103
3.6
Dalton 's Law ofPartial Pressures
110
Summary
116
XV
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xv i Detailed Contents
Exercises 116
Multiple Cho ice Q uestions
119
Problems
120
Chapter
4
The Properties
of
Gases
and
the
Kinetic -
Molecular Theory
125
4 1 The Postulates ofthe Kinetic Theory of
Gases 126
4.2
Correlations between the Observed
Properties of Gases and the Postulates ofthe
Kinetic-Molecular Theory 127
4.3
A Critical Look a t Two ofthe Postulates of
the Kinetic Theory of Gases
129
4 4
An Outline ofthe Derivation ofBoyle's
Lawfrom the Postulates of Kinetic Th eory
131
4 5 The Kinetic Theory of Temperature 135
4.6
Energy U nits for PV and RT
136
4.7
The Mean-Square Speed, the Root-Mean-
Square
Speed,
and the Mean Speed
139
4.8
Graham 's Law ofEffusion 141
4.9
The Distribution of Molecular
Velocities
144
4 10
van der W aals' Equation
145
Summary 149
Exercises
150
Multiple Choice Questions 151
Problems 153
Chapter
5
Intermolecular
Forces,
Condensed
Phases, and
Changes
of Phase 156
5 1
van der Waals Forces
157
Dipole-Dipole Interactions 157
London or Dispersion Forces 160
5.2
The Hydrogen Bond 162
5.3
The Intermolecular Potential Energy
Function
165
5 4 Molecular Arrangements
in the
Solid,
Liquid,
and Gaseous States
166
5 5 Vaporization, Fusion, and
Sublimation
167
Vaporization 167
Fusion 168
Sublimation 168
5.6
The Equilibrium between a Liquid and Its
Vapor 169
The Equilibrium Vapor Pressu re 170
5.7
The Nature ofthe Equilibrium S tate: The
Tendency to Decrease the Potential Energy
and to Increase Molecular Disorder
173
5 8 A Summary of Properties ofthe
Equilibrium State
174
5.9
The Temperature Dependence ofthe
Equilibrium Vapor Pressure and the Normal
Boiling Point 175
The Normal Boiling Point 176
5 10 Phase Diagramsfor Pure Substances 177
The Vapor Pressure of Solids 177
One-Component Phas e Diagrams 178
Critical Temp erature and Pressure 180
Summary 181
Exercises
182
Multiple Cho ice Qu estions
186
Chapter 6 Properties ofDilute Solutions 189
6 1
Dynam ic Equilibrium in Saturated
Solutions
190
Saturated and Unsaturated Solutions 190
Equilibrium in Saturated Solutions 190
6.2
C oncen tration Un its for Solutions
192
The Mole Fraction 192
The Molality 193
The Molarity 194
Formality versus Mo larity 198
Weight Percentage 199
6.3
The Vapor Pressure ofa Solution of a
Nonvolatile
Solute in a
Volatile
Solvent:
Raoult 's Law
200
Raoult s Law 200
6.4
The Elevation ofthe Boiling Point of
Dilute Solutions ofa Non volatile Solute 203
6.5
The Depression o fthe Freezing Point of
Dilute Solutions ofa Nonvolatile Solute
205
6.6
Freezing Point Depressions and Boiling
Point Elevations for Solutions of
Electrolytes
208
6.7
Osmotic Pressure
210
6.8
Solutions of Two Volatile Liquids
212
Fractional Distillation 215
Nonideal Solutions 216
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Detailed Contents xvii
6.9 Henry's Law
218
Summary 219
Exercises 220
Multiple Choice Q uestions
223
Problems TLA
Chapter 7 Aqueous Solutions
and Ionic
Reactions 228
7 1 The Role of Water as a Solven t for Ionic
Crystalline Solids 229
The Dipole Moment of Water and the Hydration of
Ions 229
The Dielectric Constant of Wa ter 231
7.2 Nonelectrolytes 233
7.3 Strong and W eak Electrolytes 234
Acids 235
Bases 235
Salts 236
7.4 Proton-Transfer
Reactions:
The
Br0nsted-
Lowry Theory ofAcids and Bases
237
Acidic Hydrogen Atoms 240
7 5
A Summ ary of Information about the
Solubilities of Electrolytes in Water
241
7.6 Writing Correctly Balanced Net Ionic
Equations 242
7.7 Stoichiometry of Ionic R eactions in
Aqueous Solutions
247
Summary 252
Exercises
253
Multiple Choice Questions
255
Problems 257
Chapter
8
Introduction
to the Law of
Chemical Equilibrium
260
8 1 The Ideal Law of Chemical Equilibrium
or the Law ofMass Action 261
The Equilibrium Constant for a Gas-P hase Reaction:
K,aaAK
c
262
Reactions in Aqueous Solution in Wh ich W ater is a
Reactant or Product 264
Equilibrium Constants for Heterogeneous
Reactions 265
8.2 The Magnitude ofthe Equilibrium
Constant and the Direction o f Reac tion 266
The Reaction Quotient, ß 267
The Significance of the Magnitude of
K„,
268
8.3 Factors Ajfecting the Eq uilibrium
Constant
271
8.4
Le Chatelier's Principle
272
1. The Effect on a System at E quilibrium of Changing
the Concentration of One of the Reacting Species 272
Dissolving Solids That are Insoluble in Pure
Water 273
Removing an Ion from Solution by Precipitation of an
Insoluble Salt Containing Tha t Ion 274
2. Pressure Effects for Gas-P hase Reactions 275
3.
The Effect of a Change in Tem perature 276
8.5 Numerical Values of Equilibrium
Con stants for Rea ctions W ritten in the Reverse
Direction and for Simultaneous
Equilibria 279
The Effect of Reversing the Equilibrium Equation 279
The Effect of Mu ltiplying an Equation by a
Constant 280
Simultaneous Equilibria 281
8.6 Some Typical Problems in Gas-Phase
Equilibria 283
Summary 286
Exercises
287
Multiple Choice Qu estions 292
Problems 294
Chapter
9 Acids, Bases, and Salts 298
9 1 The Ion Product of Water and the pH
Scale 299
Self-Ionization Reactions 299
The Ion Product of W ater, K
w
300
The pH Scale 301
9.2 Weak Acids and Bases 305
The Acidity Co nstant,
K„
305
The Basicity Constant, K
b
305
The Degree of Dissociation, a 306
9 3 Conjugate Acids and B ases and Their
Relative Strengths 313
9.4 Weak Polyprotic Acids
316
9.5 A cidic, Basic, and Ne utral Salts 318
Acidic Salts 318
Basic Salts 320
Neutral Salts 321
Salts of Both a Weak Acid and a Weak B ase 323
Ampholytes 323
Acidic and Basic Oxides 324
9.6 The Leveling Effect of Water on the
Strengths of Strong Acids and Bases 326
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Detailed Contents xix
13 2 The Spin Quantum Number and the
Pauli Exclusion Principle
453
13 3 The Aufbau Process and the Periodic
Table
456
The Building-Up (Aufbau) of the Periodic Table 457
13 4
Group 18
(VIIIA),
The Noble Gases: The
Relationship between Their Chem istry and
Their Electronic Configurations 460
13 5
The Periods ofthe Periodic Table and the
Electronic Configurations ofthe First Series of
Transition Metals
462
Transition M etal Ions 463
The Long Periods of the Periodic Table 463
13.6
A
Periodic Property:
The Ionization
Energy 466
13.7 A Periodic Property: The Electron
Affinity
469
13 8 A Periodic Property: The
Electronegativity 470
13.9
A Periodic
Property:
Atomic Size
471
13 10 Periodicity in
Bonding:
Ionic versus
Covalent Bonding Across the Short
Periods 473
Lewis Dot Formulas 473
Validity of the Octet Rule 474
Electronegativity and Bond Type 474
13 11
The Relationship between the Chemistry
and the Electronic Configurations ofthe Alkali
and the Alkaline Earth Metals
476
The Alkali Metals 476
The Alkaline Earth Me tals 477
13 12
T he Halogens: The Relationship
between Their Chemistry and Their Electronic
Configurations 480
13 13 The Chalcogens (O xygen Family): The
Relationship between Their Chem istry and
Their Electronic Configurations
481
Isoelectronic Ions 482
Summary
482
Exercises 485
Multiple Choice Qu estions
487
Problems 490
Chapter
14
The Nature
ofthe
Chemical
Bond 492
14 1 Ionic versus Covalent Bonding 493
14 2 Lewis Structures 496
Multiple Bonds 496
Formal Charges 499
The Concept of Resonance 500
Exceptions to the Octet Rule 502
Species with an Odd Number of Valence
Electrons 502
Electron Deflcient Compounds 502
Expanded Valence Shells 503
14 3
Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) Theory
504
14 4
Mo lecular Orbitals
ofH
2
511
Sigma (<r)-Molecular Orbita ls 512
The Bonding Molecular Orb ital 512
The Potential Energy Curve for H
2
513
Molecular Orbitals as Linear Combinations of Atomic
Orbitals 514
Species with Valence Electrons in the a ls and
a*ls
Molecular Orbitals 515
The Species H
2
and He
2
515
14 5 Hom onuclear Diatomic Molecules ofthe
Second Period
516
The a ls and a*2s Molecular Orbitals 516
7t-Molecular Orb itals 517
Bonding in B
2
, C
2
, and N
2
519
Bonding in 0
2
522
14 6
Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules ofthe
Second Period
523
14 7
Hybrid Atomic Orbitals and the
Molecular Geom etry of Polyatomic
Molecules 525
14 8
M ultiple Bonds
533
Delocalized Orb itals 534
4 9
Hydrogen Bridge Bonds; the Boranes
537
Summary 537
Exercises 541
Multiple Cho ice Q uestions
542
Problems 544
Chapter
15 O xidation States and
Oxidation
-
Reduction Reactions 547
15 1 D efinitions of Oxidation and
Reduction
548
15 2 The Oxidation State ofan Element 549
Formal Charge versus Oxidation State 551
Intermediate Oxidation State s 552
Fractional Oxidation State s 552
The Oxidation State as a Periodic Property 553
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xx Detailed Contents
15 3
Balancing Oxidation-Reduction
Equations
554
The Ion - Electron Method 560
Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations in Basic
Solution 562
Disproportionation 563
15 4 The Redox Chemistry of Group 15 (VA)
Elements 565
The Oxidation States of Phosphorus 570
The Oxidation States of
A s,
Sb, and Bi 571
15 5
The Oxidation States of Chlorine and
Other Group 17 (VIIA) Elements
572
Other Halogens 575
15 6 Oxidation States ofthe Transition Me tals
Chromium and Manganese 575
Redox Chemistry of Chromium 575
Redox Chemistry of Man ganese 577
Summary 578
Exercises 579
Multiple Choice Q uestions
581
Problems
583
Chapter 16 Energy, E nthalpy, and
Thermochemistry 586
16 1 State Functions 587
16 2 Heat and Work 588
Work 588
Sign Convention for Wo rk 588
The Work of Expansion 589
Heat 591
The Mechanical Equivalent of Hea t 592
16 3
The First Law of Thermodynamics
593
Statements of the First Law of Thermodynam ics 595
16 4 E nergy and Enthalpy 595
Reactions Carried Out at Constant Volume 596
Reactions Carried Out at Constant Pressure 596
The R elationship betwen
A H
and A £ 597
16 5 Thermochemistry 599
Standard Heats of Formation,
A H}
600
Calculations Using He ss Law 601
Heats of Combustion 603
16 6
Bond Enthalpies
604
The C— H Bond Enthalpy 605
The C—C Bond Enthalpy 606
Tabulation of Bond Enth alpies 607
16 7 Heat Capacity 609
The Relation between
C
p
and C„ 611
Molecular Origins of Heat Capacity 612
16 8
C alorimetry
614
Summary
617
Exercises 619
Multiple Choice Q uestions 621
Problems 624
Chapter 17 Entropy, Free Energy, and
Equilibrium 627
17.1
Energy and
Spontaneity:
The Needfor a
Second Law
628
Spontaneity and Molecular Disorder 629
17.2 Reversible Processes 630
17 3 Derivation ofthe Reversible W ork of
Expansion ofan Ideal Gas 632
17 4 The Maximum Work That Can Be Done
by an Isothermal Expansion ofan Ideal
Gas
632
17 5
The Entropy Changefor an Isothermal
Process
633
AS
for Isothermal Phase Changes 634
The Entropy of Vaporization, A 5
va p
634
The Entropy Change on Fusion 636
17 6 The Second Law of
Thermodynamics 636
17 7 The Gibbs F ree Energy Function 637
17 8 Calculation of AG" 639
Absolute Entropies 639
Calculation ofA 5° 641
Calculation of G° Values 642
Free Energies of Formation,
A G}
644
17 9 AG " and the Equilibrium Constant 645
17 10 The Temperature Dependence ofAH,
AS,AG,andK
eq
648
The Temperature Dependence of
AH
and
A S
648
The Temperature Dependence of AG 648
The Temperature Dependence of
K ^
649
Summary
652
Exercises 654
Multiple Choice Q uestions 657
Problems 658
Chapter 18 Electrochemistry 661
18 1
The Use o f Oxidation - Reduction
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Reactions to Produce Electricity: The Galvanic
Cell
662
The Design of Galvanic Cells 662
The Need for a Salt Bridge 663
Anode and Cathode Reactions 664
Definition of the Farad ay 664
Cells with M etal Electrodes That Take P art in the
Reaction 664
Electrical Current 665
18 2 The EMF ofa Galvanic Cell 667
Deflning the Zero of Poten tial Energy 667
Definition of Electromotive Force (EM F) 667
The Standard Hydrogen Electrode 668
18 3
Cell Conventions and Half-Cell
Potentials 668
18 4 Significance ofthe Sign ofthe Cell
Potential 672
18 5
The Table of Standard Reduction
Potentials 673
18 6 Concentration Dependence ofthe Cell
EM F 676
The Relation between AG and A ^ , , 676
The Nernst Equation 678
18.7 ProofThat the Cell Poten tial Is
Independent
ofthe Form ofthe Net Cell
Reaction
680
18 8 Concentration Cells 681
18 9 Use ofthe Nernst Equation to Determine
the Equilibrium Constant 684
The Use of the Nernst Equation to Determine
Solubility Produ cts 688
18 10
The Relation between All the Criteria
for Predicting the Direction ofa Spontaneous
Reaction 689
18 11
C omm ercial Batteries
690
The Lead Storage Battery 690
The Dry Cell 692
The Mercury Cell 693
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries 693
18 12 Electrolysis 694
Electrolysis of Mo lten Salts 695
The Commercial Production of Aluminum 696
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 698
Overvoltage 700
Electroplating 700
Summary 702
Exercises 704
Multiple Choice Qu estions 707
Problems 709
Chapter
19
Chemical
Kinetics 712
19 1 Factors Affecting the Rates of Chemical
Reactions 714
19 2
The Rate Exp ression
714
The Order of Reaction 717
Units of Rates and Rate Constants 720
19 3 Determination ofthe Order of Reaction
by the Method of Initial R ates 720
19 4
First-Order Reactions
723
TheHalf-Life 725
Radioactive Decay 727
Pseudo-Order Reactions 728
19 5
Second-Order
Reactions 729
19 6 The Temperature Dependence of Rate
Constants 731
Effective Collisions 732
The Activation Energy 734
The Arrhenius Equation 734
19 7 Transition State Theory and the Activated
Complex 731
Potential Energy versus Reaction Coordinate
Diagrams 737
19 8 The Relation between the Mechanism of
a Reaction and Kinetics Data
739
The Hydrogen Iodide Reaction 741
Molecularity versus Order 741
Catalysis 743
19 9
Chain Reactions
746
19 10 Reaction Rates and Equilibrium 746
Summary 747
Exercises 750
Multiple Choice Q uestions 754
Problems 756
Chapter 2 0 Coordination Compounds 761
20 1 Ligands and the Coordinate Bond 762
20 2 The
Coordination
Number 763
20 3 Lewis Acids and Bases 765
Cation Acids 766
20 4 Inert versus Labile C omplexes 768
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xxii Detailed Contents
20 5 Evidence for the Existence ofCom plex
Ions
769
20.6
N omenclature 773
Rules for Naming S alts th at contain a Com plex Ion or
Ions 773
The Rule for Naming Nonionic or Molecular
Complexes 774
The Rule for Nam ing Compounds with a Bridging
Ligand or Ligands 774
20 7
The G eometry of Coordination
Comp ounds; Isomers 116
Geometries for Coordination Number 4 776
Cis-Trans Isomerism for Four-Coordinate
Complexes 776
Geometries for Coordination Num ber 5 777
Octahedral Geometry for Coordination Number 6 778
Linkage Isomerism 780
20.8
Optica
Isomerism 780
20 9
The Effective Atomic N umber (EAN)
Rule 782
20 10 Magnetic Mom ents of Transition Metal
Complexes
784
Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 784
Spin-Only Magnetic Mom ents 786
High-Spin and Low-Spin Complexes 786
The Colors of Transition Metal Complexes 786
20 11
Theories of Bonding in Coordination
Complexes
787
Crystal Field Theory for Octahedral Complexes 787
High-Spin versus Low-Spin Octahedral
Complexes 789
The Spectrochemical Series 790
Crystal Field Splittings for Geometries Other Than
Octahedral 791
Absorption Spectra 793
Ligand Field Theory 795
Summary 796
Exercises
797
Multiple Choice Q uestions
800
Problems 802
Chapter 2 Properties and Structures of
Metallic and
Ionic
Crystalline Solids 805
21 1
Crystalline and Amorphous Solids
806
21 2
Crystal Defects
807
21 3
The Structures o f Metals
808
Hexagonal and Cubic Close Packing 808
Body-Centered Cubic Structures 810
21.4
Metallic Bond ing 811
Band Theory of M etals 812
21 5
The Seven Crystal Systems
813
The Fourteen Bravais Lattices 815
21 .6
X-Ray Diffraction
816
Constructive and Destructive Interference 817
21.7
Atomic Dimensions and Unit Cell
Geometry
820
Structural Relations for the Three Cubic Lattices 820
Calculation of Ionic Radii 822
21.8
The La ttice Energy oflonic Crystals
825
The Effect of Cations without Rare Gas Electronic
Configuration 827
21.9
The Born
-
Hab er Cycle
828
Summary
829
Multiple Choice Questions
831
Problems
833
Chapter
22 R adioactivity and
Nuclear
Chemistry 836
22 1 Subatomic Particles and Nuclides 837
22 2
Nuclear Binding Energies
838
Nucleon Pairing 842
Fusion 843
Fission 844
Breeder Reactors 847
22.3
Ra dioactivity
847
Nuclear Stability 847
Shell Model of the Nucleus 849
Beta Decay for Neutron-Rich Nuclei 849
Decay Processes for Neutron-Poor Nuclei 851
Electron Capture 851
Positron Emission 851
a Decay 853
Gamma-Ray Emission 855
22.4
Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Substances 856
The Uranium Series 856
The Thorium Series 856
The Actinium Series 857
22.5
The Rate of Radioactive Decay
857
22 6 The Uses of Radioactivity 859
Isotope Dilution 859
Radiocarbon Dating 861
Isotopic Tracer Techniques 865
Summary
865
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Detailed Contents xxiii
Exercises 867
Multiple
Choice Questions 869
Problems
871
Chapter
2 3
Introduction
to
Organic
Chemistry 874
23 1 Bonding in Organic Compounds 875
Methane and Ethane 875
Ethylene 877
Aeetylene 878
Comparing sp
3
, sp
2
, and sp Hybridization 878
23 2
Geometrie Isomerism
879
23 3 Op tica Isomerism 880
23 4
A romaticity 882
Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds 884
23 5 The Alkanes 885
Straight-Chain or Normal Alkanes 885
Branched-Chain Alkanes 886
Nomenclature of Alkanes 887
23 6 Functional Croups 889
Alkenes 889
Alcohols 891
Ethers 891
Amines 893
Aldehydes and Ketones 894
Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivative s 895
Esters 897
Amides 897
23 7 Oxidation States of Carbon 898
23 8 Brief Survey of
Biologically
Important
Compounds
898
Fats 899
Phospholipids 900
Proteins 900
Carbohydrates 903
23 9 Synthetic Polymers
904
Nylon: A Condensation Polymer 905
Polyvinyl Chloride: An Addition Polymer 905
Summary
906
Multiple Choice Qu estions 908
Problems
910
Appendix A Units
and
Conversion
Factors 915
Appendix
B Mathem atical
Operations
and
Techniques 917
B l Exponents 917
Expo nential (Scientific) Notation 917
Addition and Subtraction of Expon ential Num bers 917
Multiplication of Expon ential Num bers 917
Division of Exponential Num bers 918
Powers of Exponential Num bers 918
Roots of Exponential Num bers 918
Exercises Involving Expo nential
Numbers
919
B2.
Logarithms
919
Base 10 Logarithms 919
Base 10 Antilogarithms 920
Exercises Involving Logarithms
921
Fundamental Properties of Logarithms 921
Natural Logarithms 922
m.Graphs 923
B4. Quadratic Equations
924
Exercises in the Use ofthe Quadratic
Formula
924
Appendix C Experimental
Uncertainties
925
Problems 926
Appendix D Derivat ion ofthe Conversion
Factor between
Two
Units
o f
Pressure,
the
Atmosphere
and
the
Pascal 927
Appendix E
Equilibrium Constants
at
25 °C 929
Table El
Acidity C onstants of Weak
Acids 929
Table E2
Solubility Product Con stants
930
Appendix F Standard
Chemical
Thermo-
dynamic Data at 25 °Cand 101.325 kPa
latm)
932
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xxiv Detailed Contents
Appendix G Standard Electrode Potentials
at25°C 938
Appendix I Derivat ion ofthe Relations
AG = AG° +RTlnQ and
AG = RT ln(Q/K
eq
) 943
Appendix J Derivation ofthe Integrated
Forms ofthe First- and Second-Order Rate
Laws 946
Appendix K Methods ofSolving Problems in
Acid-Base Equilibria when the Self-
Ionization of Wa ter Cannot Be Neglected 947
K l . Solutions of Strong Acids 947
K 2.
Solutions ofWeakA cids 948
Glossary 949
Credits 990
Index 993
Appendix H Bohr Theory ofthe H A tom 940