Difficulties in Implementing Level Three Leadership in Cross-Cultural
Management“Examining Data from Japanese and American Subsidiaries in Thailand”
Timothy Dean KeeleyProfessor International Management
Kyushu Sangyo UniversityFukuoka, Japan
A quick view of
Level Three Leadership
James G . S . ClawsonProfessor of Business Administration
The Darden Graduate School of Business
University of Virginia
Developed by:
Level Three Leadership : Getting Below the Surface Third Edition (James G. Clawson, P
- rentice Hall, 2005)
Leadership is about affecting human activity,
which can be thought of as occurring at three levels:
Level 1: Behavior
Level 2: Thoughts
Level 3: VABEs
Leadership is also about managing energy, first in
yourself and then in others.
Targeting Level 1, 2 or 3 is about managing energy.
If your force at Level 1, you will get passive resistance.
Level 1: Behavior
simply what people do, that which we can observe
tries to manage behavior in isolation
Level 1 Leadership
The tradition of scientific management Frederick Taylor’s time motion studies assigned little importance to employees’ inner thinking
Level One Leadership does not seek input
Level 2: Thoughts
That which we are immediately aware of in ourselves, our conscious processes
Focuses on employee thinking, "Here's your job; here are the outcomes I expect . What do you think is the best way to achieve them? "
Level 2 Leadership
Level 3: VABEs
Is aware of and influences people’s values and basic assumptions, it has the potential of being far more powerful than level-one
leadership.
At this level people hold a set of values, assumptions, beliefs, and expectations
(VABEs). Level 3 Leadership
Societal Culture:CustomsLanguage
Organizational Culture
EconomicalTechnological
Setting
PoliticalLegal
Setting
EthnicBackground
Religion
Personal –Values
AssumptionsBeliefs
Expectations
OrganizationalBehavior
Level 3 Leadership Understands and Affects
Cultural Influence on Organizational Behavior (VABEs)
Leaders should be skilled in recognizing and clarifying VABEs in those they work
with.
The challenge is greatest in an international setting.
Cultural differences usually lead to much greater differences in VABEs.
Behavior cues may vary greatly across cultures.
The assessment of work-related VABEs of members from a different
culture based on observed behavior may lead to erroneous conclusions.
Assertion: Japanese managers in Japanese subsidiaries in Thailand appear
to have particular difficulties in understanding the VABEs of their Thai
employees.
This appears to be a factor in the low integration of locals in formal
leadership positions of Japanese foreign subsidiaries.
Communication
Business Culture
IHRM HCN Integration
35
33
42
Keeley (2001) empirically demonstrated a low-level of integration of HCN (host country
national) managers in a multi-country study involving 83 Japanese subsidiaries in
Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and Australia.
Formal Leadersh
ip Positions
Understanding VABEs
HCN Integration
Respondents were asked who mainly made decisions, local managers or Japanese
managers (16 items). (List)
Likert scale: one = ‘completely Japanese’ and five = ‘completely local’ (3 = equally
Japanese/Local)The Japanese data yielded a mean of 2.38,
while that for the local data was 2.64.
Business Culture
Eight-item scale: issues related to business practices and culture (1 = lowest, 5= highest).
Focused on local understanding of Japanese business practices and culture as well as Japanese understanding of local business
practices and culture.
The Japanese data yielded a mean of 2.83, while that for the local data was 2.82.
(List)
Values, Assumptions, Beliefs, Expectations and Behavior at Japanese and American Firms
in Thailand
Data gathered in July 2002 for the Japanese firms and May 2003 for the American firms in Thailand.
For Japanese firms, 1 questionnaire in Japanese with 88 questions. One in Thai with 84 questions.
For American firms the same questionnaires were used, however, the questionnaire for expatriates was
in English rather than Japanese.
Japanese firms: 95 subsidiaries yielding a response rate of 19%. 136 responses from Japanese managers
and 175 responses from Thai managers.
American firms: 26 subsidiaries yielding a response rate of 17%. 27 responses from American managers
and of 22 responses from Thai managers.
Positive Work-Related Habits, Attitudes and Behavior Scale
The following questions were in both the Thai and expatriate (Japanese and American) questionnaires.
Questions are based on a 7-point Likert scale (7 is strongly agree and 1 is strongly disagree.)
Thai and Japanese (American) managers were asked to give their impression of Thai and Japanese (American)
employees for each item.
Questions are preceded with the words “Thai employees” for one set of these questions and
“Japanese (American) employees” for another set of the same questions:
(1) “Tend to arrive to work on time.”(2) “Think that company responsibilities are more
important than personal matters.”(3) “Tend to meet deadlines.”
(4) “Think that they should work overtime to finish their work when necessary.”
(5) “Are quite willing to help with tasks that they are not directly responsible for.”
(6) “Share information freely with other people in the company.”
(7) “Feel responsible only for their own assigned work” (reverse-coded in the analysis).
Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3.9 or below % 4.14 or above
Thai (TH data) 4.6902 175 .9220 6.970E-02 24% 68%
Thai (JP data) 3.3697 133 .7530 6.530E-02 77.9% 14%
Japanese (TH data) 5.2831 174 .6603 5.006E-02 3.4% 93.7%
Japanese (JP data) 5.1944 133 .5674 4.920E-02 2.3% 96.2%
Table 1a: Positive Work-Related Habits, Attitudes and Behavior Scale Japanese Subsidiaries
Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3.9 or below % 4.14 or above
Thai (TH data) 5.0563 22 .6005 .1280 4.5% 95.0%
Thai (AM data) 4.3668 27 .8737 .1681 25.9% 59.3%
American (TH data) 4.5682 22 .6895 .1470 27.3% 63.6%
American (AM data) 5.1429 27 .5850 .1126 0% 100%
Table 1b: Positive Work-Related Habits, Attitudes and Behavior Scale American Subsidiaries
About T Difference: - 1.3205
About J Difference: + 0.0887
About T Difference: - 0.6895
About A Difference: - 0.5747
Total diff. = - 1.4092
Total Diff. = - 0.1148
The data begs the questions about:
The big difference between J view of T and T view of J …:
The difference between T and A view of each other is not so far apart for
these same items…
T and J ratings of J are so close together for some items in which T and J ratings of T
are so far apart!
Examine the items of large differences and propose explanations:
Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 4.71 173 1.41 0.11 22.5% 59.0%
Thai (JP data) 2.98 136 1.26 0.11 69.1% 9.6%
Japanese (TH data) 5.41 173 0.98 8.53E-02 1.7% 93.1%
Japanese (JP data) 5.86 136 1.06 9.32E-02 4.5% 82.6%
Table 2a: “Think that company responsibilities are more important than personal matters.” (JP)
Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 4.76 21 1.04 .23 14.3% 66.7%
Thai (AM data) 4.15 27 1.56 .30 34.6% 42.3%
American (TH data) 4.67 21 1.24 .27 14.3% 42.4%
American (AM data) 4.81 27 .96 .19 11.1% 66.7%
Table 2b: “Think that company responsibilities are more important than personal matters.” (AM)
About T Difference: - 1. 73
About J Difference: - 0.45
About T Difference: - 0.61
About A Difference: - 0.14
“Think that company responsibilities are more important than personal matters.”
Japanese stay late when boss stays late sacrificing personal life (even if no work
to do).Japanese expect employees to stay with the group even when an individual cannot contribute.
To demonstrate commitment
And other irrational overt behavioral signals
Leads to high scores on the scale for J by T
Viewed from US and Thai cultural norms
Japanese tend to live to work while Thais mainly work to live.
Japanese and Thai measuring sticks (behavioral cues) are very different.
Thais expect work to be sanuk (fun).
American and Thai expectations and behavioral cues seem closer together.
Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 5.17 175 1.23 9.31E-02 9.7% 72.6%
Thai (JP data) 3.17 133 1.33 .12 66.9% 20.6%
Japanese (TH data) 5.83 173 1.00 7.61E-02 4.0% 91.3%
Japanese (JP data) 5.52 133 .87 7.52E-02 .8% 87.2%
Table 3a: “Tend to meet deadlines.” (JP)
Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 5.36 22 .95 .20 9.1% 59.1%
Thai (AM data) 4.22 27 1.45 .28 34.6% 42.3%
American (TH data) 5.82 22 .80 .17 0% 90.9%
American (AM data) 5.78 27 .80 .15 7.4% 77.8%
Table 3b: “Tend to meet deadlines.” (AM)
About T Difference: - 2.00
About J Difference: - 0.31
About T Difference: - 1.14
About A Difference: - 0.04
Differences between J and T national culture in relation to time and uncertainty avoidance.
T think J managers set deadlines earlier than they need be.
“Tend to meet deadlines.”
T meet real implicit (honne) deadline even when they miss the explicit (tatemae)
deadline.
For Japanese Difference
Work is treated in the West as a continuous series of interrelated activities; one segment leads to the next step, and so forth. The preferred work pattern is
steady, even relentless.
For American Difference (and Japanese)
Thais do not always perceive the same connection between certain individual
tasks. Projects are often completed in a flurry of last minute effort.
Holmes, H. and Tangtongtavy, S. (1997). Working with the Thais: A Guide to Managing in Thailand. Bangkok: White Lotus.
Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 5.29 175 1.21 9.13E-02 9.1% 77.1%
Thai (JP data) 4.15 133 1.56 .14 32.4% 22.1%
Japanese (TH data) 6.21 174 .79 6.02E-02 .6% 96.0%
Japanese (JP data) 6.01 133 .74 6.45E-02 0% 94.7%
Table 4a: “Think they should work overtime to finish their work when necessary.” (JP)
Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 5.86 22 .77 .17 0% 95.5%
Thai (AM data) 5.63 27 1.01 .19 33.3% 51.9%
American (TH data) 5.00 22 1.41 .30 18.2% 63.6%
American (AM data) 4.81 28 .96 .19 0% 92.6%
Table 4b: “Think they should work overtime to finish their work when necessary.” (AM)
About T Difference: - 1.14
About J Difference: + 0.20
About T Difference: - 0.23
About A Difference: + 0.19
Working overtime is very common in Japan
Expectations are that subordinates stay late when their boss stays late.
The Japanese Supreme Court has upheld a ruling that a company can sack any member
of staff if they refuse to work overtime!
Over 50% of unionized workers in Japan work overtime without pay on an average of 29.6 hours per month, a survey conducted by the Japanese Trade Union Confederation (Rengo)
2003
Table 5a: “Think that it is important to have a friendly and pleasant work environment .” (JP)
Table 5b: “Think that it is important to have a friendly and pleasant work environment .” (AM)
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 5.56 174 1.16 E8.76-02 5.1% 81.7%
Thai (JP data) 5.24 136 1.17 .10 8.8% 53.7%
Japanese (TH data) 4.40 174 1.35 .10 19.0% 50.0%
Japanese (JP data) 5.14 133 1.04 9.00E-02 4.5% 69.9%
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 5.95 22 .65 .14 0% 100%
Thai (AM data) 6.19 27 .88 .17 0% 92.6%
American (TH data) 4.23 22 1.27 .27 31.8% 26.4%
American (AM data) 4.63 27 1.01 .19 7.4% 51.9%
About T Difference: - 0.32
About J Difference: - 0.74
About T Difference: + 0.24
About A Difference: - 0.40
The Americans are saying yes! We see Thais think work should be fun + 0.24.
Thais do not think it is as important to Americans as Americans think it is -
0.40.
Japanese do not think it is as important to Thais as Thais think it is - 0.40.
Thais do not think it is as important to Japanese as Japanese think it is - 0.74.
Different concepts of what constitutes a “friendly and pleasant” work
environment.Different concepts of what constitutes
a “proper and productive” work environment.
Table 6a: “Think that it is important to maintain harmony in the office.” (JP)
Table 6b: “Think that it is important to maintain harmony in the office.” (AM)
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 5.36 173 1.22 9.31E-02 8.0% 77.0%
Thai (JP data) 5.14 133 1.25 .11 4.4% 72.8%
Japanese (TH data) 4.54 173 1.31 9.92E-02 19.0% 50.0%
Japanese (JP data) 5.23 133 .89 7.74E-02 2.3% 77.4%
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 6.00 22 .82 .17 0% 90.9%
Thai (AM data) 6.37 27 .56 .11 0% 100%
American (TH data) 3.68 22 1.09 .23 45.5% 22.7%
American (AM data) 4.19 27 1.11 .21 22.2% 33.3%
About T Difference: - 0.22
About J Difference: - 0.69
About T Difference: + 0.37
About A Difference: - 0.41
Maintaining harmony is very important in both Japanese and Thai society. Interview opinions of Japanese managers indicate it is even more important in Thai society.
Both Thai and Americans realize the big difference here between Thai (6.00/6.37)
and American (3.68/4.19) culture.
Both Japanese and American managers give higher overall ratings to Thai
managers for “ability to maintain harmony in the workplace.”
0
10
20
30
40
50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
J apnese DataAmerican Data
1 = “Expatriate much better,” 2 = Expatriate better,” 3 = Expatriate somewhat better,” 4 = “ same,” 5 = “Thai somewhat better,”6 = “Thai better,” 7 = “Thai much better.” (% of Responses)
Mean Std. Error Std. Deviation N % 3.9 or below % 5 or above
American 5.37 .25 1.28 27 7.4% 77.8%
Japanese 4.16 8.49E-02 .98 134 19.4% 33.6%
Graph/Table 1: Ability to Maintain Harmony in the Workplace
* Opinions of Japanese and American ManagersA Thai strength
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 4.87 175 1.25 9.47E-02 10.9% 58.3%
Thai (JP data) 3.31 133 1.21 .11 54.4% 13.2%
Japanese (TH data) 6.09 174 .89 6.73E-02 0.6% 93.1%
Japanese (JP data) 5.40 133 .87 7.54E-02 1.5% 86.5%
Table 7a: “Tend to be loyal to the company.” (JP)
Table 7a: “Tend to be loyal to the company.” (AM)
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 5.55 22 1.01 .22 4.5% 81.8%
Thai (AM data) 4.96 26 1.61 .32 23.1% 69.2%
American (TH data) 4.36 22 .67 .29 31.8% 40.9%
American (AM data) 4.67 27 .88 .17 7.4% 55.6%
About T Difference: - 1.56
About J Difference: + 0.69
About T Difference: - 0.59
About A Difference: - 0.31
Total diff. = - 2.25
Total diff. = - 0.28
Japanese express loyalty and commitment though exaggerated
behavior:Staying with the group even when they cannot contribute to work being done.Sacrificing their private time (life)
even when it is not really that necessary.
Staying late at work
Not taking their full vacation
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 4.80 175 1.20 9.10E-02 12.0% 58.3%
Thai (JP data) 3.41 133 1.21 .10 50.0% 16.2%
Japanese (TH data) 5.86 174 1.02 7.76E-02 1.7% 86.8%
Japanese (JP data) 5.65 133 .82 7.10E-02 1.5% 91.0%
Table 8a: “Show a lot of commitment to the company.” (JP)
Table 8b: “Show a lot of commitment to the company.” (AM)
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (TH data) 5.50 22 .67 .14 0% 99.9%
Thai (AM data) 5.19 27 .96 .19 23.1% 69.2%
American (TH data) 3.77 22 1.02 .22 40.9% 22.7%
American (AM data) 4.67 .27 .88 .17 7.4% 70.4%
About T Difference: - 1.39
About J Difference: + 0.21
About T Difference: - 0.31
About A Difference: - 0.9
The following questions were only included in the Thai questionnaires for Japanese and American subsidiaries.
The data gives and indication of Thai employees’ view of the expatriates’ understanding of Thai culture and the
Thai’s understanding of Japanese (American) culture.
Graph/Table 3: You understand Japanese (American) culture.
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 3.97 174 1.53 .12 33.9% 43.7%
Thai (AM Co) 5.32 22 .99 .21 4.5% 81.8%
Graph/Table 2: Japanese (American) culture is difficult to understand.
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 3.91 173 1.60 .12 38.7% 32.9%
Thai (AM Co) 3.36 22 1.36 .29 54.5% 22.7%
AM culture seems better
understood by Thais
Graph/Table 4: You understand Japanese (English) well.
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 3.21 174 1.94 .15 55.2% 30.5%
Thai (AM Co) 6.23 22 .53 .11 0% 100%
Graph 5: Differences between Thai and Japanese (American) culture make communication with your Japanese (American) bosses difficult.
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 3.96 175 1.69 .13 39.4% 37.7%
Thai (AM Co) 3.05 22 1.81 .39 59.1% 27.3%
Smaller languag
e barriers at AM
Graph/Table 6: You understand the Japanese (American) way of management.
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 4.41 174 1.41 .11 23.6% 53.4%
Thai (AM Co) 5.64 22 .73 .15 0% 95.5%
The scores are much higher for Thais working at American companies.
Graph/Table 7: Your Japanese (American) boss understands Thai language well.
Graph/Table 8: Your Japanese (American) boss understands Thai culture well.
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 3.87 175 1.46 .11 40% 34.9%
Thai (AM Co) 4.67 21 1.35 .30 14.3% 47.6%
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 3.24 175 1.51 .11 59.4% 21.7%
Thai (AM Co) 2.57 21 1.86 .41 71.4% 19.0%
About 1 out of 5
Less than half
Graph/Table 9: Your Japanese (American) boss understands Bunkhun
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 3.78 174 1.44 .11 32.8% 28.2%
Thai (AM Co) 3.29 21 1.38 .30 47.6% 14.3%
Bunkhun, or indebted goodness, is a psychological bond between someone who, out of sheer kindness and sincerity, renders another person the needed help of favor, and the latter’s remembering the
goodness done and his ever-readiness to reciprocate the kindness.
Suntaree Komkin, “Psychology of Thai People”
1 out of 3
1 out of 6
Graph/Table 10: You feel Katanyoo Rookhun towards Japanese (American) boss.
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 5.07 175 1.19 9.01E-02 5.7% 57.4%
Thai (AM Co) 4.50 22 1.92 .41 27.3% 59.1%
The feeling of “gratitude and indebtedness.”
The first aspect of bunkhun.
Engendered in slightly over half the
Thais
Graph/Table 11: Your Japanese (American) boss practices Mettaa Karunaa towards his subordinates.
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 4.75 175 1.32 9.97E-02 12.6% 57.7%
Thai (AM Co) 4.81 21 1.54 .34 23.8% 52.4%
The second aspect of bunkhun.
The quality of being “merciful and kind.”
Rendered by slightly over half of the expatriate bosses.
Graph/Table 12: Your Japanese (American) boss shows Henjai to his subordinates
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 4.66 172 1.32 .10 13.7% 57.1%
Thai (AM Co) 5.29 22 1.38 .30 9.5% 66.7%
“To see into the heart.”Showing and understanding and empathy for the subordinate, his/her duties and burdens.
Done by slightly over half of the expatriate bosses.
Graph/Table 13: Your Japanese (American) boss understands
(is sensitive to) the needs of his subordinates.
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 4.49 175 1.41 .11 19.4% 53.1%
Thai (AM Co) 5.05 21 1.36 .30 14.3% 66.7%
Likewise, describes slightly over half of the expatriate bosses.
Graph/Table 14: Your Japanese (American) acts like Phu Phadetkan
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 3.53 175 1.60 .12 48% 26.9%
Thai (AM Co) 2.62 21 1.66 .36 71.4% 13..3%
A “dictatorial” manager, who makes decisions without consulting anyone.
Results more favorable towards for Americans. Japanese consensus
management?
Both Data Sets Mean N Std. Dev. Std. Error % 3 or below % 5 or above
Thai (JP Co.) 4.15 175 1.46 .11 28.6% 47.4%
Thai (AM Co) 4.95 21 1.43 .31 19% 66.7%
Graph/Table 15: Your Japanese (American) boss sufficiently consults with you before making
decisions.
Japanese tend to practice consensus management mainly with other Japanese expatriates and those at the head office.
Setting deadlines earlier than the actual deadline may be in line with Japanese
VABEs but for the Thais it appears to be focusing on behavior only (Level 1).
Conclusions and Implications
The difficulty of understanding VABEs and managing them leads to Level 1 leadership.
A somewhat negative view of Thai managers’ work-related behavior by
Japanese managers is most likely a factor in the low degree of integration of the
former group.
Assessment of VABEs based on observed behavior may lead to erroneous
conclusions.Even though Japanese and Thai culture share many similarities, there does not
seem to be any greater understand between these two groups than there is
between Thai and Americans.Differences in VABEs are more apparent in
a cross-cultural setting.
It allows an opportunity for expatriates to examine their own VABEs.
In order to fairly judge the local managers it is necessary to sometimes let go of one’s
own VABEs.
Many people struggle across-cultural boundaries since they cannot let go of their
own VABEs.They try to manage solely from their own
cultural perspective (with their VABEs unchanged).
Optimal leadership will come from:
Expatriate leaders greater understand of the local VABEs and seeking to influence
them.
Expatriate leaders examining their own VABEs and modifying those that lead to a
dysfunctional work environment.
Local employees better understanding their own VABEs and those of the
expatriates.
Integration ScaleDecisions concerning:
1. the hiring of new employees2. promotion of employees and wage/salary increases.3. employee benefits such as vacation time, etc.4. borrowing funds from local banks or financial institutions.5. production schedules.6. purchase of production inputs.7. local advertising.8. future products or services offered by the local subsidiary.9. investment in new facilities.10. Decisions concerning pricing of products and services.11. production goals.12. sales goals.13. personnel training for local managers at the subsidiary.14. layoffs (dismissal) of employees at the subsidiary.15. most minor decisions such as those concerning day-to-day
operational issues.16. most major decisions such as those concerning strategic of
long-term issues.
Business Culture Scale1. There is an ‘Us versus Them’ mentality between the local
managers and the Japanese managers. (reverse-coded)2. The Japanese managers have a sufficient understanding of local
business practices.3. The Japanese managers have a sufficient understanding of the
local culture.4. Differences between local values and culture and those of Japan
often lead to conflicts. (reverse-coded)5. Japanese culture is so unique that it is impossible for non-Japanese
to fully understand it. (reverse-coded) 6. It seems individualism is stronger in this country than in Japan.
(reverse-coded)7. Our company has made a sufficient effort to teach local managers
about Japanese culture and business practices.8. Our company has made a sufficient effort to teach Japanese
managers about local culture and business practices.