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Sedimentary Geology 17
Research paper
Development patterns and controlling factors of Tertiary carbonate
buildups: Insights from high-resolution 3D seismic and well data
in the Malampaya gas field (Offshore Palawan, Philippines)
F. FournierT, J. Borgomano, L.F. Montaggioni
Centre de Sedimentologie-Paleontologie, FRE-CNRS 2761 bDynamique des recifs et des plates-formes carbonateesQ,Case 67, Universite de Provence, 3, Place Victor Hugo, F-13331 Marseille cedex 03, France
Abstract
The comprehensive subsurface database of the Malampaya buildup (Late Eocene to Early Miocene, offshore NW Palawan)
provides a rare insight into the development of South-East Asian Cenozoic carbonate systems and their controlling factors. The
newly acquired high-resolution three-dimensional seismic survey, combined with facies and well-log analysis, allowed a better
understanding of the internal architecture of a carbonate platform whose development was largely controlled by tectonic
deformation. The Malampaya carbonate system was initiated in the Late Eocene, as an attached shelf influenced by significant
clastic input. The Late Eocene–Early Oligocene shelf was subject to syn-depositional extensional tectonics (eastward tilting and
block faulting) that favoured the development of small size buildups on structural highs. After a stage of eastward reef
progradation, an aggrading carbonate shelf, frequently affected by subaerial exposure, developed from the earliest Late
Oligocene to the Early Miocene. During this period, recurrent reactivation of highs along the western and northeastern buildup
margins determined the asymmetric morphology and internal architecture of the carbonate system. The final demise of the
carbonate buildup occurred in the late Early Miocene. It resulted from an increase in subsidence rate and/or a sharp increase in
nutrient input. Additional parameters like eustacy, oceanographic conditions and the type of carbonate producers played a
subordinate role in the buildup development and ultimate demise.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Carbonates; Depositional processes; Tectonics; Seismic data; Tertiary; South-East Asia
0037-0738/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.01.009
T Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 491106178; fax: +33
491108523.
E-mail address: [email protected]
(F. Fournier).
1. Introduction
During the Cenozoic, extensive shallow marine
carbonate production took place in South-East Asia
within various passive and active tectonic settings
(Wilson, 2002). In the Southern margin of the South
China Sea, many carbonate build-ups developed on
5 (2005) 189–215
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215190
topographic highs inherited from block-tilting during
the Eocene to Early Oligocene rifting phase (Fulth-
orpe and Schlanger, 1989, Wiliams, 1997, Sales et al.,
1997).
Various examples of carbonate development and
depositional facies models have been described in the
Indo-Pacific region: e.g. the Miocene Luconia build-
ups (Epting, 1980), the Middle Oligocene Berai
Limestone (Saller et al., 1992), the Miocene Natuna
buildup (Rudolph and Lehmann, 1989; Dunn et al.,
1996). However, the role of tectonics on the develop-
ment patterns and stratigraphic architecture of these
systems is only documented in a few cases: the
Eocene to Middle Miocene Tonasa carbonate platform
of South Sulawesi (Wilson, 1999, 2000; Wilson et al.,
2000), and the Late Eocene to Miocene Gunungh
Putih carbonate complex (Cucci and Clark, 1993).
For the Malampaya gas field, Grotsch and Mer-
cadier (1999) provided a 3D model of the carbonate
buildup evolution. However, the relatively low verti-
cal resolution (80 m in the carbonates) of the seismic
records did not allow a detailed description of the
buildup internal architecture. This work is based on
the integration of higher resolution (25 m) 3D seismic
Fig. 1. (a) Depth (in metres subsea) of the top Nido Limestone and locatio
1999) within Block SC 38, offshore Palawan, Philippines. (b) Seismic line
(see panel a for location). (c) Simplified stratigraphic column.
data and detailed petrographic studies of rock samples
extracted from 10 wells.
The objective of this paper is threefold: 1) to
develop a 3D facies model of the Malampaya
carbonate buildup, 2) to reconstruct its development
history and to characterize its stratigraphic architec-
ture, 3) to define and assess the respective role of the
main controlling factors on the development of the
system. Special attention was given to the impact of
local tectonic deformation and differential subsidence
on the stratigraphic architecture of the carbonate
buildup.
2. Location and geological setting of the
Malampaya carbonate buildup
The Malampaya oil and gas accumulation is
located in the deep water Block SC 38 (850 to 1200
m) offshore Palawan (Philippines). This Late Eocene
to Early Miocene carbonate buildup is situated at a
depth of 3000 m below present sea level (Fig. 1) and
consists of a 5 km long and 1–2 km wide, NE–SW
oriented body. In the North Palawan Block, a number
n of wells, in the Malampaya gas field (after Grotsch and Mercadier,
showing the main morphologic features of the Malampaya buildup
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 191
of hydrocarbon accumulations (Longman, 1985;
Wiliams, 1997; Sales et al., 1997) are positioned in
the Late Eocene to Early Miocene Nido Limestone.
The regional distribution of the Nido Limestone is
mainly controlled by the NE–SW trending extensional
basement faults related to the Eocene–Early Oligo-
cene rifting phase of the South China Sea (Fulthorpe
and Schlanger, 1989; Wiliams, 1997; Sales et al.,
1997). The break-up event related to this rifting phase
was dated on the basis of the mid-Oligocene magnetic
anomaly 11 (Briais et al., 1993). The spreading in the
South-China Sea led to a southward drift of the
Calamian–North Palawan–North Borneo micro-con-
tinent throughout the Late Oligocene and Early
Miocene. During the late Early Miocene, this micro-
continent collided with the accretion wedge of the
Paleogene subduction zone of North Cagayan
(Schluter et al., 1996), promoting the obduction of
the collision belt on the North Palawan block and
ceasing seafloor spreading (Briais et al., 1993).
Carbonate development in the area stopped in
response to downwarping of the north-western part
Fig. 2. Chronostratigraphic frameworks of the Nido Limestone, in the Ma
Fournier et al. (2004), (c) this study.
of the block and extensive clastic supply from the
uplifted Palawan island (Fulthorpe and Schlanger,
1989). The carbonate buildups of Block SC 38 were
sealed by Early to Middle Miocene basinal Pagasa
clastics.
The first model of long-term evolution of the
Malampaya buildup was proposed by Grotsch and
Mercadier (1999) using three-dimensional seismic
data and relatively sparse core and side-wall samples
from 4 wells (MA-1 to MA-4). These authors
distinguished three main phases of platform evolution:
1) development of an initial carbonate platform on the
crest of a tilted block (syn-rift phase, Late Eocene), 2)
progradational phase (Early Oligocene), 3) Aggrada-
tional phase and subsequent backstepping (Late
Oligocene–Early Miocene). The buildup finally
drowned during the Late Early Miocene.
The short-term depositional evolution was inves-
tigated by Fournier et al. (2004) utilizing core data
from wells MA-5 and MA-7. These authors showed
that the vertical and lateral facies distribution was
strongly controlled by high-frequency, relative sea-
lampaya buildup: (a) after Grotsch and Mercadier (1999), (b) after
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215192
level changes. Meteoric dissolution and cementation
during exposure events associated with these high
frequency variations in relative sea-level are a major
feature of the reservoir property evolution in Malam-
paya. The chronostratigraphic frameworks proposed
by Grotsch and Mercadier (1999) and Fournier et al.
(2004) are compared in Fig. 2.
3. Data and methods
The dataset used in this study consists of a three-
dimensional seismic survey acquired by Shell Phil-
ippines (SPEX) in 2002, and well data from 10 wells
(MA-1 to MA-10). Core sections are available in
wells MA-2, MA-3, MA-4, MA-5, MA-7, and MA-
9. The seismic interpretation used prestack time
migrated data (PSTM), with a zero-phase signal. The
seismic polarity is defined as follows: negative
amplitude means a downward increase in acoustic
impedance (positive reflection coefficient). The work
utilizes the depositional facies and diagenetic fea-
tures identified by Fournier et al. (2004) from MA-5
and MA-7, those obtained from new thin-section
analyses on MA-6, MA-8, MA-9, and MA-10 and
the re-examination of the rock material studied by
Grotsch and Mercadier (1999) from MA-1, MA-2,
and MA-3. Carbon and oxygen isotope analyses on
whole-rock samples were used to support diagenetic
interpretations.
The analysis and interpretation of the available
datasets was done through six successive steps: 1)
identification of depositional and diagenetic environ-
ments and age determinations based on biostratigra-
phy, from core, cuttings, and side-wall samples
analyses; 2) definition of the main stratigraphic units
based on the well analysis of the vertical succession of
depositional and diagenetic environments; 3) estab-
lishment of well correlations based on depositional
and diagenetic sequences, and biostratigraphic con-
straints; 4) 3D interpretation of the main structural
features using the new seismic survey; 5) 3D
interpretation of the 12 main seismic horizons
identified, and of their stratigraphic significance; and
6) construction of a platform development model and
identification of the main controls on this develop-
ment. A well correlation panel between MA-1, MA-5,
and MA-2 is shown in Fig. 3.
4. Results
4.1. Reconstruction of depositional and diagenetic
environments
4.1.1. Depositional facies and paleoenvironments
The analysis of the sediment bioclastic composi-
tion, foraminiferal, and red algal assemblages com-
bined with recognition of the sedimentological
features observed on cores and thin-sections allowed
the identification of 26 depositional facies (Tables 1
and 2). They cover the Late Eocene to the Early
Miocene and range from distal slope to inner-shelf
settings. In addition, the integration of seismic data
allowed to identify various buildup morphologies
during the development of the Malampaya carbonate
system. Depositional facies distributions and buildup
morphologies are summarized in Fig. 4.
4.1.1.1. Inner-shelf facies. Late Eocene and Early
Oligocene inner-shelf facies are dominated by
benthic foraminifers and calcareous algae (mainly
encrusting coralline algae and Halimeda); corals
become common in the upper part of the Early
Oligocene. The following facies were identified (see
Table 1 for description and paleoenvironmental
interpretations): 1) bryozoan–foraminiferal–algal
packstone E1 facies, rich in quartz particles, 2)
rhodolithic floatstone/rudstone R1a facies, 3) mud-
rich, foraminiferal–Halimeda floatstone R1b1 facies,
4) mud-poor, Halimeda–floatstone facies R1b2, 5)
coral–foraminiferal–coralline algal grainstone/float-
stone R3a facies, 6) coralline algal–foraminiferal
packstone R3b facies, 7) echinoderm–coralline algal
packstone R3c facies.
In the Late Oligocene–Early Miocene from the
Malampaya buildup interior, C1a, C1b, C2, C3, M1,
M2a, M2b, and M3 facies were defined previously by
Fournier et al. (2004). Two additional facies were
defined on the basis of MA-8 rock material: 1)
foraminiferal–coralline algal–grainstone M3g1 facies,
2) coralline algal–green algal–foraminiferal packstone
M3h facies.
High-energy shelf margin facies were recognized
in the Early Miocene and are characterized by the lack
of matrix mud and the abundance of thick-walled
benthic foraminifers. Hence they are defined as
foraminiferal–coralline algal–grainstone M3g2 facies.
Fig. 3. Synthetic chart showing biostratigraphic ages, well-logs data, facies and depositional environments, and d13C profiles from wells MA-1, MA-2, and MA-5; the main
sedimentary units are reported.
F.Fournier
etal./Sedimentary
Geology175(2005)189–215
193
Table 1
A summary of the main recognized facies from the Malampaya inner shelf: sedimentologic features, skeletal components, and paleoenvironmental reconstructions
Sedimentary facies Location Dominant components Foraminiferal assemblage Large Scleractinian
remains
Paleoenvironmental
interpretation
Late Eocene Quartz-rich bryozoan–
foraminiferal–Algal packstone
facies (E1)
MA-1, MA-2,
MA-3, MA-5
–bryozoans –small discocyclina rare shallow-open shelf
–benthic foraminifers –lense-shaped Nummulities
–Halimeda –milliods
–coralline algae –Pellatispira
Rhodolithic floatstone/
rudstone (R1a)
MA-2 –coralline algae (rhodolithes) –dominant miliolids absent inner shelf slope
–Halimeda –alveolinids
–benthic foraminifers –Nummulites
–echinoderms –encrusting foraminifers
Early Oligocene Mud-rich Foraminiferal
Halimeda floatstone (R1b1)
MA-2 –benthic foraminifers –dominant miliolids rare shallow inner shelf
–Halimeda –soritids (Peneroplinae)
–coralline algae –amphisteginids
–corals –small lense-shaped Nummulites
–bryozoans –occasional heterosteginids
Mud-poor Halimeda floatstone
(R1b2)
MA-2 –Halimeda –soritids (Peneroplis) rare inner shelf sand shoal
–benthic foraminifers –miliolids
–coralline algae –amphisteginids
–corals –small lense-shaped Nummulites
–bryozoans –heterosteginids
Coral–foraminiferal–coralline
algal grainstone/Floatstone
facies (R3a)
MA-2, MA-5 –corals –miliolids frequent to abundant sand-shoal in
back-reef setting–benthic foraminifers –alveolinids
–coralline algae –thick-tested amphisteginids
–rotaliids
coralline algal–Foraminiferal
Packstone facies (R3b)
MA-1, MA-2, MA-5 –coralline algae –dominant miliolids rare shallow inner shelf
–benthic foraminifers –alveolinids
–echinoderms –amphisteginids
–coral fragments –arenaceous foraminifers
Echinoderms–coralline
algal–Packstone facies (R3c)
MA-1, MA-2, MA-5 –echinoderms –dominant miliolids absent relatively deep and
protected inner shelf–encrusting coralline algae –alveolinids
–benthic foraminifers –lense-shaped Nummulites
–rare corals and bryozoans –arenaceous foraminifers
Late Oligocene coralline algal wackestone/
packstone facies (C1a)
MA-2, MA-5 –encrusting coralline algae
(thick-layered and foliose
growth forms)
–arenaceous foraminifers absent deep inner shelf
–miliolids
–amphistegenids
–alveolinids (rare)
coralline algal–echinoderm
wackestone/packstone (C1b)
MA-1, MA-2,
MA-5, MA-10
–encrusting coralline algae –amphisteginids rare deep protected
inner shelf–echinoderms (mainly echinoids) –rotaliids
–arenaceous foraminifera
–miliolids and alveolinids
–planktonics (rare)
Coral–coralline
algal–foraminiferal
grainstone facies (C2)
MA-2, MA-5, MA-10 –small coral debris –alveolinids (Borealis pygmaeus) rare inner shelf shoal
–encrusting and geniculate –Sphaerogypsina
coralline algae –rotaliids
–benthic foraminifers –amphisteginids
F.Fournier
etal./Sedimentary
Geology175(2005)189–215
194
–miliolids (Austrotrillina)
–Heterostegina borneesis
–broken soritids and arenaceous
foraminifera
Coral–corallines
algal–foraminiferal
packstone/floatstone
facies (C3)
MA-1, MA-2,
MA-5, MA-10
–large coral debris –rotaliids frequent to abundant shallow protected
inner shelf with
seagrass
meadows and
patch-reefs
–encrusting and geniculate –Heterostegina borneensis
coralline algae –amphisteginids
–benthic foraminifers –miliolids
–alveolinids
–soritids
–lepidocyclinids
Early Miocene Echinoderm coralline algal
wackestone/packstone
facies (M1)
MA-1, MA-5,
MA-7, MA-8
–echinoderms (orphiuroids and
echinoids)
–small benthic
(Bolivina , discorbids)
rare deep open shelf
–coralline algae –planktonics
–Miogypsinoides
–lepidocyclinids, amphisteginids
and heterosteginids (occasional)
coralline algal–foraminiferal–
echinoderm packstone
facies (M2a)
MA-1, MA-5,
MA-7, MA-8
–coralline algae –arenaceous foraminifera occasional deep protected
inner shelf–benthic foraminifers –miliolids
–echinoderms (echinoids mainly) –small benthic
(Bolvina , discorbids)
–planktonics (rare)
–lepidocyclinids (rare)
Echinoderms-coralline
algal-foraminiferal
packstone facies (M2b)
MA-5 –echinoderms (ophiuroids and –arenaceous formainifera frequent to abundant moderately deep and
open shelfechinoids) –miliolids
–coralline algae –planktonics
–benthic foraminifers –lepidocyclinids
Coral-coralline algal-
foraminiferal packstone/
floatstone facies (M3)
MA-1, MA-2,
MA-5, MA-6,
MA-7, MA-8
–large coral debris –soritids frequent to abundant shallow protected
inner shelf with
seagrass meadows
and patch-reefs
–encrusting and geniculate –miliolids
coralline algae –arenaceous foraminifera
–benthic foraminifers –amphisteginids
–miogypsinids
–lepidocyclinids
Foraminiferal–coralline
algal–grainstone facies
(M3g1)
MA-1, MA-8 –benthic foraminifers –soritids absent inner shelf sand shoal
–encrusting and geniculate –miliolids
coralline algae –alveolinids
–occasional echinoderms and –miogypsinids
Halimeda plates. –encrusting foraminifers
coralline algal–Green
Algal–Foraminiferal
packstone facies (M3h)
MA-8 a–coralline algae –dominant miliolids absent shallow-water
protected inner-shelf–Halimeda
–benthic foraminifers
–common soritids and
lepidocyclinids
–occasional echinoderms and –occasional amphisteginids and
mollusks miogypsinids
Planktonic Foraminiferal
wackestone/packstone (M0)
MA-8 –planktonic foraminifers –dominant planktonic foraminifers absent drowned platform
–fragments of benthic foraminifers –heterosteginids
–coralline algae –occasional miogypsinids and
–echinoderms encrusting foraminifers
F.Fournier
etal./Sedimentary
Geology175(2005)189–215
195
Table 2
A summary of the main recognized facies from the Malampaya shelf margin, slope and flank environments: sedimentologic features, skeletal components, and paleoenvironmental reconstructions
Sedimentary facies Location Dominal components Foraminiferal assemblage Large Scleractinian
(N5 mm)
Paleoenvironmental
interpretation
Early Oligocene Coral–Algal floatstone (R1c) MA-2, MA-5 –corals –Heterostegina common reef slope
–coralline algae –Cycloclypeus
–benthic foraminifers –flat Nummulites
–Halimeda –Amphistegina
–bryozoans –occasional milliods and
arenaceous foraminifers
Coral–Foraminiferal–coralline
algal floatstone/rudstone (R2)
MA-2, MA-5 –corals –milliods abundant near reef zone
–benthic foraminifers –Amphistegina
–coralline algae –alveolinids
–echinoderms –soritids
–rare Halimeda and bryozoans –arenaceous foraminifers
Late Oligocene coralline algal–Foraminiferal
packstone (C4a)
MA-1, MA-2, MA-10 –coralline algae (algal balls) –Heterosteginids absent slope
–benthic foraminifers –Spiroclypeus
–echinoderms –rotaliids
–occasional bryozoans and corals –lepidocyclinids
coralline algal–Foraminiferal
grainstone (C4b)
MA-2 –coralline algae (algal balls) –Heterosteginids rare proximal reef slope
–benthic foraminifers –Lepidocyclinids
–corals –rotaliids
–thick-tested Amphistegina
-miliolids
-occasional Spiroclypeus
Lepidocyclinid–Rhodolithic
rudstone (C5a)
MA-2 –large benthic foraminifers –large lepidocyclinids absent flank
–coralline algae (rhodolithes) –Operculina
–Halimeda –Heterostegina
–bryozoans –Cycloclypeus
–echinoderms –Spiroclypeus
–rare milliods an amphisteginids
Halimeda rudstone (C5b) MA-2 –Halimeda –large lepidocyclinids absent flank
–coralline algae –Operculina
–large benthic foraminifers –Heterostegina
–bryozoans –Cycloclypeus
–rare miliolids and amphistegini
Early Miocene Coral–Foraminiferal–floatsone/
rudstone (M4)
MA-9 –corals (mainly Alveopora) –lepidocyclinids abundant reef flat
–benthic foraminifers –Miogypsinoides
–coralline algae –Amphistegina
–Halimeda –miliolids
–occasional bryozoans,
echinoderms and dasyclads
–soritids
Foraminiferal–coralline
algal–grainstone facies (M3g2)
MA-8 –occasional echinoderms –miogypsinids absent shelf margin sand shoal
–miliolids
–soritids
–arenaceous foraminifers
F.Fournier
etal./Sedimentary
Geology175(2005)189–215
196
ds
Fig. 4. Distribution of the depositional facies in function of the overall buildup morphology.
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 197
4.1.1.2. Perireefal facies. Floatstone/rudstone facies
containing large coral fragments and associated
benthic foraminiferal assemblages were encountered
in the uppermost part of the Early Oligocene interval
(in MA-5) and in the Early Miocene south-eastern
shelf margin (in MA-9): 1) coral–foraminiferal–coral-
line algal floatstone/rudstone R2b facies (Early
Oligocene), 2) coral–foraminiferal floatstone/rudstone
M4 facies (Early Miocene).
4.1.1.3. Slope facies. The most proximal reef slope
environments are characterized by abundant benthic
foraminifers and red algal fragments, and common
coral fragments: 1) coral–algal floatstone R1c facies
(Early Oligocene), 2) coralline algal–foraminiferal
grainstone C4b facies (Late Oligocene).
Deeper slope facies are dominated by very large
and flattened benthic hyaline foraminifers and
calcareous algae: 1) coralline algal–foraminiferal
packstone (Late Oligocene) C4a facies, 2) lepido-
cyclinid–rhodolithic rudstone C5a facies (Late Oli-
gocene), 3) Halimeda rudstone C5b facies (Late
Oligocene).
4.1.1.4. Deep carbonate shelf facies. Approximately
1 m below the top of the Nido carbonates (near the
base of the Pagasa clastics), a packstone dominated by
planktonic foraminifers, fragments of large flattened
benthic foraminifers, and coralline algae was encoun-
tered in the MA-8 well. This facies (M0), overlying
subaerially exposed shallow inner-shelf facies, is
interpreted as deposited in open-marine and deep
carbonate shelf, during a phase of major deepening
(bdrowning sequenceQ, sensu Erlich et al., 1990,
1991).
4.1.2. Diagenesis
4.1.2.1. Diagenesis in the Malampaya inner-shelf
area. Two intervals with distinct diagenetic evolu-
tion were recognised in the Malampaya inner-shelf. In
the Late Eocene–Early Oligocene interval, except in
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215198
its uppermost part, dissolution of bioclasts remained
limited. Early marine isopacheous fringes and mete-
oric to early burial drusy cements are present. Low
porosity and permeability within grainstone layers
result from early marine and meteoric and/or early
burial cementation occluding most of the primary
intergranular pores, and from weak leaching. Arago-
nitic bioclasts (corals and Halimeda) are commonly
replaced by non-ferroan mosaic calcite spar.
Diagenesis in the interval between the uppermost
Early Oligocene and the late Early Miocene is
controlled by the circulation of meteoric waters that
frequently has occurred during subaerial exposures of
the shelf (Fournier et al., 2004). Leaching of skeletal
grains, vuggy porosity, paleosoil development, and
calcite drusy cementation are the most common
meteoric features in this stratigraphic interval.
4.1.2.2. Diagenesis in the south-western flank.
Diagenesis affecting the south-western buildup flank
can be inferred from Late Oligocene MA-3 cores (Fig.
5). The very high intergranular primary porosity of
these mud-poor and coarse-grained sediments has
been almost completely occluded through successive
diagenetic phases (Fig. 5, c and d):
(A) Earlier marine precipitation of isopacheous
fibrous calcite cements alternating with geopetal
sediment infills. Geopetal infills are composed of
laminated micrite (microbial origin?), structure-
less to micro-peloidal micrite, and faecal pellets.
(B) Later cementation phases: 1) coarse-grained
drusy to mosaic calcite cements; 2) dolomite
cements; 3) coarse mosaic calcite cement
occluding fractures.
The very coarse-grained texture of cements 1) and
3) points towards a burial diagenetic environment
rather than a meteoric environment. Moreover the lack
of leaching and the highly positive values of carbon
isotope ratios (from +1.08x PDB to +2.12x PDB in
the cored interval) suggest that this interval has
probably never been subject to meteoric diagenesis.
4.1.2.3. Diagenesis in the Eastern flank. Carbonates
from the eastern flank are penetrated by well MA-2,
within the upper part of the Late Oligocene interval.
This interval was subject to weak diagenetic alteration
such as early growth of marine thin isopacheous
calcite cements and leaching of skeletal grains. Burial
calcite or dolomite cements are lacking, contrasting
with the south-western flank.
4.2. Results from the seismic interpretation
4.2.1. Seismic expression of the Malampaya buildup
The buildup is characterized seismically by medium
to high-amplitude reflections with typical spacings of
20–30 ms (Fig. 1). Reflections through the overlying
clastics are of lower amplitude with spacings of 15–25
ms. There is a sharp transition between clastics and
carbonates. This boundary is interpreted as the external
envelope of the Malampaya buildup. In the eastern
flank, reflections show abrupt changes in amplitude
and dip at its vicinity. In the western flank, particularly
to the north, the boundary is underlined by a high-
amplitude reflector. Seismic reflections in the Pagasa
clastics onlap this boundary. In the western flank,
seismic reflectors have high average dip values: 188 forinternal reflectors and 348 for the flank envelope.
The structural interpretation of the 3D seismic data
showed that the most salient structural feature is a
SW–NE-oriented fault, which forms a crest at the
western margin of the carbonate system. This fault
represents the boundary between the continuous high-
amplitude carbonate shelf reflectors and discontinu-
ous, steeply dipping, medium-amplitude ones. In the
lower part of the carbonate buildup (Late Eocene–
Early Oligocene), seismic lines clearly indicate a
normal fault (Fig. 6, d: transect EF; Fig. 7, b: transect
IJK; Fig. 8, b: transect NO). However, seismic data do
not provide clear indication on the sense of displace-
ment during the Late Oligocene–Early Miocene. This
fault was sealed by the Pagasa shales. Minor normal
faults affect the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene
deposits in the North-Eastern termination of the
carbonate system forming a short and narrow horst
structure. The Northern area was interpreted as
affected by a SW–NE-oriented fold structure (Fig.
9a and d).
4.2.2. Definition and description of unconformity-
bounded units
Unconformity-bounded units were defined, based
on the envelopes identified from seismic reflections,
combined to the vertical and lateral variations in
Fig. 5. (a) Seismic profile (transect AB: see location on Fig. 7, a), in the southernmost area of the Malampaya buildup showing a thick carbonate
succession in the western flank and a relatively narrow backstepping and aggrading shelf (location of wells MA-3 and MA-9 is indicated); b)
interpretation of the transect AB; (c) lepidocyclinid-coralline algal C5a facies (Late Oligocene, MA-3): large lepidocyclinids (Lep.) and
Halimeda plates (Hal.) are visible; the intergranular space locally is geopetally infilled with micrite (gi) and the residual porosity is occluded
completely by drusy calcite cements (dc); (d) Halimeda-rich C5b facies (Late Oligocene, MA-3): Halimeda plates (Hal.) are dominant and the
intergranular space is occluded completely by an early marine fringe of isopacheous fibrous calcite (ic) and by later meteoric drusy calcite
cements (dc); (e) close-up of core from MA-9 showing coral rudstone M4 facies (Early Miocene) with pieces of branching arborescent
Alveopora (Alv.). Colour legend for seismic sections: negative amplitudes=red, positive amplitudes=black.
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 199
depositional and diagenetic environments (Fig. 3). The
stratigraphic framework defined in this study is
summarized in Fig. 2.
4.2.2.1. Unit SR1 (Priabonian–Rupelian). Unit SR1
is bounded at base by the top of pre-Nido clastics and at
top by horizon R1 (maximum unit thickness: 100 m).
Pre-Nido clastic deposits are characterized by a chaotic
and generally low-amplitude seismic facies. The top of
the pre-Nido clastics (or base Nido limestone) repre-
sents the upper envelope of this seismic facies. The
cores extracted from well MA-4 in the uppermost part
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215200
of the pre-Nido clastics document continental fluvial
deposits of Paleocene to Eocene age.
On the seismic profiles, this unit shows diverse
onlap terminations of high amplitude reflectors over
the pre-Nido clastics (Fig. 6, c: transect CD).
Carbonates sampled in this interval in MA-1, MA-2,
and MA-5 were interpreted as very shallow-water
inner-shelf deposits. Following this, these termina-
tions can be interpreted as coastal onlaps. Mapping of
these terminations reveals a rugged exposed top-
ography at the central part of the studied area that has
been progressively buried by carbonate deposits (Fig.
6, a and c). The morphological characteristics of the
seismic reflectors and the nature of depositional facies
recognised in this interval validate the interpretation
of a relatively flat and shallow, aggrading land-
attached shelf, developing over the pre-Nido top-
ography. The lowermost SR1 unit is relatively rich in
quartz sand grains (up to 50% of the total rock
volume). The upward decreasing content in quartz
grains in the Late Eocene–Early Oligocene is believed
to be related directly to the decreasing extension of the
exposed pre-Nido clastic deposits.
In the northeastern part of the Malampaya
carbonate system, a reduced horst, sealed by the
C1.1 reflector (Fig. 6, d: transect EF), was inter-
preted from seismic data. The age of the host
formation cannot accurately be determined: downlap
terminations of westward dipping unit SC1.1 reflec-
tors onto reflector R1 indicate that the horst may
have formed coeval with or prior to the deposition of
SC1.1, but it could have been active at the time of
the SR1 unit deposition. The westward-thinning or
possibly lack of Early Oligocene deposits at the top
of the SR1 unit in MA-1 and the eastward thickening
of this unit could be related to synsedimentary
eastward tilting of the Malampaya platform and/or
to a post-SR1 and pre-SC1.1 tilting and erosion of
the uplifted crest. In the southwestern area, a thick
interval (up to 200 m) of southwestward dipping,
high-amplitude and discontinuous reflectors onlaps
the steep flank of the tilted block (Fig. 5); it
Fig. 6. (a) Paleogeographic maps of the SR1 unit (Late Eocene to Earl
Oligocene to earliest Late Oligocene); (c) seismic profile (transect CD) and
(d) seismic profile (transect EF) and interpretation in the northernmost
terminations of an intra-SC1.1 reflector; (e) seismic profile (transect GH)
Colour legend for seismic sections: negative amplitudes=red, positive am
probably represents redeposited carbonates of Late
Eocene to Early Oligocene age.
4.2.2.2. Unit SC1.1 (Rupelian–earliest Chattian).
Unit SC1.1 is bounded at base by R1 reflector and at
top by C1.1 (maximum unit thickness: 80 m).
Reflector R1 is a continuous negative high-amplitude
reflector (Fig. 6, c, d and e). It results from the
contrast in acoustic impedance between low porosity
shallow inner-shelf grainstones affected by meteoric
to burial cementation and porous inner-shelf wacke-
stone/packstone (along the western edge) to deeper
outer-shelf wackestone/packstone (along the eastern
margin).
In the northern area, a phase of eastward tectonic
tilting of the SR1 platform prior to the deposition of
the SC1.1 unit is evidenced by the following
observations: 1) the eastward deepening at the base
of the unit (Fig. 3) as suggested by the lateral facies
change between MA-1 (shallow inner-shelf R3b
facies) and MA-2 (reef slope R1c facies), 2) the onlap
terminations of C1.1 or intra-SC1.1 reflectors over R1
(Fig. 5, b: transect AB; Fig. 6, e: transect GH).
In MA-1, this unit is exclusively composed of
protected inner-shelf deposits (Fig. 3). In MA-5, a
prograding pattern is clearly expressed by the
vertical facies succession showing slope deposits
overlain by coral floatstone–rudstone from perireefal
zones, in turn, overtopped by protected inner-shelf
deposits. The same succession with a slightly thinner
inner-shelfal interval, is present in MA-2. In the
northern part of the Malampaya buildup, in the
vicinity of wells MA-1, MA-2, and MA-5, the
development of the SC1.1 unit is interpreted to
result from the eastward progradation of a reefal
platform, from an initial topographic high located
along the western edge.
High-frequency subaerial exposures are suspected
to have occurred in the uppermost part of this interval
(Fig. 3). This is based on the recurrence of calcrete
features (MA-5) and negative carbon isotope peaks
(MA-2 and MA-5). The C1.1 reflector marks the top
y Oligocene); (b) paleogeographic maps of the SC1.1 unit (Early
interpretation showing onlaps of unit SR1 over the Pre-Nido clastics;
buildup area, showing onlap of C1.1 over R1 and downlap/toplap
and interpretation showing onlaps of the SC1.1 reflectors over R1.
plitudes=black.
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 201
Fig. 7. (a) Paleogeographic map of the SC1.2 unit (Late Oligocene); (b) seismic profile (transect IJK) and interpretation showing onlap
termination of an intra SC1.1 reflector over R1, C1.2 over C1.1 and downlaps of C2.3 onto C2.2; (c) facies and sequence interpretation of the
Oligocene cored interval from MA-5 well, showing progradational and aggradational pattern of units SC1.1 and SC1.2, respectively; (d) seismic
profile (transect LM) and interpretation showing the truncation of units SR1 and SC1.2, below the base of unit SC1.2 (in MA-4, the Late
Oligocene inner-shelf deposits directly overlie the Pre-Nido clastics). Colour legend for seismic sections: negative amplitudes=red, positive
amplitudes=black.
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215202
of this interval, which is characterized by high-
frequency cyclic alternation of tightly cemented and
vuggy layers (see erratic well-log porosity response in
Fig. 3).
In the northeastern area, seismic reflections indi-
cate the presence of a very small-sized horst–graben
system. The westward dipping clinoforms with down-
lap and toplap terminations respectively against the
Fig. 8. (a) Paleogeographic map of units SC2.1, SC2.2 and SC2.3 (Late Oligocene-earliest Miocene?); (b) seismic profile (transect NO) and
interpretation displaying various downlap terminations (intra-C1.1 reflector onto R1, C2.1 onto C1.2 and C2.3 onto C2.2); (c) seismic profile
(transect PQ) and interpretation showing toplap termination of reflector C1.2 against C2.1. Colour legend for seismic sections: negative
amplitudes=red, positive amplitudes=black.
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 203
R1 and C1.1 reflectors (Fig. 6, d: transect EF) are
interpreted to represent the infill of the graben by
prograding slope deposits. There are no well data
available in this part of the buildup that could confirm
this interpretation.
4.2.2.3. Unit SC1.2 (Chattian). The base and the top
of the unit SC1.2 relate to the C1.1 and C1.2 horizons,
respectively (maximum unit thickness: 50 m). Hori-
zon C1.2 separates the top of cyclically exposed,
shallow inner-shelf deposits with numerous cemented
layers (meteoric diagenesis) from overlying unex-
posed deep-water deposits. The relatively constant
facies association below C1.2, in all of the wells that
reached this interval (MA-1, MA-2, MA-3, MA-4,
MA-5, MA-10), gives evidence of deposition on a
relatively flat inner shelf at depths less than 20 m. In
addition, in the northeastern part of the buildup,
reflector C1.2 is parallel to the underlying reflectors;
this clearly signs flat-topped shelves. The local toplap
termination of reflector C1.2 (Fig. 8, c), therefore, is
interpreted as a truncation that has resulted from a
local deformation of the carbonate platform rather
than a reef-like topography.
In MA-5, i.e. the best documented well, Fournier et
al. (2004) showed a cyclic alternation of shallow inner-
shelf facies (C1a, C1b, C2, and C3), interrupted by
subaerial exposure surfaces. The authors interpreted
this interval as an aggrading flat rimmed-shelf with
frequent exposure surfaces. The absence of significant
lateral facies changes below and above reflector C1.1
and the onlap termination of reflector C1.2 over C1.1
(Fig. 7, b: transect IJK) suggests that SC1.1 shallow
shelf deposits have been deformed tectonically prior to
Fig. 9. (a) Paleogeographic map of units SM1.1, SM1.2 and SM2, SM3 and SM4 (Early Miocene); (b) seismic profile (transect RS) and
interpretation showing a progressive backstep of a relatively narrow shelf; (c) neutron and density well-logs, facies and paleoenvironments of
side-wall samples from well MA-8 (units SM3 and SM4); (d) seismic profile (transect TU) and interpretation showing the onlap of unit SM3
over reflector M2. Colour legend for seismic sections: negative amplitudes=red, positive amplitudes=black.
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215204
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 205
and/or during the deposition of SC1.2. The resulting
topographic highs are mainly located along the west-
ern edge (Fig. 7, a). In MA-4 well, Late Oligocene
SC1.2 carbonate deposits directly overlies the pre-
Nido clastics. The seismic lines show toplap termi-
nations of R1 and C1.1 below C1.2 (Fig. 7, d: transect
LM). These terminations could reflect an eastward
tilting and truncation of SR1 and SC1.1 units below
the Late Oligocene SC1.2 deposits, or could be related
to SR1 and SC1.1 progradations.
4.2.2.4. Unit SC2.1 (Chattian). Unit SC1.2 is
bounded at the base by the C1.2 unconformity and at
the top by C2.1 (maximum unit thickness: 60 m). C2.1
reflector exhibits a flat, highly negative amplitude
segment passing into a low amplitude, westward
dipping segment that downlaps reflector C1.2 (Fig. 8,
b: transect NO). This reflector is steeply dipping
eastward and shows a decrease in amplitude. The
depositional and diagenetic patterns observed in MA-2
indicate that the high amplitude, flat segment repre-
sents a shallow shelf that has undergone subaerial
exposure; the lower amplitude and dipping segments
could represent the slopes of the small-sized buildup
which are restricted to the northeastern part of the
carbonate system. This interpretation is supported by
the occurrence of depositional facies, above C1.2,
expressing calm inner-shelf environments in MA-5
(facies M1) and deeper, open environment in MA-1
(facies C4a).
In wells MA-1 and MA-2, this interval exhibits a
shallowing-upward trend, from deep open marine
slope (C4a) to perireefal and/or inner-shelf facies
(C4b, C1b, C2). The new seismic data showed a
small-size flat-topped carbonate buildup in the north-
western part of the Malampaya carbonate system (Fig.
8). This unit results probably from aggradation and
progradation of a carbonate shelf, initially located
along a SW–NE direction, toward the SE and NW. The
local truncation of reflector C1.2 just below the high-
amplitude and flat segment of reflector C2.1 (Fig. 8, c:
transect PQ) strongly suggests that the carbonate
platform has developed on the highest area of a
tectonically deformed foundation. At the top of the
unit, the initial structure seems to be sealed completely.
4.2.2.5. Unit SC2.2 (Chattian). Unit SC2.2,
bounded at base by C2.1 and topped by C2.2, relates
to a relatively flat, aggrading shelf, deposited in a
period of relative tectonic quiescence (maximum unit
thickness: 60 m). The very erratic porosity and sonic
log responses through the whole interval may have
resulted from repeated exposure events. The seismic
profiles and well data from MA-2 provide support for
a moderate retrogradation of the eastern shelf margin
over C2.1 horizon (Fig. 8).
4.2.2.6. Unit SC2.3 (undifferentiated
Chattian–Aquitanian). Unit SC2.3 is topped by the
C2.3 horizon that displays a downlap termination onto
C2.2 (Fig. 7, b: transect IJK; Fig. 8, b: transect NO).
This unit consists of a narrow carbonate body (less
than 500 m wide) that developed along the western
edge (maximum unit thickness: 40 m). In well MA-1,
the basal deposits of SC2.3 relate to relatively deep
and open slope or outer-shelf environments (facies
C4a). They are overlain by shallower and more
protected inner-shelf deposits (facies M2a). The
chaotic porosity and sonic log records, the presence
of meteoric cements, microkarsts and the negative
carbon isotope values indicate that this unit has
undergone several exposure events during deposition.
This unit has resulted probably from southeastward
progradation of a narrow carbonate buildup that
initially developed on the top of the uplifted western
edge.
4.2.2.7. Units SM1.1 to SM3
(Aquitanian–Burdigalian). Similarly to C2.2 and
C2.3, reflectors M1.1 to M3 materialize tops of
intervals with erratic sonic and porosity log responses
that correspond to alternations of metre-thick, highly
porous, and firmly cemented layers. The recurrence of
caliche crusts, alveolar septal structures in these
intervals strongly suggest that they have been subject
to frequent subaerial exposure (Fournier et al., 2004).
These intervals are overlain by beds with small
variations in porosity and sonic that are typical for
deeper inner-shelf deposits affected by moderate
dissolution and low cementation. Such a vertical
succession is consistent with the effects of cumulative
diagenesis associated with parasequence stacking
patterns in a third-order sequence (Tucker, 1993).
The seismic reflectors that present a clear contrast
between erratic intervals, composed of alternating
porous and tightly cemented beds and intervals with
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215206
moderate to high porosity, could therefore be regarded
as third-order sequence boundaries (Fig. 10).
Units SM1.1 to SM2 have aggraded with a minor
retrograding component of the eastern margin. Unit
SM1.1 onlaps the flanks of the SC2.3 buildup (Fig. 8,
b: transect NO). The development of an aggrading
protected inner-shelf that onlaps the 40- to 50-m-thick
SC2.3 buildup implies an important relative sea-level
fall that would have occurred after deposition of the
SC2.3 unit. The subsequent relative sea-level rise has
catalysed the aggradation of the carbonate shelf
afterwards.
After deposition of the SM2 unit, tectonic folding
of the carbonate buildup along a SW–NE axis in the
northeastern part of the Malampaya carbonate system
that occurred prior to and/or during the deposition of
the SM3 unit, is evidenced by seismic records and
well data as follows: 1) onlaps of unit SM3 over
reflector M2 (Fig. 9, d: transect TU), 2) eastward
thinning of unit SM3 and 3) geometric correspond-
ence between the area of development of the fold and
that of the SM3 shallow-water carbonate deposits
(Fig. 9, a). Unit SM3 displays the same stacking
pattern, typical of inner shelf deposits, in all of the
wells reaching this interval (MA-1, -5, -7, -8). This
provides support for the onlapping nature of the
Fig. 10. Relationship between high- and lower-frequency cyclicity, deposit
tops are characterized by an increase in frequency of subaerial exposure,
energy seismic reflection takes place at the interface between erratic- and
seismic terminations over the M2 reflector. In the case
of a downlap termination, slope or open shelf
environment deposits should be expected in MA-5,
instead of shallow inner-shelf deposits. In the northern
margin of the buildup, beyond the northern termi-
nation of the SW–NE fold, the buildup is restricted to
a 700-m-wide belt located along the western edge
(Fig. 9, b: transect RS).
4.2.2.8. Unit SM4 (Upper Burdigalian). The top of
the uppermost carbonate unit is characterized by a
high-amplitude negative reflection representing the
transition between tightly cemented shallow inner-
shelf carbonates and overlying planktonic foraminifer-
bearing clastics. This reflector locally shows downlap
terminations onto reflector M3 with decrease in
amplitude in the dipping segment of the horizon.
Unit SM4 is characterized by a westward back-
stepping of the eastward margin. In the southern part
of the Malampaya buildup, a narrow reef tract,
characterized by a decreasing upward width has
developed on the eastward tilted SM1.2 platform
(Fig. 7, d; Fig. 5, a and b).
In MA-1, the presence of meteoric cement and
highly negative values of carbon isotope ratios
(�8.1x PDB at 2956.60 m, i.e. 1 m below the top
ional and diagenetic facies, well-log and seismic responses. The unit
resulting in an erratic porosity and sonic well-log response. A high-
high-porosity homogeneous intervals.
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 207
carbonates) indicates that subaerial exposure of the
buildup occurred prior to the final drowning. The
analysis of the uppermost part of the Nido Limestone
and of the lowermost Pagasa clastics from MA-8 (Fig.
11) provides new insights into the timing and forcing
of the final drowning event. The side-wall sample
extracted from 3777.50 m hole-depth (Fig. 11, a)
exhibits miliolid and soritid-dominated, shallow
inner-shelf facies (facies M3h), affected by intense
leaching and meteoric to shallow burial cementation.
The 3773.50-m-deep sample (at 0.50m below the top
of carbonates) is a planktonic foraminifer-dominated
packstone, with fragments of echinoderms, coralline
algae and large benthic foraminifers (facies M0, Fig.
9, c). This facies is indicative of a deep open marine
environment. There are no siliciclastic particles in this
sample. In addition, low gamma-ray values (b40 API)
Fig. 11. Drowning event in MA-8: (a) gamma-ray, density, and porosity
clastics; carbonate facies and paleoenvironments are indicated; (b) san
foraminifers (Pl.), and planktonic foraminifer-bearing carbonate lithoclasts
M0 with numerous planktonic foraminifers (Pl.), echinoderm fragments
recrystallised coral fragments (Cor.), Miliolids (Mil.); dissolution vugs (V
were measured, also suggesting minor terrigenous
supply (Fig. 9, a). At 3772.50 m depth (at 0.50 m
above the top carbonates), a poorly sorted sandstone
was present (Fig. 9, b). It contains common carbonate
lithoclasts, most of which are reworked from the
underlying M0 facies. Despite the relatively few data
available from the drowned interval, three observa-
tions can be made concerning the demise of the
Malampaya buildup: 1) a deepening event occurred
after an exposure episode as suggested by intense
leaching of the shallow inner-shelf facies M3h at
3777.50 m depth; 2) this deepening event is of Late
Burdigalian age as indicated by the presence of
Globigerinoides sicanus in the 3773.50-m-deep sam-
ple; 3) the oldest evidence of significant terrigenous
supply (3772.50 m depth) occurs above the clastic-
free M0 deep shelf environment facies.
well-logs from the uppermost Nido Limestone and basal Pagasa
dstone composed of sub-angular quartz grains (Qz.), planktonic
(Lith.), representing the basal Pagasa clastics in MA-8; (c) packstone
(Ech.); (d) coral-foraminiferal-coralline algal packstone M3, with
) and drusy calcite cements (dc) are visible.
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215208
5. Discussion
5.1. Controls on carbonate sedimentation
Based on seismic interpretation and rock sample
analysis, the following model for the carbonate
buildup development is proposed (Fig. 12). Initial
topography, differential subsidence at regional to local
scales, faulting, eustacy, climate, and the type of
carbonate producers influenced by varying terrige-
nous and nutrient input are known to be the main
controlling factors of carbonate platform growth (e.g.
Longman, 1981; Crevello et al., 1989; Hallock and
Schlager, 1986; Montaggioni, 2000; Masse and
Montaggioni, 2001). The effects of ocean currents
and wind circulation patterns, however, are difficult to
recognize. The high-frequency cyclicity typifying the
Late Oligocene and Early Miocene inner-shelf depos-
its could reflect a glacio-eustatic control, but episodic
tectonism could have also generated such metre-scale
cycles (Fournier et al., 2004). Possible salinity
fluctuations probably have had low impact on the
development of this system; strongly restricted or
brackish environments were not recognized in the
available rock dataset (Table 3).
5.1.1. Topographic control on carbonate growth
initiation (Late Eocene)
Numerous authors have discussed the predominant
role of topography in the initiation of carbonate
buildup development in various tectonic settings
(e.g. Longman, 1985; Fulthorpe and Schlanger,
1989; Purdy and Bertram, 1993; Wilson et al.,
2000). In the North Palawan block, the settlement
sites of carbonate buildups and associated hydro-
carbon accumulations are restricted to the crests of
tilted blocks formed during the rifting phase of the
South China Sea (Wiliams, 1997). In Malampaya, due
to the presence of exposed area on the highest points
of the tilted block, the carbonate system developed as
land-attached shelves onlapping an uneven topogra-
phy. The initial topography has not simply controlled
the location and the morphology of carbonate
systems, but has also influenced the composition of
the carbonate rocks. The basal carbonates are rela-
tively rich in quartz sand, probably derived from the
pre-Nido hinterland clastic sources. The initial pre-
Nido basement highs were buried by carbonate
deposits during the Late Eocene, within the SR1 unit.
The relatively important terrigenous supply during
this early stage of the Malampaya buildup develop-
ment may have been deleterious to coral settlement
and growth. It also explains the extreme scarcity of
coral remains in the Late Eocene carbonates, since
such continental material may have been associated to
high nutrient levels as observed in modern land-
bordering carbonate systems (Ambatsian et al., 1997;
Mc Culloch et al., 2003).
5.1.2. Subsidence and tectonic deformation of the
Malampaya buildups
Deposition and preservation of up to 600 m of
shallow-water carbonates indicate that regional sub-
sidence was the dominant control on accommodation
space. Changes in the geodynamic pattern of the
southern margin of the South-China Sea from the
Eocene to the Miocene probably induced changes in
regional subsidence rates during the Malampaya
buildup growth. In addition, variations in the lateral
unit thickness, lateral facies changes and the nature of
seismic terminations show that tectonic processes
(tilting, faulting, and local folding) operating during
the building growth has resulted in local variations in
subsidence rates or local uplifts.
During the Late Eocene to Early Oligocene, the
Malampaya shelf was controlled by two tectonic
processes (Fig. 12): 1) an eastward tilting of the
carbonate platform along the western fault and 2)
block faulting in the North-East generating a short and
narrow graben within the Malampaya shelf. The
eastward tilting promoted non-deposition and/or
erosion of the uplifted crest (during SR1 unit
deposition) and possibly controlled the prograding
pattern of the SC1.1 unit. The westward, steep dipping
clinoforms present in the north-eastern graben sug-
gests that most of the fault movement occurred prior
to and/or at the top of unit SR1; however, faults may
still have been active during the SC1.1 unit deposi-
tion. The north-eastern graben was completely filled
at the top of this unit. The end of the rifting phase
occurred at the top of the SR1 unit boundary or within
the SC1.1 unit. The small-scale internal architecture of
these syn-rift deposits cannot be determined directly
from seismic lines due to insufficient vertical reso-
lution (25 m). Bosence et al. (1998) showed that, in
syn-rift carbonate systems, the internal architecture is
Fig. 12. Model for the development history the Malampaya buildup and facies distribution, from the northern area along a MA-1–MA-5–MA-2 transect. The possible controlling
parameters are indicated.
F.Fournier
etal./Sedimentary
Geology175(2005)189–215
209
Table 3
Main expected environmental factors and their effects on the development of the Malampaya buildup
Sedimentologic, diagenetic,
and stratigraphic features of
Malampaya buildup
Main possible controlling factors
Initial
topography
Regional
subsidence
Logical tectonic
deformation/differential
subsidence
Eustatism Climate Nutrient
supplies
Wind/
currents
Type of
carbonate
producers
Buildup location x
Buildup dimensions
(extention/thickness)
x x
Type of carbonate shelf:
land attached/isolated
x x x x
Intra-inner shelf onlaps x
Development of
small-size buildups
x x x
Lateral variations of
sequence thickness
x x x
Buildup asymmetry x x
High-frequency cyclicity x x x
Protected versus open
signature of inner-shelf
environments
x
Depositional facies x x x x
Meteoric-dominated
evolution
x x x x
Buildup drowning x x
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215210
mainly governed by the interplay between fault
movement rates and carbonate production rates.
In the lower part of the Late Oligocene, prior to
and/or during the deposition of unit SC1.2, local uplift
occurred along the western fault and in the central
area (Fig. 7). This event resulted in the development
of partially land-attached shelves onlapping carbonate
islands. Episodic uplift of these topographic highs
could have caused the development of the exposure-
capped high-frequency cycles reported from this
interval.
After the deposition of unit SC1.2, a high formed
in the north-eastern part of the buildup (Fig. 12). Unit
SC1.1 was locally eroded; a carbonate platform
started to grow from this high and prograded to the
north-west and to the south-east (unit SC2.1). The
SW–NE paleo-high orientation could be related to the
reactivation of a Late Eocene–Early Oligocene syn-
rift fault.
After a period of tectonic quiescence in the
uppermost part of the Oligocene (aggrading unit
SC2.2), a narrow carbonate buildup (300 m width)
developed along the western fault (unit SC2.3). Two
interpretations can be offered to explain the prefer-
ential development of the carbonate buildup along the
Malampaya western margin: 1) a topographic high
was created along the western fault by eastward tilting
of the carbonate shelf or by local bending due to
transpressive movement along the fault. The carbo-
nate system drowned in the distal parts whereas
carbonate production kept pace with relative sea-level
in the shallower parts, 2) oceanographic conditions
(presence of currents along the western flank, water
chemistry, prevailing wind direction) created a variety
of environments more or less favourable for reef
development.
During the early Miocene (units SM2 and SM3),
differential subsidence, controlled by the reactivation
of a SW–NE-oriented high, resulted in a significant
westward thickening of the inner-shelf deposits. The
presence of shallow protected inner-shelf deposits in
the actively subsiding area (as evidenced in MA-1,
MA-7, MA-8, close to the western margin) indicates
that carbonate accumulation rates have been high
enough to fill up the main part of the accommodation
space. The high-frequency cyclicity and associated
exposure events recognized in this interval (Fournier
et al., 2004) could have been controlled by episodic
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 211
uplifts (or folding) and subsequent flooding of the
north-eastern area of the Malampaya shelf. The
asymmetry of the Malampaya buildup during the
Early Miocene between the northern (broad platform
interior) and the southern area (narrow platform
interior) is possibly related to the development of this
SW–NE oriented structure.
Concerning the last stage of buildup development
(Burdigalian unit SM4), the same interpretation as for
unit SC2.3 can explain the westward backstep of the
shallow-water carbonates.
The most conspicuous features are the asymmetric
sedimentation patterns along the flanks of the Malam-
paya system. Whereas the eastern flank and the
adjacent basin are almost completely sediment starved,
the western flank exhibits thick carbonate deposits (up
to 300 m). The cored interval of well MA-3 (Fig. 3)
represents relatively proximal part of the western
flank; deposition is probably largely autochtonous
(facies C5a and C5b), and took place in the mesophotic
zone as indicated by the dominance of large and
flattened benthonic foraminifers and coralline algae
(mainly Sporolithon). However, in the most distal part
of the western flank and in the basin, carbonate
sediments were probably in large part redeposited
(Fig. 1). Two factors can be invoked to explain this
asymmetry: 1) the western shelf margin and slope were
destabilized episodically by gravity processes and
carbonate material has redeposited in the basin. Fault
activity could have enhanced such a destabilization; 2)
redeposited material could have derived from the shelf
by winds (prevailing SW direction) or currents. A
similar asymmetrical depositional pattern was docu-
mented in the Miocene carbonate platform of the
Queensland Plateau, northeastern Australia (Betzler et
al., 1995): calciturbidite development is predominant,
respectively, on the leeward side of the reefs during the
stages of active reef growth, and on the windward side
during the stages of reef emergence.
5.1.3. Influence of climate, oceanic factors, and
composition of biological assemblages
The type of carbonate producers is an important
control on the development of the Malampaya
buildups. Although high-magnesium calcite bioclasts,
i.e. benthonic foraminifers and coralline algae are
dominant, aragonitic frame-builders, i.e. corals, are
common in the Malampaya inner-shelf deposits
during the Early Oligocene–Early Miocene. The
occurrence of coarse-grained coral rudstone facies
(facies R2 and M4: Table 2) probably indicates the
proximity of coral reefs. Fournier et al. (2004)
discussed the role played by coral-reef rims in the
nature of inner-shelf facies successions. Although the
dominance of benthonic foraminifers and coralline
algae has resulted in lower rates of carbonate
production, compared to those reported from modern
tropical coralgal associations, accumulation rates
estimated in the inner-shelf appear to be generally
sufficient to infill the accommodation space created
by structural deformation. Carbonate sedimentation
has led to form low-relief shelves.
The type of carbonate producers probably is known
to be strongly influenced by oceanographic and
climatic factors such as currents, nutrient levels, water
temperatures, and prevailing winds (Pomar et al.,
2004; Vecsei, 2004). In the Malampaya inner-shelf
environments, the green alga Halimeda is common in
the SR1 unit (Late Eocene–Early Oligocene) whereas
it is lacking completely from units SC1.2 to SM3 (late
Early Oligocene to Early Miocene). However, Hal-
imeda algae are common in the Early Oligocene to
Early Miocene slope and outer shelf environments;
they have formed Halimeda sands (Fig. 5, b).
Halimeda is known to preferentially develop in
nutrient-rich waters (Davies and Marshall, 1985;
Drew and Abel, 1985). The disappearance of Hal-
imeda in the Malampaya inner-shelf above the top of
unit SR1 could be related to changes in nutrient
concentrations and current regime in relation to the
opening of the South China Sea. The persistence or
occasional occurrence of Halimeda in the buildup
flanks could be attributed to locally active upwellings.
This interpretation was invoked to explain the
presence of Halimeda sands along the Great Barrier
Reef slopes at depths down to 100 m (Drew and Abel,
1988). The difference in buildup geometry and type
between the SR1 unit and the overlying stratigraphic
units could originate from the difference in the type of
carbonate producers (Halimeda-rich open shelf versus
coral–foraminifer-rich rimmed platform).
At diverse stages of its development, the Malam-
paya carbonate system displayed an asymmetric
morphology, particularly during the growth of narrow
buildups along the western margin (units SC2.3 and
SM4). In Cenozoic South-East Asian carbonate
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215212
systems, platform asymmetry is explained usually by
the influence of dominant paleowinds and paleocur-
rents (Cucci and Clark, 1993: Late Eocene to Miocene
Gunung Putih carbonate complex; Rudolph and
Lehmann, 1989: Miocene Natuna Platform; Grotsch
and Mercadier, 1999: Malampaya buildups). Frame-
work builders as corals have developed chiefly in
agitated and oxygenated waters at the windward side;
skeletal grains and muds were moved off the leeward
side. As discussed above (Section 5.1.3), such an
asymmetry could have resulted from the development
of carbonate buildups, during sea-level highstands, at
the top of tectonically active topographic highs along
the western fault. A similar pattern is present in the
Pedro Bank (Nicaragua Rise), where higher calcitur-
bidite supply during highstands in sea level is
documented (Andresen et al., 2003; Glaser and
Droxler, 1991).
Climate is known to strongly influence the proper-
ties of carbonate reservoirs since they control both
depositional patterns and diagenetic alteration (Sun
and Esteban, 1994). The development of reefal
environments during the Early Oligocene to Early
Miocene required warm sea surface temperatures
(humid equatorial to arid tropical conditions). In the
Late Oligocene–Early Miocene, the Malampaya shelf
has exhibited a meteoric-dominated diagenetic evolu-
tion affecting the Nido carbonates, that is more likely
related to a prevailing humid equatorial climate
favouring severe leaching and caliche development.
In contrast, the Late Eocene to Early Oligocene
Malampaya shelf is characterized by reduced meteoric
diagenetic alteration that could be related to a less
humid climate and/or few exposure events during this
interval. However, no evidence of arid conditions was
found in this interval and the sediments deposited are
totally devoid of evaporites or dolomites. Compared to
the Late Oligocene–Early Miocene interval, the Late
Eocene–Early Oligocene shelf deposits do not display
any high-frequency cyclicity. Such a change in strati-
graphic and diagenetic patterns in the mid-Oligocene
can be explained in terms of climate. The global
cooling event, penecontemporaneous to the Early–
Late Oligocene transition is recorded in the Indo-
Pacific region (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989). It
could have modified the climatic regime of South-East
Asia through glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuation,
which favoured high-frequency cyclicity and repeated
exposures on the Malampaya shelf. In addition, the
increasing upward imprint of meteoric diagenesis
through the Oligocene could be related to the south-
ward drifting of the Palawan block (from 208N at 35
Ma to 128N at 15 Ma, after Hall, 2002). This motion
could have shifted the Malampaya buildup to lower
latitudes, from tropical to equatorial conditions. As
discussed by Fournier et al. (2004), the onset of the
East Asian monsoon in the earliest Miocene has
probably influenced the nature and distribution of
barriers along the platform and therefore the lateral and
vertical distribution of the inner-shelf facies (Late
Oligocene cycles generated in protected settings
versus Early Miocene cycles originated under open-
marine conditions).
5.1.4. Drowning of the Malampaya buildup
Siliciclastic supplies from the mainland of North
Palawan, that was uplifted and exposed in the latest
Early Miocene–earliest Middle Miocene are inter-
preted as being the main control of platform drowning
in the North Palawan offshore area (Lighty et al., 1983;
Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989). However, in Malam-
paya, the earliest evidence of significant terrigenous
input is observed above the clastic-free M0 deep
carbonate shelf facies. This siliciclastic input occurred
subsequently to the deepening stage. Therefore, they
cannot therefore be considered to be responsible for
the drowning of the Malampaya buildup. Hence
drowning may have resulted from: 1) a rapid relative
sea level rise, related to the downward flexure of the
North Palawan Block, which outpaced carbonate
accumulation, 2) inimical waters (anoxia, excess in
nutrient level) limiting rates of carbonate production.
The second hypothesis is supported by the reappear-
ance of Halimeda in MA-8, at 6 meters below the top
of inner-shelf carbonates (Fig. 11). As mentioned
above, the growth of Halimeda beds is favoured by
high nutrient content. In Malampaya, increases in
nutrient level may have been related to the emergence
of the North Palawan Island.
5.2. Comparison with other Cenozoic tropical carbo-
nate systems
5.2.1. Buildup initiation
Many Cenozoic carbonate platforms initially have
developed on the footwall crests of tilted blocks in
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215 213
extensional settings: the Eocene to Miocene Tonasa
Platform, Sulawesi (Wilson et al., 2000), the Peutra
Formation, Sumatra (Collins et al., 1996), the Liuhua
platform, South China Sea (Erlich et al., 1990),
Miocene–Pliocene Segitiga platform, east Natuna
sea, Indonesia (Bachtel et al., 2003), the Oligo-
Miocene Salalah platform, South Oman (Borgomano
and Peters, 2004). Similar to the Late Eocene–Early
Oligocene Malampaya carbonate system, the Tonasa
platform initially formed as a land-attached shelf and
comprised clastic-rich basal deposits. In the Carib-
bean region, the initiation of the Pleistocene–Hol-
ocene reefal buildup was largely controlled by
antecedent topography inherited from the tectonic
deformation of underlying siliciclastic deposits
(Esker et al., 1998; Ferro et al., 1999; Purdy et al.,
2003).
5.2.2. Influence of local tectonics
There are few published models in the literature,
documenting the tectonic control on the development
of South-East Asian Tertiary carbonate systems. The
formation of the Late Eocene to Miocene Gunung
Putih carbonate complex was influenced by differ-
ential subsidence that controlled the distribution of
carbonates on the platform and favoured the develop-
ment of small-sized buildups on structural highs
(Cucci and Clark, 1993). In the Miocene–Pliocene
Segitiga carbonate system, east Natuna sea, faulting
controlled the distribution of facies and the establish-
ment of localized buildups on structural highs,
whereas local differential subsidence caused lateral
variations in sequence stacking pattern throughout the
platform (Bachtel et al., 2003). The syn-rift develop-
ment of the Tonasa platform (Wilson et al., 2000)
could be regarded as an analogue of the Late Eocene
and Early Oligocene series from Malampaya: syn-
tilting deposition of shallow-water on the footwall,
thick successions of redeposited carbonates in the
hangingwall. Numerous other examples of syn-rift
carbonate development are documented in the Gulf of
Suez (Burchette, 1988; Bosence et al., 1998; Cross et
al., 1998).
Unlike Malampaya, the establishment and the
development of Miocene carbonate buildups, in the
offshore area of south Palawan (Rehm, 2003) and
Vietnam (Mayall and Cox, 1988), are not significantly
influenced by tectonics.
5.2.3. Platform drowning
One of the best documented drowning sequence
from the South-East Asian Cenozoic is that of the
Early Miocene Liuhua Platform, offshore People’s
Republic of China (Erlich et al., 1990, 1991). Similar
to Malampaya, the following features were reported
from the Liuhua Platform: 1) development of an
asymmetric platform prior to drowning, 2) deposition
of planktonic and flattened benthic foraminifer-rich
packstone in the uppermost section of the carbonate
series. In addition, relative sea-level rise and environ-
mental deterioration (excluding excess in clastic
supply) were invoked as possible causes for platform
drowning.
Other examples of subaerial exposure prior to
buildup drowning were documented in south-east
Asia: Middle Miocene Anepahan A-1X site, offshore
south Palawan (Rehm, 2003), Middle Miocene
Luconia Province, offshore Sarawak (Epting, 1980,
Vahrenkamp et al., 2003).
6. Conclusions
The combined analysis of rock, well-log and 3D-
seismic data shows that the Malampaya carbonate
system has recorded tectonic, climatic, eustatic,
oceanographic events and changes in benthic com-
munity structures during the Late Eocene–Early
Miocene period.
The structural relief created by block tilting, in the
late Eocene, during the rifting phase of the South
China Sea has determined the size, shape, and
location of the initial carbonate buildup.
The growth of large frame-building organisms such
as scleractinians has led to the formation of a reefal
rimmed-shelf topography during the Early Oligocene–
Early Miocene. Accumulation rates on the inner-shelf
have generally been high enough to form flat shelves
from initially uneven topography.
The active deformation during sedimentation
largely controlled the internal architecture (develop-
ment of small-sized buildups on highs, internal onlaps
in inner shelfal deposits, truncation of strata) and the
asymmetry of the buildup. The episodic reactivation
of structural highs could have been responsible for the
high-frequency cyclicity recorded in the inner-shelf,
but the role of glacio-eustacy cannot be ruled out.
F. Fournier et al. / Sedimentary Geology 175 (2005) 189–215214
Thick redeposited carbonates in the western basin are
thought to result from the episodic collapse of the
western shelf margin collapse, possibly in relation
with the western faulting activity.
The effects of oceanic currents and winds are
difficult to evaluate: they could have favoured the
development of linear buildups along the western
edge. Current-driven nutrient supplies could have
controlled the occurrence of certain skeletal compo-
nents such as Halimeda. Local nutrient excess in
oceanic water at the end of the Early Miocene is
regarded as a possible cause for final drowning of the
buildup, together with an abrupt increase in sub-
sidence rates.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by Shell Philippines
Exploration B.V. (SPEX). Their support and approval
to publish this paper are gratefully acknowledged. We
especially thank D. Neuhaus (SPEX). This paper
significantly benefited from the experience of F.
Abbots-Guardiola (Shell International, Houston,
USA), C. Mercadier, P. Cassidy, W. Asyee, and G.
Warrlich (Shell Carbonate Team, Rijswijk, The Neth-
erlands). This manuscript was greatly improved by
reviews from J. Reijmer, C. Everts and G. Warrlich.
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