Using Social Psychology to Li1 Achievement and
Reduce Inequality in the Classroom
Valerie Purdie-‐Vaughns Columbia University
Smart people in key places….
More effective tools for assessing change….
Broadening participation?
• For people who are members of diverse groups, hidden and overt bias can cause added stress (stress not faced by others) that can undermine performance, mo@va@on, and health.
• Broadening par@cipa@on requires altering the psychological climate to reduce this stress.
Take Home Message
(National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2012)
Racial Achievement Gap (Reading, 8th Grade) by State, 2011
Darker red = greater gap Grey = no data available
Field-‐based research interven@ons designed by social psychologists to reduce racial and gender opportunity gaps in
academic performance.
• Partnering with educators to apply social psychology theories of iden@ty to educa@on.
• Longitudinal-‐experimental interven@ons in middle schools, high schools and colleges.
NSF ADVANCE #0723909, 154685 (Closing achievement gap: A social psychological interven@on) NSF RAPID# 0918075 Tes@ng the effects of the inaugura@on of the first African American President on the affirma@on process NSF ADVANCE #1109548 (Reducing racial achievement gaps: Tes@ng Neurobiological Mechanisms)
Project ACHIEVE
STEREOTYPE THREAT
For people who are members of diverse groups, hidden and overt bias can cause added stress (stress not faced by others) that can undermine performance, mo@va@on, and health.
6
Stereotype Threat
The threat of being viewed through the lens of a nega@ve stereotype or the fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm that stereotype.
Members of diverse groups can be wary of situa@ons in which their behavior can confirm that their GROUP lacks a valued ability. This extra pressure caused by the concern of reinforcing stereotypes can interfere with performance.
(C.M. Steele & Aronson, 1995))
“Something I deal with constantly, especially considering my educa@on taking place in the North, is how since I came from North Carolina…like I should be a red-‐neck or have a southern drawl and drop out of college. The Southern town I live in is Chapel Hill, one of my liberal college towns in the USA…”
(college student)
Stereotype Threat
Stereotype Threat
“I knew I was just as intelligent as everyone else . . . . For some reason I didn’t score well on tests. Maybe I was just nervous. There’s a lot of pressure on you,
knowing that if you fail, you fail your race.”
Rodney Ellis, State Senator (Texas), 1997
II. Hidden Stress
Female and male college students who care about math take a difficult math test (Sample Math GRE). Test instruc@ons say “no-‐ gender-‐differences” OR standard test instructions.
II. Hidden Stress
(Steele, Quinn, & Spencer, 1997)
Women in the Math and Sciences
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Control No-Gender-Difference
Scor
e co
rrec
ted
for g
uess
ing
Men
Women
(Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999)
Women in the Math and Sciences
1. Black and white undergraduates take a difficult section of Verbal GRE. 2. Test instructions:
3. Measure test performance: number of questions correct (corrected for guessing, used SAT as covariate)
Test is accurate measure of verbal ability
Test is instrument for solving problems
African-Americans
0
5
10
15
Diagnostic Nondiagnostic
Scor
e co
rrec
ted
for
gues
sing
WhitesBlacks
(Steele & Aronson, 1995)
African-Americans
Female college student test performance with two male test takers.
Female college student test
performance with two female test takers.
Other forms of stereotype threat
White male students in comparison to Asian American male student in math
Other forms of stereotype threat
0
5
10
15
Control No-Age-Difference
Scor
e on
mem
ory
task
youngerolder
(Levy, Slade, Kunkel & Kasl, 2002)
Older adults and memory
Performance: (Dananhar & Crandall; Massey & Fischer, 2005; Reardon, Adeberry,
Arshan, & Kurlander, 2009; Walton & Spencer, 2009 )
Leadership: (Schmader et al., under review)
Health: (Cook, Purdie-‐Vaughns, et al., under review; Logel & Cohen, 2012)
Stereotype threat in the real world
Stereotype threat stems from historic and contemporary threat systemic
in school structures.
“…innate differences between men and women might be one reason fewer women succeed in science and math careers.”
Star Trek poster
Coke cans Sci Fi books
Stereotypical room
Classroom Environments
Cheryan, Plaut, Davies & Steele, 2009
Nature poster
Neutral books Water
bottles
Non-stereotypical room
Classroom Environments
Cheryan, Plaut, Davies & Steele, 2009
Interaction: F(1, 35) = 10.22, p < .01
Environment influences women’s interest in CS
Cheryan, Plaut, Davies & Steele, 2009
Contextual
Cogni@ve
Physiological
Beyond Performance: A Multilevel Phenomenon
• Low recruitment of areas associated with learning (inf. PFC, le1 inf. parietal cort., bilateral angular gyrus), over recruitment of areas associated with self-‐regula@on of emo@ons (ventral anterior cingulate cort)
• Increased arousal (cor@sol), higher cardiovascular reac@vity, heightened immune system response (TNFα)
• Impaired execu@ve func@oning, working memory
• Decreased trust/belonging, perceived threat
Neurological
Krendl, Richeson, Kelley, & Heatherton, 2008; Schmader & Johns, 2003; Schmader, Johns, & Forbes, 2008; Blascovich, Spencer, Quinn, & Steele, 2001;
• Stereotype threat affects any group that is seen “through the lens” of a nega@ve stereotype in a par@cular context.
• Stereotype threat is a mul@level phenomenon that implicates psychological and biological systems in the human body.
• Stereotype threat stems from historic and contemporary structural factors that perpetuate stereotypes in classrooms and ins@tu@ons more broadly.
Take Home Message
THE SCIENCE OF BROADENING PARTICIPATION
25
Broadening participation requires altering the psychological climate to reduce this stress.
• Diagnosing the psychological climate. • Tes@ng interven@ons that reduce stereotype threat.
• Providing unambiguous clear feedback of high expecta@ons and iden@ty will not be a barrier to success. (Wise Interven@ons)
• Providing psychological resources to reduce threat (Values-‐Affirma@on Interven@ons)
• Capture a moment in @me when psychological climate changed in schools (Obama Effect Interven@ons)
• Extrac@ng best prac@ces and lessons learned that can be applied na@onwide in schools and workplaces.
The Science of Broadening Participation…
WISE-‐FEEDBACK INTERVENTIONS
27
(Yeager, Purdie-Vaughns, Cohen, & Garcia, under review, Child Development)
How can you be cri@cal of a student’s behavior without undermining the
mo@va@on and self-‐confidence needed to improve?
Today’s proposal: Providing unambiguous clear feedback of high expecta@ons and assurance that student can reach those expecta@ons. This reassures them that their iden@ty will not be a barrier to success.
The Mentor’s Dilemma…
• Convey to stereotyped individuals that they are seen in their “full humanity,” and not through the lens of a stereotype. (Goffman, 1963; Cohen & Steele, 2002)
“Wise” Interventions
STUDY 1
Original test of wise interven@on strategy on minority student performance in college.
30
(Cohen, Steele, & Ross, 1999)
• Unbuffered cri@cism • “Unwise”: Cri@cism + posi@ve buffer:
– Overall, nice job. Your enthusiasm for your teacher really shows through, … You have some interes@ng ideas in your leper and make some good points. … I’ve provided …. suggested several areas that could be improved.
• “Wise”: Cri@cism + high standards + Assurance: – Judged by a higher standard, the one that really counts, that is, whether your leper will be publishable in our journal, I have serious reserva@ons. The comments I provide in the following pages are quite cri@cal but I hope helpful. Remember, I wouldn’t go to the trouble of giving you this feedback if I didn’t think, based on what I’ve read in your leper, that you are capable of mee@ng the higher standard I men@oned.
31
“Wise” Interventions: Laboratory study with college students.
• Unbuffered cri@cism • “Unwise”: Cri@cism + posi@ve buffer:
– Overall, nice job. Your enthusiasm for your teacher really shows through, … You have some interes@ng ideas in your leper and make some good points. … I’ve provided …. suggested several areas that could be improved.
• “Wise”: Cri+cism + high standards + Assurance: – Judged by a higher standard, the one that really counts, that is, whether your le>er will be publishable in our journal, I have serious reserva+ons. The comments I provide in the following pages are quite cri+cal but I hope helpful. Remember, I wouldn’t go to the trouble of giving you this feedback if I didn’t think, based on what I’ve read in your le>er, that you are capable of mee+ng the higher standard I men+oned.
32
“Wise” Interventions: Laboratory study with college students.
1
2
3
4
5
6
unbuffered cri@cism cri@cism + posi@ve buffer
cri@cism + high standards and assurance
task
mot
ivat
ion
Whites Blacks
(Cohen, Steele, & Ross, 1999)
“Wise” Interventions: Laboratory study with college students.
STUDIES 1-‐2 Field experiment in middle school.
34
(Yeager, Purdie-‐Vaughns, Cohen, & Garcia, under review, Child Development)
• 7th graders in middle school (may be development “fork in the road”) (Eccles, Lord, & Midgley, 1991; Simmons, Black, & Zhou, 1991)
• School is economically middle class (23% receive free lunch) and located in Northeastern U.S.
• Student body approximately 50% African-‐American, 50% White.
Research site information “Wise” Interventions: Field experiment in middle school
• Black and White 7th grade students wrote an essay about their hero.
• White teachers grade and give feedback.
– “Control”
– “Wise” (High standards + assurance).
“Wise” Interventions: Field experiment in middle school
“Wise feedback” group: I’m giving you these comments because I have high standards and I know that you can meet them.
Control group: I’m giving you these comments so you have feedback on your essay.
62%"
17%"
87%"
72%"
0%"
10%"
20%"
30%"
40%"
50%"
60%"
70%"
80%"
90%"
100%"
White Students" Black Students"
Perc
ent R
evis
ing
Essa
y"
Control "
High Standards + Assurance "
Percentage of students resubmitting their essay at end of week.
Study 2
11.41"
9.42"
12.11" 11.95"
8"
9"
10"
11"
12"
13"
14"
White Students" Black Students"
Fina
l Sco
re o
n R
evis
ed E
ssay" Control "
High Standards + Assurance "
Quality of Final Essay (15 pt. metric)
• Many minority students encounter or are aware of bias, stereotypes or discrimina@on. These past adversi@es have effects in part because they leave a psychological residue.
• Raising classroom rigor may not close achievement gaps if they don’t address iden@ty-‐based ambiguity. “Wise” strategies can disabuse students of this ambiguity and unlock mo@va@on
• However, these depend cri@cally on context: – That teachers and administrators are trustworthy – That students are being taught meaningful and rigorous content
Take Home Message
VALUES-‐AFFIRMATION INTERVENTIONS
43
• Cohen, Garcia, Purdie-Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski, 2009, Science; • Cook, Purdie-Vaughns, Garcia, & Cohen, 2012, Journal of Personality and • Social Psychology; • Shnabel, Purdie-Vaughns, Cook, Garcia & Cohen, under revision, 2012, Personality • and Social Psychology Bulletin; • Purdie-Vaughns, Cohen, Garcia, Sumner, Cook, & Apfel, 2009, Teacher’s College Record • Cohen, Purdie-Vaughns, & Garcia, 2012, Stereotype Threat: Theory, Process & Applications
Knowing that psychological climates can impair performance, how can we reduce threat so students can achieve in the face
of these climates?
Today’s proposal: Reduce threat by affirming students’ core sense of self.
Reducing Stereotype Threat…
I don’t drink as much sugary stuff as the person simng next to me...and anyway, I walk to my car EVERY day, which is exercise…AND…the
researchers who study diabetes are paid by medical companies...who can trust them?? Whew, this ad does
not apply to me!
“I do not consume sugary drinks. This ad does not apply to me.”
Here we protect “the self” with strategies that undermine performance (not seeking feedback, disengagement).
Academic contexts are threatening for students who belong to stereotyped groups.
self affirma@on
• Self-‐affirma@on refers to thoughts or behaviors that bolster one’s sense of self as competent, effec@ve, and able to control important outcomes (Sherman & Cohen, 2006; Steele, 1988)
• Self-‐affirma@on is not self-‐esteem!
50
Values-affirmation reminds people of sources of their self-worth.
The self-system
Global Self-Integrity
Roles (e.g., student,
parent)
Values (e.g., humor,
religion)
Group identities (e.g., race,
culture, nation)
Central beliefs
(e.g., ideology, political beliefs)
Goals (e.g., health,
academic success)
Relationships (e.g., family,
friends
STUDIES 1-‐3
Do values-‐affirma@on interven@ons improve academic performance for students under threat?
52
• Structured wri@ng exercises, integrated into middle-‐school
classroom in 7th grade. Developed in conjunc@on with teachers and administrators at school site.
• Controlled and scripted procedures developed with help of teachers and administrators at each specific site.
• Administered at periods of high stress. Only treatment
delivered 6 weeks a1er start of middle school.
• Double-‐blind randomized field experiments.
Operationalizing values-affirmation
[Affirmation Condition Worksheet:]
WHAT ARE YOUR PERSONAL VALUES? The most important values to me are: (circle two or three)
Athletic Ability
Being Good at Art
Creativity
Independence
Living in the Moment
Membership in A Social Group (such as your community, racial group, or school club)
Music
Politics
Relationships with Friends or Family
Religious Values
Sense of Humor
“[Art] is important to me because it makes me feel calm. When I'm very upset, like I'm going to cry I sit down and start listening to music or start drawing a picture.”
“If I didn't have creativity, I'd be bored out of
my mind.” “If I didn't have my family, I [wouldn’t] be
raised right and if I didn't have my friends I would be a boring person. If I didn't have my religion, I wouldn't know what to do, I would be lost.”
Sample excerpts from 7th graders
End-of-term course grade
2
2.5
3
3.5
EuropeanAmericans
AfricanAmericans
ControlAffirmation
Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006, Science Covariates in analysis of each racial group: prior performance, teacher
End-of-quarter course grade (Social Studies)
2
2.5
3
3.5
EuropeanAmericans
AfricanAmericans
ControlAffirmation
End-of-quarter course grade
(Social Studies)
Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006, Science Covariates in analysis of each racial group: prior performance, teacher
2
2.5
3
3.5
European Americans African Americans
Control
Affirmation
Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006, Science Covariates in analysis of each racial group: prior performance, teacher
End-of-quarter course grade
(Social Studies)
Original Two Studies:
2
2.5
3
3.5
EuropeanAmericans
African Americans
ControlAffirmation
2
2.5
3
3.5
EuropeanAmericans
AfricanAmericans
ControlTreatment
2
2.5
3
3.5
EuropeanAmericans
African Americans
ControlAffirmation
Two Replication Studies in Math:
2
2.5
3
3.5
European Americans African Americans
ControlTreatment
Original Two Studies:
2
2.5
3
3.5
EuropeanAmericans
African Americans
ControlAffirmation
2
2.5
3
3.5
EuropeanAmericans
AfricanAmericans
ControlTreatment
2
2.5
3
3.5
EuropeanAmericans
African Americans
ControlAffirmation
Two Replication Studies in Math:
2
2.5
3
3.5
EuropeanAmericans
African Americans
ControlTreatment
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
% going up in course difficulty
% going down in course difficulty
White, Control
White, Affirm
Minority, Control
Minority, Affirm
Intervention affects contact with academic gateway: Percentage of students moving up versus down in
math level from year 1 to year 2
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
% going up in course difficulty
% going down in course difficulty
White, Control
White, Affirm
Minority, Control
Minority, Affirm
Intervention affects contact with academic gateway: Percentage of students moving up versus down in
math level from year 1 to year 2
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
% going up in course difficulty
% going down in course difficulty
White, Control
White, Affirm
Minority, Control
Minority, Affirm
Intervention affects contact with academic gateway: Percentage of students moving up versus down in
math level from year 1 to year 2
Sherman & Hartson, 2011
Replication with Latino American students: Global GPA over year
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Q1 Q2 (es@mate) Q3 Q4 (es@mate)
Grad
e Po
int A
verage
Time point
White -‐ Affirma@on White -‐ Control
La@no -‐ Affirma@on La@no -‐ Control
Sherman & Hartson, 2011
Replication with Latino American students: Global GPA over year
• Value-‐affirma@ons work by securing self-‐concept under chronic condi@ons of stereotype threat, like middle school, high school and college.
Take Home Message
SYMBOLIC ROLE MODEL INTERVENTION CAN REDUCE THREAT AND IMPROVE PERFORMANCE: THE “OBAMA” EFFECT
69
• Purdie-Vaughns, Cook, Cohen & Garcia, under review, Personality • and Social Psychology Bulletin; • Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2012; reviewed in ”Post-Racial America?” • Eibach & Purdie-Vaughns, 2010; Dubois Review
Did the elec@on of Obama alter the psychological climate for minority students. If so, can experimental
reminders of Obama reduce threat and improve performance?
Reducing Stereotype Threat…
Obama Effect Field Experiment
• 158 par@cipants in 6th grade
• Middle school research site in northern United States (CT). School district is economically middle class
(~25% receiving free or reduced school lunch) • Student body: 49% African American/ 9% La@no American,
42% European American
Purdie-Vaughns, Cook, Garcia & Cohen, in prep
Obama Effect Field Experiment
• Experiment conducted one week a1er November 2008 elec@on. • Two experimental condi@ons
– Obama salient condi@on:
Students answered 12 ques@ons about the importance of the elec@on and Obama
– Control condi@on:
Students answered 12 ques@ons about the importance of items they put in their locker
Obama Salient Condition (12 total questions. Sample questions)
• “Is it important to you who won the United States presiden+al elec+on? If so, why?”
• Who won this year’s United States presiden+al elec+on? (John McCain, Barack Obama, Hillary Clinton etc)
• I am happy with who won the United States presiden+al elec+on. (1=not at all happy, 4 = very happy)
• I care about who won the United States presiden+al elec+on (1=not at all, 4 = very much)
Dependent measures
• Social iden@ty threat (Cohen & Garcia, 2006) e.g., “In school, I worry that people will think I am dumb if I do badly” “Some+mes in school, other people think bad thoughts about how smart my racial group is”
(1-‐strongly disagree to 6-‐strongly agree) (10 items: alpha = .87)
• Grade point average Official school records in 2nd quarter of school
year Math, English, Social Studies, Science (7 weeks post experiment)
School Year (by quarter)
Quarter 1 Sept.-‐Oct. 2008
Quarter 2 Nov.-‐January
2008
Quarter 3 Feb.-‐April 2009
Quarter 4 April-‐June
2009 Summer
Quarter 1 Sept.-‐Oct. 2009
Social iden@ty threat and grades
Time 1 6th Grade THREAT
Time 1 Quarter 2 GRADES
TIME 2 6th Grade THREAT
TIME 3 7th Grade THREAT
Exp. Manip
.
Students’ attitudes about election and awareness of election
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
Respect for Obama
Following elec@on (school/
home)
*Care about poli@cs
*Na@onal Iden@fica@on
Black
White
* * ns
ns
6th grade students’ attitudes towards Obama and awareness of politics as a function of race.
* = significant racial group difference (p < .05). Means adjusted for gender. Scale ranges from 1 to 4.
Excerpts from Obama condition
Yes, it is because it will show racist stereotypers that Blacks aren't dumb but smart.”
-‐Black student, 6th grade “Yes, Barack Obama has great ideas and can help
our world.” -‐White student, 6th grade
“It's important to me because Barack Obama's win meant that we can do anything no matter what race we are.”
-‐Black student, 6th grade
Iden@ty Threat
Obama interven@on reduces threat among black 6th grade students un@l start of 7th grade.
1.70
1.90
2.10
2.30
2.50
2.70
2.90
Fall 2008 Spring 2009 Fall 2009
Thr
eat
White/Control Condition White/Obama Condition Black/Control Condition Black/Obama Condition
-
+
*
2.6
2.65
2.7
2.75
2.8
2.85
2.9
GPAQ2 with Q1
Obama
Control
Obama intervention significantly improves 2nd quarter grades for Black and White 6th grade students, 7 weeks post intervention.
B
C+
(Math, English, Social Studies, Science) Analysis controls for 1st quarter grades
• Among African Americans, a group that contends with nega@ve intellectual stereotypes, reflec@ng about President Obama had same protec@ve effects as reflec@ng about the self. European Americans, a group not stereotyped in this context, were unaffected.
Summary of results
THE SCIENCE OF BROADENING PARTICIPATION
84
Broadening participation in STEM and beyond requires altering the psychological climate to reduce this stress.
Ø Importance of social psychological approach to STEM mo@va@on and
achievement
Ø Three social psychological interven@ons help li1 achievement and promote equality in the classroom
Ø Combining social-‐psychological interven@ons with pedagogical and curricular
interven@ons may yield greater benefits
Ø Understanding the effects of iden@ty threat help explain when and why people from “all walks of life” perform below their poten@al
Concluding Remarks
Thank you.
Valerie Purdie-‐Vaughns [email protected] hdp://www.columbia.edu/cu/
psychology/vpvaughns/people.html
Research Team, Collaborators, and Funders
Acknowledgments Teachers, administrators, and students at our school sites Faculty and student collaborators Julio Garcia; Geoffrey C. Cohen Greg Walton; Jonathan Cook Claude Steele; Lee Ross Chris@ne Logel; David Yeager Research Project Team Nancy Apfel Suzanne Taborsky-‐Barba Nick Camp Jus@n Busch Pam Brzustoski Allison Master Courtney Bearns Natalie Golaszewski Sarah Tomassem Sarah Wert Marie Scully
Research Consultants Edward Zigler Donald Green Edmund Gordon Joseph Mahoney Funding Sources National Science Foundation Spencer Foundation W.T. Grant Foundation American Psychological Association Institute for Social and Policy Studies National Institute of Mental Health Nellie Mae Education Foundation School of Arts & Sciences, Yale University Society for the Psychol. Study of Social Issues
Cogni@ve and Neural mechanisms Threat Response
Biological Marker Behavioral Outcome References
Physiological Arousal
-‐ Skin conductance response (SCR) -‐ Cardiac reac@vity
-‐ Poor performance on hard tests
-‐ Beder per. easy test
Blascovich, Spencer, Quinn, & Steele, 2001; Cassady & Johnson, 2001
Neurobiological (HPA-‐axis)
Cor@sol (hormone mobilizes energy in response to stress)
-‐ Impairs working memory -‐ Increased anxiety
(Dickerson, Gable, et al., 2009; Dickerson, et al.2004;, (Beilock, Rydell, & McConnell, 2007, Schmader & Johns, 2003; Schmader, Johns, & Forbes, 2008
Neurobiological (immune system)
Proinflammatory cytokines (TNFα) (mobilized to fight against biological threats )
Increased immune response from stress (sickness behavior = more sleep, preven@on behaviors)
Schmader, Johns, & Forbes, 2008 (theory)
Brain ac@va@on Failure to increase ac@. of inf. prefrontal cort., lex inf. parietal cort., and bilateral angular gyrus but increased vent. anterior cingulated cort.
-‐ Low recruitment of areas associated with learning
-‐ Over recruit areas associated with self-‐regula@on of emo@ons
Krendl, Richeson, Kelley, & Heatherton, 2008
Transforma@ve public figures, historic characters, and pioneers that
are symbols of special achievement widely expected to inspire others (Eibach & Purdie-‐Vaughns, 2011; Purdie-‐Vaughns, Summner & Cohen, 2010).
Symbolic Firsts
My experiences at Princeton have made me far more aware of my “Blackness” than ever before . . . no matter how liberal and open-minded some of my White professors and classmates try to be toward me, I sometimes feel like a visitor on campus; as if I really don’t belong . . . It often seems as if, to them, I will always be Black first and a student second.
- Michelle Robinson (1985)
Stereotype threat applies to a broad range of identities.
Stereotype Threat
Other research on stereotype threat (2,500+ studies): -‐ Women and math, science, logic tests -‐ Older women and driving performance -‐ White males and math performance -‐ White males and athle@c performance -‐ Older individuals and memory performance -‐ Economically disadvantaged and intelligence tests (France) -‐ Gay males and play behaviors with young children -‐ Whites and conversa@ons about race with Black conversa@on
partners
Situa@ons that trigger stereotype threat: -‐ Being a numerical minority -‐ Reminders of nega@ve stereotype (affirma@ve ac@on dust ups, hate crimes) -‐ Race/ethnicity of instructor
Obama intervention significantly improves 2nd quarter grades for Black and White 6th grade students, 7 weeks post intervention.
0.25
0.75
1.25
1.75
2.25
2.75
3.25
3.75
4.25
1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25
GPA qu
arter 2
GPA from Quarter 1 of 6th Grade
Control Obama Control Obama
Grades (Math, English, Social Studies, Science) Analysis controls for 1st quarter grades