+ All Categories
Transcript
Page 1: Engineering Ethics

INTRODUCTION• 1978 FORD PINTO ACCIDENT• HIT FROM BEHIND• FUEL TANK BURST INTO FLAMES• COLLISION CAUSED DEATH OF THREE TEENAGE CHILDREN• 50 ACCIDENTS IN SEVEN YEARS• FORD CHARGED WITH CRIMINAL LAWSUIT• CIVIL LAWSUIT GIVES DAMAGES• CRIMINAL CASE CAN GIVE JAIL TERMS FOR ENGINEERS AND MANAGEMENT

Page 2: Engineering Ethics

INTRODUCTION

• FORD KNEW FUEL TANK DESIGN WAS FLAWED• ENGINEERS KNEW BUT MANAGEMENT WANTED

PINTO OUT IN MARKET AT A COMPETITIVE PRICE BECAUSE OTHER MANUFACTURERS WERE PLANNING SIMILAR SUB-COMPACT CARS. IMPROVED DESIGN WOULD INCREASE COST

• DILEMMA FOR ENGINEERS – SAFETY OF PEOPLE VS COMPETITIVE PRICE

• BALANCE DUTY TO THE PUBLIC AGAINST DUTY TO THEIR EMPLOYER

Page 3: Engineering Ethics

INTRODUCTION

• ETHICAL CASES CAN GO BEYOND ISSUES OF PUBLIC SAFETY AND MAY INVOLVE BRIBERY, FRAUD, ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, FAIRNESS, HONESTY IN RESEARCH AND TESTING, CONFLICT OF INTEREST

• ENGINEERS GET TRAINING IN BASIC AND ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES BUT LITTLE TRAINING/EDUCATION IN BUSINESS PRACTICES, SAFETY AND ETHICS

Page 4: Engineering Ethics

INTRODUCTION

• ALL ACCREDITATION BOARDS WORLDWIDE HAVE MANDATED THAT ETHICS TOPICS BE INCORPORATED INTO UNDERGRADUATE ENGINEERING CURRICULA.

• PURPOSE OF SUCH COURSES IS TO HELP FUTURE ENGINEERS FOR CONFRONTING AND RESOLVING ETHICAL DILEMMAS, SUCH AS THE DESIGN OF AN UNSAFE PRODUCT LIKE THE PINTO, THAT THEY MIGHT ENCOUNTER DURING THEIR PROFESSIONAL CAREERS.

Page 5: Engineering Ethics

DEFINITIONS

• ETHICS IS THE STUDY OF THE CHARACTERISTCS OF MORALS. ETHICS ALSO DEALS WITH THE MORAL CHOICES THAT ARE MADE BY EACH PERSON IN HIS OR HER RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER PERSONS.

• AS ENGINEERS WE ARE CONCERNED WITH ETHICS BECAUSE THESE DEFINITIONS APPLY TO ALL OF THE CHOICES AN INDIVIDUAL MAKES IN LIFE, INCLUDING THOSE MADE WHILE PRACTICING ENGINEERING.

Page 6: Engineering Ethics

DEFINITIONS

• DEFINITION OF ETHICS CAN BE NARROWED FOR ENGINEERS

• ENGINEERING ETHICS IS THE RULES AND STANDARDS GOVERNING THE CONDUCT OF ENGINEERS IN THEIR ROLE AS PROFESSIONALS

• ENGINEERING ETHICS ENCOMPASSES THE MORE GENERAL DEFINITION OF ETHICS BUT APPLIES IT MORE SPECIFICALLY TO SITUATIONS INVOLVING ENGINEERS IN THEIR PROFESSIONAL LIVES

Page 7: Engineering Ethics

DEFINITIONS

ENGINEEREING ETHICS IS A BODY OF PHILOSOPHY INDICATING THE WAYS THAT ENGINEERS SHOULD CONDUCT THEMSELVES IN THEIR PROFESSIONAL CAPACITY

Page 8: Engineering Ethics

WHY STUDY ENGINEERING ETHICS

• SEVERAL NOTORIOUS CASES RECEIVED A GREAT DEAL OF MEDIA ATTENTION - LIKE PINTO LEADING ENGINEERS TO GAIN AN INCREASED SENSE OF THEIR PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES

• AWARENESS OF IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS WITHIN ENGINEERING PROFESSION

• REALIZATION HOW TECHNICAL WORK HAS FAR REACHING IMPACTS ON SOCIETY

• WORK OF ENGINEERS CAN AFFECT PUBLIC HEALTH AND SAFETY AND CAN INFLUENCE BUSINESS PRACTICES AND EVEN POLITICS

Page 9: Engineering Ethics

WHY STUDY ENGINEERING ETHICS

• MAJOR CORPORATIONS HAVE AN ETHICS OFFICE• RESPONSIBLE TO ENSURE EMPLOYEES HAVE THE ABILITY

TO EXPRESS THEIR CONCERNS ABOUT ISSUES SUCH AS SAFETY AND CORPORATE BUSINESS PRACTICES IN A WAY THAT WILL YIELD RESULTS AND WOULD NOT RESULT IN RETALIATION AGAINST THE EMPLOYEE

• ETHICS OFFICES ALSO TRY TO FOSTER AN ETHICAL CULTURE THAT WILL HELP TO HEAD OFF ETHICAL PROBLEMS IN A ORGANIZATION BEFORE THEY START

Page 10: Engineering Ethics

GOAL OF THIS COURSE

• TO SENSITIZE ENGINEERS TO IMPORTANT ETHICAL ISSUES BEFORE THEY HAVE TO CONFRONT THEM

• STUDY IMPORTANT CASES FROM THE PAST AND LEARN WHAT TO DO WHEN SIMILAR SITUATIONS ARISE IN YOUR PROFESSIONAL CAREER – DERIVE LESSONS

• LEARN TECHNIQUES FOR ANALYZING AND RESOLVING ETHICAL PROBLEMS WHEN THEY ARISE

Page 11: Engineering Ethics

GOAL OF THIS COURSE

• GOAL FREQUENTLY SUMMED UP USING THE TERM MORAL AUTONOMY

• MORAL AUTONOMY IS THE ABILITY TO THINK CRITICALLY AND INDEPENDENTLY ABOUT MORAL ISSUES AND TO APPLY THIS MORAL THINKING TO SITUATIONS THAT ARISE IN THE COURSE OF PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE – THUS GOAL OF THIS COURSE IS TO FOSTER THE MORAL AUTONOMY OF FUTURE ENGINEERS.

Page 12: Engineering Ethics

GOAL OF THIS COURSE

• WHY SHOULD A FUTURE ENGINEER STUDY ETHICS • YOU ARE EITHER A GOOD PERSON OR A BAD

PERSON – GOOD PEOPLE ALREADY KNOW THE RIGHT THING TO DO AND BAD PEOPLE ARE NOT GOING TO DO THE RIGHT THING NO MATTER HOW MUCH ETHICAL TRAINING THEY RECEIVE.

• THE ANSWER LIES IN NATURE OF ETHICAL PROBLEMS THAT ARE OFTEN ENCOUTERED. MOSTLY CORRECT RESPONSE IS VERY OBVIOUS.

Page 13: Engineering Ethics

GOAL OF THIS COURSE• HOWEVER MANY TIMES THE ETHICAL PROBLEMS

ENCOUNTERTED IN ENGINEERING PRACTICE ARE VERY COMPLEX AND INVOLVE CONFLICTING ETHICAL PRINCIPLES.

• ENGINEERS WORKING ON PINTO WERE PRESENTED WITH A VERY CLEAR DILEMMA – TRADE-OFFS WERE MADE SO THAT PINTO COULD BE SUCCESSFULLY MARKETED AT REASONABLE PRICE – ONE OF THE TRADE-OFFS INVOLVED THE PLACEMENT OF THE FUEL TANK WHICH LED TO THE ACCIDENT.

Page 14: Engineering Ethics

GOAL OF THIS COURSE• WHERE DOES AN ENGINEERING TEAM STRIKE

THE BALANCE BETWEEN SAFETY AND AFFORDABILITY AND, SIMULTANEOUSLY, THE ABILITY OF THE COMPANY TO SELL THE CAR AND MAKE A PROFIT.

• THE GOAL, THEN, IS NOT TO TRAIN YOU TO DO THE RIGHT THING WHEN THE ETHICAL CHOICE IS OBVIOUS AND YOU ALREADY KNOW THE RIGHT THING TO DO. RATHER, THE GOAL IS TO TRAIN YOU TO ANALYZE COMPLEX PROBLEMS AND LEARN TO RESOLVE THESE PROBLEMS IN THE MOST ETHICAL MANNER.

Page 15: Engineering Ethics

GOAL OF THIS COURSE• DIRECT AIM IS TO INCREASE ONE’S ABILITY TO

DEAL EFFECTIVELY WITH MORAL COMPLEXITY IN ENGINEERING.

• STUDY OF ENGG ETHICS STENGTHENS ONES ABILITY TO REASON CLEARLY AND CAREFULLY ABOUT MORAL QUESTIONS – MEANS INCREASE MORAL AUTONOMY. SELF-DETERMINING INDEPENDENT

Page 16: Engineering Ethics

GOAL OF THIS COURSE• MORAL AUTONOMY CAN BE VIEWED AS THE SKILL

AND HABIT OF THINKING RATIONALLY ABOUT ETHICAL ISSUES ON THE BASIS OF MORAL CONCERN.

• FOUNDATION OF MORAL CONCERN OR GENERAL RESPONSIVENESS TO MORAL VALUES DERIVES PRIMARILY FROM THE TRAINING WE RECEIVE AS CHILDREN IN BEING SENSITIVE TO THE NEEDS AND RIGHTS OF OTHERS AS WELL AS OF OURSELVES

• WHEN THIS TRAINING ABSENT – ABUSED CHILDREN. BROKEN HOMES, SOCIO-PATHS ETC.

Page 17: Engineering Ethics

MORAL AUTONOMY

1. MORAL AWARENESS2. COGENT MORAL REASONING3. MORAL COHERENCE4. MORAL IMAGINATION5. MORAL COMMUNICATION6. MORAL REASONABLENESS7. RESPECT FOR PERSONS8. TOLERANCE FOR DIVERSITY9. MORAL HOPE10. INTEGRITY

Page 18: Engineering Ethics

ENGINEERING

IT IS A GREAT PROFESSION. THERE IS THE FASCINATION OF WATCHING A FIGMENT OF THE IMAGINATION EMERGE THROUGH THE AID OF SCIENCE TO A PLAN ON PAPER. THEN IT MOVES TO REALIZATION IN STONE OR METAL OR ENERGY. THEN IT BRINGS JOBS AND HOMES TO MEN. THEN IT ELEVATES THE STANDARDS OF LIVING AND ADDS TO THE COMFORTS OF LIFE. THAT IS THE ENGINEER’S HIGH PRIVILEGE.

Page 19: Engineering Ethics

ENGINEERING THE GREAT LIABILITY OF THE ENGINEER COMPARED TO MEN

OF OTHER PROFESSIONS IS THAT HIS WORKS ARE OUT IN THE OPEN WHERE ALL CAN SEE THEM. HIS ACTS, STEP BY STEP, ARE IN HARD SUBSTANCE. HE CANNOT BURY HIS MISTAKES IN THE GRAVE LIKE THE DOCTORS. HE CANNOT ARGUE THEM INTO THIN AIR OR BLAME THE JUDGE LIKE THE LAWYERS. HE CANNOT, LIKE THE ARCHITECTS, COVER HIS FAILURES WITH TREES AND VINES. HE CANNOT LIKE THE POLITICIANS, SCREEN HIS SHORTCOMINGS BY BLAMING HIS OPPONENTS AND HOPE THAT THE PEOPLE WILL FORGET. THE ENGINEER SIMPLY CANNOT DENY THAT HE DID IT. IF HIS WORKS DO NOT WORK, HE IS DAMNED.

Page 20: Engineering Ethics

ENGINEERING ENGINEERING IS MANAGING THE UNKNOWN. ONE SOURCE OF ETHICAL ISSUES ENCOUTERED IN

ENGINEERING PRACTICE IS LACK OF KNOWLEDGE – NOT UNUSUAL IN ENGINEERING – VERY OFTEN ENGINEERS ENCOUNTER SITUATIONS IN WHICH THEY DO NOT HAVE ALL OF THE INFORMATION THAT IS NEEDED.

ENGINEERING DESIGN IS ABOUT CREATING NEW DEVICES AND PRODUCTS - MANY UNKNOWNS – HOW WELL DOES IT WORK – HOW WILL IT AFFECT PEOPLE – WHAT CHANGES WILL THIS LEAD IN SOCIETY – IS IT SAFE – IF SAFETY CONCERNS HOW BAD ARE THEY – WHAT ARE THE AFFECTS OF DOING NOTHING.

Page 21: Engineering Ethics

PERSONAL VS PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IMPORTANT TO MAKE A DISTINCTION BETWEEN PERSONAL

ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL OR BUSINESS ETHICS . NOT ALWAYS A CLEAR BOUNDARY BETWEEN THE TWO. PERSONAL ETHICS DEAL WITH HOW WE TREAT OTHERS IN

OUR DAY – TO – DAY LIVES. MANY OF THESE PRINCIPLES ARE APPLICABLE TO ETHICAL SITUATIONS THAT OCCUR IN BUSINESS AND ENGINEERING.

HOWEVER, PROFESSIONAL ETHICS OFTEN INVOLVE CHOICES ON AN ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL RATHER THAN A PERSONAL LEVEL.

Page 22: Engineering Ethics

PERSONAL VS PROFESSIONAL ETHICS MANY PROBLEMS SEEM DIFFERENT BECAUSE THEY

INVOLVE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TWO CORPORATIONS, BETWEEN A CORPORATION AND THE GOVERNMENT, OR BETWEEN CORPORATIONS AND GROUP OF INDIVIDUALS.

THESE TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS POSE PROBLEMS THAT ARE NOT ENCOUNTERED IN PERSONAL ETHICS.

Page 23: Engineering Ethics

ORIGINS OF ETHICAL THOUGHT PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT GREEKS AND THEIR

PREDECESSORS. THINKERS IN TRADITIONS OF TORAH, BIBLE AND HOLY

QURAN. FOR MANY PERSONAL ETHICS ARE ROOTED IN RELIGIOUS

BELIEFS – NOT TRUE FOR EVERYONE. MANY ETHICAL PEOPLE ARE NOT RELIGIOUS AND MANY

RELIGIOUS PEOPLE ARE NOT ETHICAL. ETHICAL PRINCIPLES HAVE GENERALLY FILTERED THROUGH

RELIGIOUS TRADITION – AND HAVE BECOME CULTURAL NORMS.

Page 24: Engineering Ethics

ETHICS AND LAW PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING AND BUSINESS IS GOVERNED

BY MANY LAWS – INTERNATIONAL AND LOCAL. MANY LAWS BASED ON ETHICAL PRINCIPLES AND

PRACTICAL RATHER THAN PHILOSOPHICAL. DISTINCTION BETWEEN LEGAL AND ETHICAL – MANY

THINGS ARE LEGAL BUT COULD BE CONSIDERED UNETHICAL – COVERSELY JUST BECAUSE SOMETHING IS ILLEGAL DOES NOT MEAN THAT IT IS UNETHICAL.

LAW HAS TO CATCH UP WITH LATEST FINDINGS. ENGINEERING ETHICS SEEK TO GO BEYOND THE DICTATES

OF LAW – INTEREST IS WHERE ETHICAL PRINCIPLES CONFLICT AND THERE IS NO LEGAL GUIDANCE TO RESOLVE.

Page 25: Engineering Ethics

RESPONSIBILITY

• OBLIGATIONS

• ACCOUNTABLE

• CONSCIENTIOUS

• BLAMEWORTHY/PRAISEWORTHY

Page 26: Engineering Ethics

DIMENSIONS OF ENGINEERING• The idea of a new product is first captured in a

conceptual design, which will lead to establishing performance specifications and conducting a pre – liminary analysis based on the functional relationships among design variables. These activities lead to a more detailed analysis, possibly assisted by computer simulations and physical models or prototypes. The end product of the design task will be detailed specifications and shop drawings for all components .

Page 27: Engineering Ethics

DIMENSIONS OF ENGINEERING• Manufacturing is the next major task. It involves

scheduling and carrying out the tasks of purchasing materials and components, fabricating parts and sub-assemblies, and finally assembly and performance testing the product.

• Selling comes next or delivery if the product is the result of a prior contract. Thereafter, either the manufacturer’s or the customer’s engineers perform installation, personnel training, maintenance, repair and ultimately rejecting or disposal.

Page 28: Engineering Ethics

DIMENSIONS OF ENGINEERING• Goals and alternatives have to emerge through the

design process itself.• Clarify goals and to begin to generate alternatives.• Maybe forced to stop during initial attempt due to a

snag and think of a better approach.• Such re-considerations do not necessarily start and

end at the same respective stages during subsequent passes through design, manufacture and implementation – latest findings, other iterations, experience of similar product – effect design – may require assessment of prior decisions.

Page 29: Engineering Ethics

DIMENSIONS OF ENGINEERING• Request for design while manufacturing or

constructing must be handled carefully.• This complexity requires co-operation among

engineers of different departments and disciplines.• Engineers tend to disregard or denigrate work

carried out by other groups – difficult to improve design or even rectify mistakes under such circumstances – artificial boundaries – moral issues.

• Engineering design not straight forward progression of isolated tasks – trial and error process with backtracking – examining results.

Page 30: Engineering Ethics

DIMENSIONS OF ENGINEERING• Feedback loops based design.• Engineering takes into account natural and social

environments that affect the product and people using it.

• Problems may arise from shortcomings on the part of engineers, their supervisors, vendors or the operators of the product.

• Underlying causes can have different forms:

Page 31: Engineering Ethics

SHORT COMINGS ON THE PART OF ENGINEERS

• Lack of vision• Incompetence• Lack of time or lack of proper materials• Silo mentality• Safety engineers available• Improper use or disposal of product• Dishonesty• Inattention

Many moral challenges, need foresight, caution

Page 32: Engineering Ethics

SHORT COMINGS ON THE PART OF ENGINEERS

• To ensure confluence of good engineering, good business and good ethics, it is essential for engineering and corporations to be “morally aligned”.

• Professions make possible good work – work that is excellent in quality & socially responsible.

• Some professions go through periods in which these aims become mis-aligned.

• Journalism, Genetic Science.• Engineering also faces pressure – some do not

compromise on quality, safety and ethics.

Page 33: Engineering Ethics

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING AND ENGG DESIGN

THERE WILL BE NO UNIQUE CORRECT SOLUTION TO MOST PROBLEMS. THERE WILL BE A RANGE OF SOLUTIONS THAT ARE CLEARLY RIGHT, SOME OF WHICH ARE BETTER THAN OTHERS. THERE WILL ALSO BE A RANGE OF SOLUTIONS THAT ARE CLEARLY WRONG. BOTH APPLY A LARGE BODY OF KNOWLEDGE TO THE SOLUTION OF A PROBLEM, AND BOTH INVOLVE USE OF ANALYTICAL SKILLS. ALTHOUGH NATURE OF THE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS IN ETHICS WILL BE DIFFERENT FROM THOSE IN MOST ENGINEERING CLASSES , APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEMS AND THE ULTIMATE SOLUTION WILL BE VERY SIMILAR TO THOSE IN ENGINEERING PRACTICE.

Page 34: Engineering Ethics

PROBLEMS IN ENGINEERING TASKS

IT IS SAID THAT PROFESSIONS MAKE POSSIBLE GOOD WORK – WORK THAT IS BOTH EXCELLENT IN QUALITY AND SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE, WHEN THE AIMS OF PROFESSIONALS, THEIR CORPORATIONS, CLIENTS AND THE GENERAL PUBLIC ARE CONGRUENT, IF NOT IDENTICAL

Page 35: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY - CHALLENGER

• LAUNCHED IN EXTREMELY COLD WEATHER• O-RING ON THE SOLID – PROPELLANT BOOSTER,

MADE MORE BRITTLE BY THE COLD, FAILED• FAILURE LED TO EXPLOSION DURING LIFTOFF• ENGINEERS WHO HAD DESIGNED THIS BOOSTER

HAD CONCERNS ABOUT LAUNCHING UNDER THESE COLD CONDITIONS HAD RECOMMENDED LAUNCH BE DELAYED

• OVERRULED BY MANAGEMENT- SOME OF WHOM WERE ENGINEERS

Page 36: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY - CHALLENGER

• MANAGEMENT FELT THERE WAS NOT ENOUGH DATA TO SUPPORT A DELAY

• SHUTTLE LAUNCHED RESULTING IN EXPLOSION• ON SURFACE NO ENGINEERING ETHICAL ISSUES

TO DISCUSS-SIMPLY AN ACCIDENT• ENGINEERS RECOMMENDED NO LAUNCH –

OVERRUED BY MANAGEMENT• NO ONE WANTED CHALLENGER TO EXPLODE• IN STRICTEST SENSE AN ACCIDENT

Page 37: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGERSOME QUESTIONS

• WHEN SAFETY CONCERNS , WHAT IS ENGINEER’S RESPONSIBILITY BEFORE LAUNCH DECISION IS MADE

• AFTER LAUNCH DECISION IS MADE, BUT BEFORE ACTUAL LAUNCH, WHAT DUTY DOES ENGINEER HAVE

• IF DECISION DOES NOT GO ENGINEER’S WAY, SHOULD HE COMPLAIN TO UPPER MANAGEMENT OR SHOULD HE BRING THE PROBLEM TO THE ATTENTION OF THE PRESS

Page 38: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGERSOME QUESTIONS

• AFTER THE ACCIDENT HAS OCCURRED WHAT ARE THE DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE ENGINEERS

• IF LAUNCH WERE SUCCESSFUL, BUT THE POST MORTEM SHOWED THAT THE O-RING HAD FAILED AND AN ACCIDENT HAD NEARLY OCCURRED, WHAT WOULD BE THE ENGINEER’S RESPONSIBILITY

• IF AN ENGINEER MOVES INTO MANAGEMENT, SHOULD HE SEPARATE ENGINEERING FROM MANAGEMENT DECISIONS

Page 39: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY - WARNING• HINDSIGHT IS 20/20• STUDYING A CASE SEVERAL YEARS LATER AND

KNOWING THE ULTIMATE OUTCOME, EASY TO SEE WHAT THE RIGHT DECISION SHOULD HAVE BEEN

• IF NASA HAD CRYSTAL BALL TO PREDICT THE FUTURE – CHALLENGER WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN LAUNCHED

• IF FORD KNEW PINTO TANK WILL CAUSE DEATHS AND MILLIONS IN LAWSUITS IT WOULD HAVE FOUND A SOLUTION FOR THE FUEL TANK BEFORE SELLING PINTO

Page 40: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY - CHALLENGER• SOLID ROCKET BOOSTER DESIGN CONTRACT

AWARDED TO MORTON THIOKOL• DESIGN BASED ON TITAN MISSILE• SOLID ROCKET CONSISTS OF SEVERAL CYLINDRICAL

PIECES THAT ARE FILLED WITH SOLID PROPELLANT AND STACKED ONE ON TOP OF THE OTHER TO FORM THE COMPLETE BOOSTER

• KEY ASPECT OF DESIGN ARE JOINTS WHERE THE INDIVIDUAL CYLINDERS COME TOGETHER CALLED FIELD JOINTS – JOINTS SEALED BY TWO O-RINGS, PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

Page 41: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY - CHALLENGER

• O-RINGS DESIGNED TO PREVENT HOT GASES FROM THE COMBUSTION OF THE SOLID PROPELLANT FROM ESCAPING

• O-RINGS MADE FROM SYNTHETIC RUBBER AND NOT PARTICULARLY HEAT RESISTANT

• TO PREVENT HOT GASES FROM DAMAGING O-RINGS HEAT- RESISTANT PUTTY IS PLACED IN THE JOINT

• SECOND O-RING ADDED TO PROVIDE EXTRA MARGIN OF SAFETY

Page 42: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY - CHALLENGER

Page 43: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY - CHALLENGER

• PROBLEMS WITH THE FIELD JOINT WERE RECOGNIZED LONG BEFORE LAUNCH

• WHEN ROCKET IGNITED INTERNAL PRESSURE CAUSES THE BOOSTER WALL TO EXPAND OUT-WARD PUTTING PRESSURE ON THE FIELD JOINT

• THIS PRESSURE CAUSED THE JOINT TO OPEN SLIGHTLY, PROCESS CALLED “JOINT ROTATION”

• JOINT DESIGNED SO THAT INTERNAL PRESSURE PUSHES ON THE PUTTY, DISPLACING THE PRIMARY O-RING INTO THIS GAP – HELP SEAL IT

Page 44: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY - CHALLENGER

• DURING TESTING IN 1977 THIOKOL BECAME AWARE THAT JOINT-ROTATION PROBLEM WAS SEVERE AND DISCUSSED IT WITH NASA

• DESIGN CHANGES MADE INCLUDING AN INCREASE IN THE THICKNESS OF THE O-RING

• FURTHER TESTING REVEALED PROBLEMS WITH SECOND SEAL – ADDITIONAL DESIGN CHANGES

• 1N 1981 POST LAUNCH EXAMINATION OF BOOSTER FIELD JOINTS INDICATED THAT THE O-RINGS WERE BEING ERODED BY HOT GASES DURING LAUNCH

Page 45: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY - CHALLENGER

• ALTHOUGH NO FAILURE OF THE JOINT THERE WAS CONCERN ABOUT THE SITUATION

• THIOKOL LOOKED INTO USE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF PUTTY AND ALTERNATIVE METHODS

• HALF THE FLIGHTS BEFORE CHALLENGER ACCIDENT HAD EXPERIECED SOME EROSION

• NOT UNUSUAL, TESTING AND RE-DESIGN IS COMMON IN ENGINEERING

• EROSION IS NOT BAD AS LONG AS CONTROLLED

Page 46: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY - CHALLENGER

• FIRST FAILURE OF JOINT CAME IN JAN 1985 – COLD WEATHER

• POST FLIGHT REVEALED BLACK SOOT AND GREASE ON OUTSIDE OF BOOSTER

• HOT GASES HAD BLOWN OUT BY THE O-RING• CONCERN ABOUT RESILENCY OF O-RING

MATERIAL AT REDUCED TEMPERATURE• TEST ON ABILITY OF O-RINGS TO COMPRESS

TO FILL THE JOINTS FOUND THEY WERE INADEQUATE

Page 47: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY - CHALLENGER

• THIOKOL RE-DESIGNED JOINT WITHOUT O-RINGS USING STEEL BILLETS IN JUL 1985

• BETTER ABLE TO WITHSTAND HOT GASES

• DESIGN NOT READY FOR CHALLENGER FLIGHT

Page 48: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGERPOLITICS

• TO ANALYZE DECISION MAKING LEADING TO FATAL LAUNCH IMPORTANT TO SEE POLITICAL CLIMATE IN WHICH NASA WAS OPERATING

• NASA BUDGET APPROVED BY CONGRESS WHICH WAS UN-HAPPY WITH DELAYS IN SHUTTLE PROJECT AND SHUTTLE PERFORMANCE - NOT MEETING INITIAL PROMISES

• NASA BILLED IT AS A RELIABLE, INEXPENSIVE LAUNCH VEHICLE FOR A VARIETY OF SCIENTIFIC AND COMMERCIAL PURPOSES

Page 49: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGERPOLITICS

• NASA WAS FEELING URGENCY BECAUSE EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY WAS DEVELOPING WHAT SEEMED TO BE A CHEAPER ALTERNATIVE TO THE SHUTTLE – COULD PUT SHUTTLE OUT OF BUSINESS

• NASA SCHEDULED RECORD NUMBER OF MISSIONS IN 1986 TO PROVE TO CONGRESS THAT PROGRAM WAS ON TRACK

• LAUNCHING IN JANUARY WAS ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT BECAUSE PREVIOUS MISSION HAD BEEN DELAYED SEVERAL TIMES BY BOTH WEATHER AND MECHANICAL FAILURES

Page 50: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGERPOLITICS

• NASA ALSO FELT PRESSURE TO LAUNCH ON TIME SO THAT THE NEXT SHUTTLE LAUNCH WHICH WAS TO CARRY A PROBE TO EXAMINE HALEY’S COMET WOULD BE LAUNCHED BEFORE A RUSSIAN PROBE DESIGNED TO DO THE SAME THING

• ADDITIONAL POLITICAL PRESSURE TO LAUNCH BEFORE REAGAN’S STATE OF UNION ADDRESS IN WHICH HE HOPED TO MENTION THE SHUTTLE AND SPECIAL ASTRONAUT – THE FIRST TEACHER IN SPACE – CHRISTA Mc AULIFFE IN CONTEXT OF HIS COMMENTS ON EDUCATION

Page 51: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGERPOLITICS

• EVEN BEFORE ACCIDENT THERE WERE HITCHES• FIRST LAUNCH DATE ABANDONED DUE TO COLD

FRONT EXPECTED TO MOVE THROUGH THE AREA – FRONT STALLED - COULD HAVE LAUNCHED

• LAUNCH DELAYED DUE TO DEFECTIVE MICROSWITCH IN HATCH –LOCKING MECHANISM

• WHEN THIS PROBLEM SOLVED ANOTHER COLD FRONT ARRIVED – BRINGING VERY LOW TEMP

• DUE TO EXPECTED COLD TEMPERATURES NASA CHECKED WITH ALL SHUTTLE CONTRACTORS TO DETERMINE IF THEY FORESAW ANY PROBLEMS

Page 52: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER• DIRECTOR OF THIOKOL’S SOLID ROCKET MOTOR

PROJECT WAS CONCERNED ABOUT COLD WEATHER PROBLEMS

• EVENING BEFORE LAUNCH TELECONFERENCE BETWEEN NASA AND THIOKOL, ENGINEERS AND MANAGEMENT, TO DISCUSS POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF COLD TEMP ON SOLID ROCKET BOOSTERS

• BOISJOLY AND THOMPSON, TWO THIOKOL ENGINEERS, WHO HAD WORKED ON SOLID PROPELLANT BOOSTER DESIGN GAVE ONE HOUR PRESENTATION ON HOW COLD WEATHER WOULD INCREASE PROBLEMS WITH JOINT / O-RINGS

Page 53: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER• THEIR POINT WAS THAT LOWEST TEMP AT WHICH

SHUTTLE LAUNCHED WAS 53O F WHEN THERE WAS BLOW-BY OF THE O-RINGS

• NEXT MORNING TEMP WAS PREDICTED TO BE 29O F , FAR BELOW PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE

• CHIEF OF ENGG THIOKOL RECOMMENDED THAT SINCE THERE HAD BEEN SEVERE O-RING EROSION AT 53O F AND NO DATA AND NO EXPERIENCE AVAILABLE FOR LOWER TEMPS – NASA SHOULD DELAY LAUNCH UNTIL TEMP AROUND 53O F

• INTERESTINGLY ORIGINAL DESIGN SPECS STATED BOOSTER WILL OPERATE PROPERLY UPTO 31O F

Page 54: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER• NASA SOLID ROCKET BOOSTER PROJECT

MANAGER POINTED OUT DATA WERE INCONCLUSIVE AND DISAGREED WITH THIOKOL ENGINEERS

• HE ASKED ENGG MANAGER OF BOOSTER PROJECT AT THIOKOL FOR HIS OPINION WHO BACKED UP RECOMMENDATION OF HIS FELLOW ENGINEERS

• NASA SOLID ROCKET BOOSTER TEAM DISAGREED • BOISJOLY AND OTHER ENGINEERS REITERATED TO

THEIR MANAGEMENT THAT THE ORIGINAL DECISION NOT TO LAUNCH WAS CORRECT

• NASA WANTED MORE DISCUSSIONS / ANALYSIS

Page 55: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER• KEY FACT THAT ULTIMATELY SWAYED DECISION

WAS THAT IN AVAILABLE DATA THERE SEEMED TO BE NO CORRELATION BETWEEN TEMP AND DEGREE TO WHICH BLOW-BY GASES HAD ERODED THE O-RINGS IN PREVIOUS LAUNCHES

• CONCLUDED THAT THERE WAS NO TREND IN THE DATA INDICATING THAT LAUNCH AT THE EXPECTED TEMP WOULD BE UNSAFE

• GM AT THIOKOL ASKED CHIEF OF ENGG TO “TAKE OFF YOUR ENGINEERING HAT AND PUT ON YOUR MANAGEMENT HAT” – A PHRASE THAT HAS BECOME FAMOUS IN ENGINEERING ETHICS

Page 56: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER• CHIEF OF ENGG REVERSED HIS PREVIOUS

DECISION AND RECOMMENDED LAUNCH WITH PROVISIO THAT THERE WAS SAFETY CONCERN DUE TO COLD WEATHER BUT THE DATA WAS INCONCLUSIVE AND LAUNCH RECOMMENDED

• DIRECTOR OF SOLID ROCKET BOOSTER PROJECT THIOKOL AT NASA LAUNCH SITE WAS SURPRISED BY THIS RECOMMENDATION

• HE ATTEMTED TO CONVINCE NASA TO DELAY LAUNCH BUT TO NO AVAIL

Page 57: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER• CONTRARY TO WEATHER PREDICTIONS

OVERNIGHT TEMP WAS 08O F – COLDER THAN SHUTTLE HAD EVER EXPERIENCED

• ACCUMULATION OF ICE ON LAUNCHPAD• FIELD JOINT OF RIGHT-HAND BOOSTER

ESTIMATED AT 28O F• CAMERAS RECORDED PUFFS OF SMOKE

COMING OUT OF FIELD JOINT OF RIGHT HAND BOOSTER IMMEDIATELY AFTER IGNITION

• FIELD JOINT ROTATED BUT DUE TO EXTREME COLD TEMP O-RING DID NOT SEAT PROPERLY

Page 58: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER• HEAT RESISTANT PUTTY WAS ALSO SO COLD THAT

IT DID NOT PROTECT THE O-RINGS AND HOT GASES BURNED PAST BOTH O-RINGS

• VERY QUICKLY FIELD JOINT WAS SEALED AGAIN BY BY PRODUCTS OF SOLID ROCKET-PROPELLANT COMBUSTION WHICH FORMED A GLASSY OXIDE ON THE JOINT

• THIS OXIDE MIGHT HAVE PREVENTED DISASTER BUT SHUTTLE ENCOUNTERED VERY STRONG WIND SHEAR ONE MINUTE INTO FLIGHT – OXIDES THAT WERE SEALING JOINT WERE SHATTERED BY WIND

Page 59: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER• JOINT OPENED AGAIN AND HOT GASES

ESCAPED FROM THE SOLID ROCKET BOOSTER• SOLID BOOSTER WAS ATTACHED TO LARGE

LIQUID –FUEL BOOSTER, THE FLAMES FROM THE SOLID-FUEL BOOSTER BLOW-BY QUICKLY BURNED THROUGH THE EXTERNAL TANK

• LIQUID PROPELLANT WAS IGNITED AND THE SHUTTLE EXPLODED

• SHUTTLE PROGRAM WAS GROUNDED PENDING THOROUGH REVIEW OF SHUTTLE SAFETY

Page 60: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER• THIOKOL FORMED FAILURE-INVESTIGATION

TEAM WHICH INCLUDED BOISJOLY• MANY INVESTIGATIONS INTO CAUSE OF

ACCIDENT BY CONTRACTORS AND GOVT BODIES• REAGAN FORMED COMMISSION OF

DISTINGUISHED SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS WHO WERE ASKED TO LOOK INTO CAUSE OF ACCIDENT AND TO RECOMMEND CHANGES IN THE SHUTTLE PROGRAM

• ONE MEMBER WAS NOBEL PRIZE WINNER IN PHYSICS

Page 61: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER

• NOBEL WINNER ABLY DEMONSTRATED WHAT WENT WRONG – ON NATIONAL MEDIA DEMONSTRATED THE PROBLEM WITH O-RINGS BY TAKING A SAMPLE OF THE O-RING MATERIAL AND BENDING IT. FLEXIBILITY OF MATERIAL AT ROOM TEMPERATURE WAS EVIDENT.

• HE THEN IMMERSED IT IN ICE WATER AND BENT THE RING – IT WAS CLEAR THAT THE RESILIENCY OF THE MATERIAL WAS SEVERELY REDUCED – CLEAR DEMONSTRATION OF WHAT HAPPENED

Page 62: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER

• AS PART OF COMMISSION HEARINGS, BOISJOLY AND OTHER THIOKOL ENGINEERS WERE ASKED TO TESTIFY

• BOISJOLY HANDED OVER TO THE COMMISSION COPIES OF INTERNAL MEMOS AND REPORTS DETAILING THE DESIGN PROCESS AND THE PROBLEMS THAT ALREADY BEEN ENCOUNTERED

• THIOKOL WAS TRYING TO PUT THE BEST POSSIBLE SPIN ON THE SITUATION AND BOISJOLY’S ACTIONS HURT THIS EFFORT

Page 63: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGER

• AFTER THIS ACTION BIOSJOLY WAS ISOLATED WITHIN THE COMPANY, HIS RESPONSIBILITIES FOR THE RE-DESIGN OF THE JOINT WERE TAKEN AWAY AND HE WAS SUBTLY HARASSED

• THE ATMOSPHERE BECAME INTOLERABLE FOR BOISJOLY AND HE TOOK EXTENDED SICK LEAVE

• JOINT RE-DESIGNED AND SHUTTLE FLEW NUMEROUS SUCCESSFUL MISSIONS

• AMBITIOUS LAUNCH SCHEDULE ORIGINALLY INTENDED BY NASA HAS NEVER BEEN MET

Page 64: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGERETHICAL ISSUES

• DID ASTRONAUTS HAVE ENOUGH INFORMATION TO GIVE CONSENT TO LAUNCH

• CAN AN ENGINEER WHO HAS BECOME A MANAGER TRULY EVER TAKE OFF HIS/HER ENGINEER’S HAT

• REAGAN WAS WIDELY SEEN AS DOING NOTHINGWHILE EDUCATION SYSTEM DECAYED. TEACHER-IN-SPACE IDEA WAS COOKED UPTO TO DIVERT ATTENTION FROM THE PROBLEM. WHAT ARE ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS IF THIS IS TRUE

Page 65: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGERETHICAL ISSUES

• SHOULD LAUNCH HAVE BEEN ALLOWED WHEN THERE WAS NO TEST DATA FOR THE EXPECTED CONDITIONS

• SHOULD A PRODUCT BE RELEASED -USED WHEN IT HAS NOT BEEN TESTED OVER ALL EXPECTED OPERATIONAL CONDITIONS – WHEN DATA IS INCONCLUSIVE WHICH WAY SHOULD THE DECISION GO

• AFTER THE ACCIDENT THIOKOL AND NASA INVESTIGATED CAUSES OF EXPLOSION. BOISJOLY ACCUSED NASA AND THIOKOL OF INTENTIONALLY DOWNPLAYING THE PROBLEM WITH O-RINGS WHILE LOOKING FOR OTHER CAUSES - WHAT ARE ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THIS TYPE OF INVESTIGATION

Page 66: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGERETHICAL ISSUES

• MANAGEMENT DECISION TO LAUNCH WAS PROMPTED BY CONCERN FOR HEALTH OF THE COMPANY AND SPACE PROGRAM – IF PROBLEMS AND DELAYS HAD CONTINUED THIOKOL MIGHT HAVE LOST NASA CONTRACTS OR NASA FUNDING REDUCED – LOSS OF JOBS AT THIOKOL AND NASA. HOW MIGHT THESE CONSIDERATIONS ETHICALLY BE FACTORED INTO THE DECISION

• ENGINEERING CODE OF ETHICS REQUIRE ENGINEERS TO PROTECT THE SAFETY AND HEALTH OF THE PUBLIC – DO ASTRONAUTS COUNT AS “PUBLIC” IN THIS CONTEXT

Page 67: Engineering Ethics

CASE STUDY – CHALLENGERETHICAL ISSUES

• WHAT SHOULD NASA MANAGEMENT HAVE DONE DIFFERENTLY

• WHAT SHOULD THIOKOL MANAGEMENT HAVE DONE DIFFERENTLY

• WHAT ELSE COULD BOISJOLY AND THE OTHER ENGINEERS AT THIOKOL HAVE DONE TO PROTECT THE LAUNCH FROM OCCURRING

Page 68: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM • LATE IN 1994 REPORTS APPEARED THAT THE

LATEST GENERATION OF PENTIUM MICROPROCESSORS WAS FLAWED – JOURNALS, MAGAZINES AND NEW YORK TIMES

• STORIES REPORTED THAT THESE CHIPS WERE UNABLE TO PERFORM RELATIVELY SIMPLE MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OPERATIONS

• INTEL DENIED – LATER ARGUED THAT ALTHOUGH A PROBLEM BUT ERROR WOULD BE SIGNIFICANT IN SOPHISTICATED APPLICATIONS – MOST PEOPLE WOULD NOT EVEN NOTICE IT

Page 69: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• ALSO REPORTED INTEL KNEW AND WAS WORKING TO FIX

IT• MANY PEOPLE ASKED TO HAVE DEFECTIVE CHIP REPLACED

– INTEL REFUSED• PUBLIC OUTCRY REACHED HUGE PROPORTIONS AND IT

BECAME A PUBLIC RELATIONS DISASTER• INTEL AGREED TO REPLACE DEFECTIVE CHIPS WHEN

CUSTOMER REQUESTED• DID INTEL DO ANYTHING UNETHICAL• NEED TO DEVELOP FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING

ETHICAL PROBLEMS • ONE PART OF FRAMEWORK IS CODE OF ETHICS

ESTABLISHED BY PROFESSIONAL ENGG ORGANIZATIONS

Page 70: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• CODES HELP GUIDE ENGINEERS IN THE

COURSE OF PROFESSIONAL DUTIES AND GIVE THEM INSIGHT INTO ETHICAL PROBLEMS

• ENGINEERING CODE OF ETHICS HOLD THAT ENGINEERS SHOULD NOT MAKE FALSE CLAIMS OR REPRESENT A PRODUCT TO BE SOMETHING THAT IT IS NOT

Page 71: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• PRUDENT TO EXAMINE THE NATURE OF

PROFESSIONS WITH THE GOAL OF DETERMINING WHETHER ENGINEERING IS A PROFESSION

• VALUABLE TO DISTINGUISH THE WORD PROFESSION FROM OTHER WORDS USED SYNONYMOUSLY ie JOB AND OCCUPATION

Page 72: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• ANY WORK FOR HIRE CAN BE CONSIDERED A

JOB, REGARDLESS OF THE SKILL LEVEL INVOLVED AND THE RESPONSIBILITY GRANTED

• OCCUPATION IMPLIES EMPLOYMENT THROUGH WHICH SOMEONE MAKES A LIVING

• ENGINEERING IS CERTAINLY A JOB AND ALSO AN OCCUPATION

• HOW DO THE WORDS JOB AND OCCUPATION DIFFER FROM PROFESSION

• PROFESSION AND PROFESSIONAL – USED COMMONLY IN MODERN SOCIETY

Page 73: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISMWhat is a Profession

• WORK THAT REQUIRES SOPHISTICATED SKILLS• MEMBERSHIP IN THE PROFESSION REQUIRES

EXTENSIVE FORMAL EDUCATION• PUBLIC ALLOWS SPECIAL SOCIETIES OR

ORGANIZATIONS THAT ARE CONTROLLED BY MEMBERS OF THE PROFESSION

• SIGNIFICANT PUBLIC GOOD RESULTS FROM THE PRACTICE OF THE PROFESSION

Page 74: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• JUDGEMENT REFERS TO MAKING SIGNIFICANT

DECISIONS BASED ON FORMAL TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE. DECISIONS WILL HAVE SERIOUS IMPACTS ON PEOPLE’S LIVES AND WILL OFTEN HAVE IMPORTANT IMPLICATIONS REGARDING THE SPENDING OF LARGE AMOUNTS OF MONEY

• DISCRETION CAN HAVE TWO DIFFERENT MEANINGS. THE FIRST INVOLVES BEING DISCRETE IN THE PERFORMANCE OF ONE’S DUTIES BY KEEPING INFORMATION ABOUT CUSTOMERS, CLIENTS AND PATIENTS CONFIDENTIAL. THE OTHER DEFINITION INVOLVES THE ABILITY TO MAKE DECISIONS AUTONOMOUSLY.

Page 75: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• MEDICINE – fits definition of profession, requires

very sophisticated skills and cannot be mechanized, requires judgment as to appropriate treatment plans for individual patients and it requires discretion – physicians have been granted physician – patient privilege, the duty not to divulge information given in confidence by the patient to the physician. Although Medicine requires extensive practical training (residency/housejob), it also requires much formal education (05 -08 years). Medicine has a special society – Pak Medical Assoc

Page 76: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM

To which a large number of practicing physicians belong and that participates in the regulation of medical colleges, sets standards for practice of the profession, and enforces codes of ethical behaviour for its members. Healing the sick and helping to prevent disease clearly involve the public good. By the definition presented earlier, medicine definitely qualifies as a profession

Page 77: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• LAW – is a profession, involves sophisticated

skills acquired through extensive formal training, has a professional society – Pak Bar Association/Council etc and serves an important aspect of the public good – highly debatable

• Difference between athletics and carpentry on one hand and law and medicine on the other is clear. First two really cannot be considered professions, and the latter two most certainly are.

Page 78: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• Engineering requires sophisticated skills – spend

four years in college to gain them – min level

• Essence of engineering design is judgment – how to use the available materials, components, devices , etc to reach a specified objective

• Discretion is required in engineering – required to keep their employers’ or clients’ intellectual property and business information confidential

• Primary concern of any engineer is the safety of the public that will use the product and devices he designs

Page 79: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• Always a trade-off between safety and other

engineering issues in a design requiring discretion on the part of the engineer to ensure design serves its purpose and fills the market niche safely.

• Mechanization needs to be examined carefully – once design finalized it can easily be replicated without the intervention of an engineer. However, each new design or a modification of an existing design requires a engineer.

• Industry uses many computer based tools for generating designs – CAD Software – not mechanization

Page 80: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• Each discipline within has a professional society

– Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) – for Electrical Engineers

• Society of Mechanical Engineers (SME)• Engineering Societies differ from Law and

Medical Societies – each specialty of Engineering has its own Society – no overlapping

• Very few practicing engineers belong to their professional societies – engineering societies weak as compared to Law and Medical Societies

Page 81: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• Although Engineering a profession – significant

differences between how engineering is practiced and how law and medicine are practiced

• Lawyers typically self employed in private practice – essentially independent business – group practice – law firms – very few employed

• Initially doctors in private practice but now managed care and medical centers growing and physicians employed in large corporations/Govt – however they retain much of decision making power – head always a doctor of medical facility

Page 82: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• Engineers practice differently. Most engineers

are not self employed – part of large companies involving many different occupations – accountants, marketing, less skilled employees

• Exception are civil engineers who generally practice as independent consultants or in engineering firms like Law Firms

• When employed by large corporations, engineers are rarely in significant managerial positions, except with regard to managing other engineers

Page 83: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• Paid well as compared to rest of society but

less compensated than doctors and lawyers• Training different from doctors and lawyers.

Employed after undergraduate studies unlike law and medicine where training begins after undergraduate program completed

Page 84: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM• Engineering societies not as powerful as medical

and law associations perhaps because of number of professional engineering societies.

• Law and Medicine cannot be practiced without license/registration whereas engineers employed by large corporations on the basis of degree only.

• Engineering does not have same social stature as law and medicine – less pay

• Despite differences engineering is a profession – may not be as mature as law and medicine

Page 85: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISMOTHER ASPECTS

• Professional Societies also serve other, perhaps less noble, purposes.

• Sociologists describe two different models of professions – social contract and business model

• Social-Contract model views professional societies set up primarily to further public good – implicit social contract involved – society grants the professions perks like high pay, high status and ability to self regulate – in return society gets services by profession

Page 86: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM OTHER ASPECTS

• Cynical view of professions is provided by the business model

• Professions function as a means for furthering the economic advantage of its members – professional organizations are labor unions for the elite – strictly limiting the number of practitioners of the profession, controlling the working condition for professionals, artificially inflating salaries of its members

• Analysis of both models in terms of law and medicine show that there are ways in which these professions exhibit aspects of both these models

Page 87: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM OTHER ASPECTS

• Where does engineering fit in this picture – service oriented profession , fits into social-contract model very nicely

• Some engineers would like to see engineering professional societies function more according to business model – but they do not

• Engineering societies have no clout with major engineering employers to set wages and working conditions or to help engineers resolve ethical disputes with their employers – little prospect that engineering societies will function this way in future

Page 88: Engineering Ethics

PROFESSIONALISM ENGINEERING IF PRACTICED LIKE MEDICINE• If engineering was practiced like law/medicine• Education to be changed• Four year “pre-engineering” degree followed by

3 – 4 years engineering professional program• Engineers in all fields work for firms• Corporations have fewer engineers supervising

several “engineering technicians”• Less engineers in work force – higher pay• Engineering Technicians less pay than engineers

Page 89: Engineering Ethics

CODE OF ETHICS• Codes express the rights, duties and obligations of the

members of the profession• Primarily code of ethics provides a framework for ethical

judgment for a professional• No code can be totally comprehensive and cover all possible

ethical situations – starting point for ethical decision making• Ethical codes do not establish new ethical principles –

reiterate principles and standards that are already accepted• Codes express these principles in a coherent -

comprehensive and accessible manner• Code defines the roles and responsibilities of professionals

Page 90: Engineering Ethics

CODE OF ETHICS• Important what a code of ethics is not• Not a recipe for ethical behaviour – only a

framework for arriving at good ethical choices• Never a substitute for sound judgment• Not a legal document• Cannot be arrested for violating its provisions –

expulsion from professional society may result• Expulsion does not mean cannot practice

engineering – not necessarily any direct consequences of violating ethical codes

Page 91: Engineering Ethics

CODE OF ETHICS• Code of ethics does not create new moral or ethical

principles• Code of ethics spells out the ways in which moral

and ethical principles apply to professional practice• Code helps the engineer to apply moral principles

to the unique situations encountered in professional practice

• Helps create an environment within a profession where ethical behaviour is the norm

• Serves as a guide or reminder of how to act

Page 92: Engineering Ethics

CODE OF ETHICS• Can also be used to bolster an individual’s position

with regard to a certain activity• Code provides a little backup for an individual who

is being pressured by a superior to behave un-ethically

• Can also bolster the individual’s position by indicating that there is a collective sense of correct behaviour; there is strength in numbers

• Can indicate that the profession is seriously concerned about responsible, professional conduct

• Should not be used as “window dressing”

Page 93: Engineering Ethics

CODE OF ETHICSEight essential roles • Serving and protecting the public• Guidance• Inspiration• Shared standards• Support for responsible professionals• Education and mutual understanding• Deterrence and Discipline• Contributing to the profession’s image

Page 94: Engineering Ethics

CODE OF ETHICSABUSE/OBJECTIONS TO CODES

• Worst abuse is to restrict honest moral behaviour to preserve the profession’s public image and protect the status quo

• Relatively few engineers are members of societies and do not feel compelled to abide by codes

• Many who are members are not aware of codes• Consultation of codes is rare• Objections that codes have internal conflicts but do

not give a method to resolve them• Codes are coercive – ethical behavior with a stick

Page 95: Engineering Ethics

CODE OF ETHICS• Codes of IEEE and NSPE have different structures• IEEE code short and deals in generalities• NSPE code is longer and more detailed• Short code lacks detail and more likely to be read

by members and more understandable. Articulates general principles and truly functions as a framework for ethical decision making

• Longer code has advantage of being more explicit and cover more ground – less to imagination

• More useful in application to specific cases• Less likely to be read and understood by engineers

Page 96: Engineering Ethics

CODE OF ETHICS• Some specifics of IEEE and NSPE codes differ• IEEE does not mention duty to employer• IEEE does mention a duty to protect environment• NSPE has preamble that presents duties of engineer• NSPE does mention the engineer’s duty to his /her

employer• Only professions do not have code of ethics• Student code of ethics, code for use of computers,

corporate codes, etc• Corporate codes spell out company policies on

business practices, relationship with suppliers & Govt agencies, health/safety, harassment, etc

Page 97: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES• Study Moral Theories applied to Ethical problems• Moral and Ethical Theories derived from ancient

Greeks, Torah, Bible and Holy Quran• Ethical Ideas were continually refined during course

of history – acknowledged that moral principles are universal, regardless of origin, and applicable even in secular settings

• Many moral principles codified and handed down through the law – large body of thinking – philosophical, legal and religious to draw from

• Ethical conduct is fundamentally grounded in a concern for other people – HUQOOQ – UL – IBAD

Page 98: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES• A Moral Theory defines terms in uniform ways &

links ideas & problems together in consistent ways• Exactly how scientific theories function. They

organize ideas, define terms and facilitate problem solving

• An ethical theory is a comprehensive perspective on morality that clarifies, organizes and guides moral reflection – provides a framework for making moral choices and resolving moral dilemmas – not a simple formula but a comprehensive way to identify, structure and integrate moral reasons

Page 99: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES

• Ethical theories also ground the requirements in engineering code of ethics by reference to broader moral principles. They illuminate connections between engineering codes of ethics and “ordinary” morality – that is the justified moral values that play a role in all areas of life

• Four / Five (some say) ethical theories. Each differing according to what is held to be the most important moral concept and that have been especially influential

Page 100: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES• UTILITARIANISM• DUTY ETHICS• RIGHTS ETHICS• VIRTUE ETHICS• SELF - REALIZATION ETHICS NONE HAS WON CONSENSUS AND EACH HAS

DIFFERENT VERSIONS. SUITABLY MODIFIED, THE THEORIES COMPLEMENT AND ENRICH EACH OTHER TO THE EXTENT THAT THEY USUALLY AGREE WITH RESPECT TO THE RIGHT ACTION IN PARTICULAR SITUATIONS. TAKEN INDIVIDUALLY AND TOGETHER THEY PROVIDE ILLUMINATING PERSPECTIVES ON ENGINEERING ETHICS.

Page 101: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES• UTILITARIANISM: Seeks to produce the most utility,

defined as a balance between good and bad consequences of an action, taking into account the consequences for everyone affected. In other words it says that we ought to maximize the overall good, taking into equal account all those affected by our actions. Utilitarianism holds that those actions are good that serve to maximize human well-being. The emphasis is not on maximizing the well-being of the individual but rather on maximizing the well-being of the society as a whole. It is somewhat of a collectivist approach – an example is building of dams – includes cost-benefit & risk benefit analysis

Page 102: Engineering Ethics

UTILITARIANISM• Simple and plausible – producing good consequences – but

there are objections• What exactly is good to be maximized – should we maximize

the good effects of individual actions or good effects of general rules

• Another objection is that implementation depends greatly in knowing what will lead to the most good

• Impossible to do a complete set of experiments to determine all of the potential outcomes specially when humans are involved – maximizing benefit to society involves guesswork – risk best guess might be wrong

• Despite objections still considered valuable tool for ethical problem solving

Page 103: Engineering Ethics

UTILITARIANISM• Two flavors of Utilitarianism – Act Utilitarianism and

Rule Utilitarianism• Act Utilitarianism focuses on individual actions

rather than rules – individual actions should be judged based on whether the most good was produced in a given situation, and rules should be broken if doing so will lead to the most good

• Rule Utilitarianism holds that moral rules are most important. Adhering to these rules might not always maximize good in a particular situation, overall adhering to moral rules will ultimately lead to good

Page 104: Engineering Ethics

UTILITARIANISM• COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS: Often used in engineering

analysis when trying to determine whether a project makes sense – application of utilitarianism

• Costs of a project are assessed, as are the benefits – projects with the highest ratio of benefits to cost will be implemented – maximizing overall good

• Pinto Case - $11 part per car to protect fuel tank• 11 million cars & 1.5 million trucks – cost benefit• $200,000 human life;injury $67,000 – Highway Auth• Estimated 180 burn deaths, 180 burn injuries• $137 Million for part; $49.5 Million death/Injury

Page 105: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES• DUTY ETHICS: contends that there are duties that

should be performed (duty to treat others fairly or the duty not to injure others) regardless of whether these acts lead to the most good. In other words duty ethics says we ought to respect individual’s autonomy. Here good consequences for society as a whole are not the only moral consideration – moral duties are fundamental (be honest, do not cause suffering to other people, be fair to others, etc) – these actions are our duties because they express respect for persons, express an unqualified regard for autonomous moral agents and are universal principles.

Page 106: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES• RIGHTS ETHICS: Emphasizes that we all have

moral rights, and any action that violates these rights is ethically unacceptable. Like duty ethics, the ultimate overall good of the actions is not taken into account. Rights ethics holds that people have fundamental rights that other people have a duty to respect – humans have the right to life, liberty and property.

Page 107: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES• Duty ethics and rights ethics are really just two

different sides of the same coin. Both of these theories achieve the same end: Individual persons must be respected, and actions are ethical that maintain this respect for the individual. In duty ethics, people have duties, an important one of which is to protect the rights of others. And in rights ethics, people have fundamental rights that others have duties to protect.

Page 108: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES• Like Utilitarianism there are problems with the duty

and rights ethics theories• Basic rights of one group (person) may conflict with

the basic rights of another group – how to decide whose rights have priority – eg dam , nuclear waste

• These theories do not always account for the overall good of society very well – emphasis is on individual so good of a single individual can be paramount compared to what is good for society as a whole – a single person can block dam or disposal of nuclear waste

Page 109: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES

It is clear more than one ethical theory will be considered in discussion of engineering cases. Theories clearly represent different ways of looking at ethical problems and can frequently arrive at different solutions. Thus, any complete analysis of an ethical problem must incorporate multiple theories if valid conclusions be drawn – this point will become more clear as discussion on ethical theories continues

Page 110: Engineering Ethics

RIGHTS ETHICS• Right Ethics enter engineering in many ways. Holding

paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public can be interpreted as having respect for the public’s rights to life (by producing safe products), rights to privacy, rights not to be injured (by dangerous), and rights to receive benefits through fair and honest exchanges in a free market place. Additionally, basic right to liberty implies a right to give informed consent to the risks accompanying technological products. Then employers have rights to faithful service from employees, and employees have rights to reciprocal fair and respectful treatment from employers.

Page 111: Engineering Ethics

RIGHTS ETHICS• Nearly all ethical theories leave room for rights.• Rule Utilitarians say rights are those areas of liberty that

are important to deserve special safeguards.• Rights ethics is distinctive – it makes human rights the

ultimate appeal – the moral bottom line.• At its core morality is about respecting the inherent dignity

and worth of individuals as they exercise their liberty.• Human rights constitute a moral authority to make

legitimate moral demands on others to respect our choices, recognizing that others can make similar claims on us.

• Right ethics provides a powerful foundation for the special ethical requirements in engineering / others.

Page 112: Engineering Ethics

RIGHTS ETHICS• Rights Ethics sound very familiar to commonly known

Human Rights – fundamental truth that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights like Life, Liberty and pursuit of Happiness – these are natural human rights which “cannot” be taken away and are sometimes violated.

• Debate on Human Rights rages between nations – each accusing other for violations.

• Human Rights and legal rights are different. Legal rights are those that the law of a given society says one has. Human rights are those we have as humans, whether the law recognizes them or not.

Page 113: Engineering Ethics

RIGHTS ETHICS UNITED NATIONS ALSO ADOPTED

HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE IDEA OF HUMAN RIGHTS IS THE SINGLE MOST POWERFUL MORAL CONCEPT IN MAKING CROSS-CULTURAL MORAL JUDGMENTS ABOUT CUSTOMS AND LAWS

Page 114: Engineering Ethics

RIGHTS ETHICS• Two versions – Liberty rights and Welfare rights• Liberty rights are rights to exercise one’s liberty, and

they place duties on other people not to interfere with one’s freedom – called negative rights (not)

• Welfare rights are rights to benefits needed for a decent human life, when one cannot earn those benefits (handicapped, sick, unemployed) when the community has them available – zakat, bait-ul-mal – sometimes called positive rights

• Another version says no welfare rights – but generally agreed that liberty rights imply at least some basic welfare rights.

Page 115: Engineering Ethics

RIGHTS ETHICS• Special Moral Rights exist – rights held by particular

individuals rather than by every human being eg engineers and their employers have special moral rights that arise from their respective roles and contracts they make with each other. Special rights are grounded in human rights, however, indirectly

• Few rights are absolute, in the sense of being unlimited and having no justifiable exceptions. Members of public do not have an absolute right not to be harmed by technological products – hang gliders, airline travel (dangerous service) – informed purchase/consent – no misleading information

Page 116: Engineering Ethics

DUTY ETHICS• Duty Ethics are those required by duties to respect

the liberty or autonomy of individuals• All these duties derive from one fundamental duty to

respect persons. Autonomy – moral self-determination or self-governance – means having the capacity to govern one’s life in accordance with moral duties. Hence, respect for persons amounts to respect for their moral autonomy.

• Immorality occurs when we “merely use” others, reducing them to mere means to our ends, treating them as mere objects to gratify our needs.

• Duties are universal – apply equally to all

Page 117: Engineering Ethics

DUTY ETHICS• Moral duties are “categorical imperatives” • As imperatives they are injunctions or commands

that we impose on ourselves as well as other rational beings

• As categorical they require us to do what is right because it is right, unconditionally and without special incentives attached

• Morality is not an “iffy” matter that concerns hypothetical (conditional) imperatives, such as if you want to prosper, be honest.

Page 118: Engineering Ethics

PRIMA FACIE DUTIES• Everyday principles of duty are absolute in the

sense of never having justifiable exceptions• Problem with absolutism – given complexity of

human life, duties invariably come into conflict with each other creating moral dilemmas

• Moral dilemmas resolvable by recognizing some valid exceptions to simple principles of duty – engineers have a duty to maintain confidentiality about information owned by their corporations, but that duty can be overridden by the paramount duty to protect the safety, health and welfare of public

Page 119: Engineering Ethics

PRIMA FACIE DUTIES• To emphasize that most duties have some justified

exceptions the expression prima facie duties used• Prima Facie simply means “might have justified

exceptions” – rather than at first glance• Most duties are prima facie – they sometimes have

permissible or obligatory exceptions. The same is true for most rights and other moral principles.

• Not always obvious how best to balance conflicting duties, so as to arrive at our actual duty – our duty in a situation, all things considered

• Must reflect carefully – weighing all duties/facts

Page 120: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES• VIRTUE ETHICS: regards actions as right that

manifest good character traits (virtues) and regards actions as bad that display bad character traits (vices); this ethical theory focuses on the type of person we should strive to be. Fundamentally, virtue ethics is interested in determining what kind of people we should be. Virtue is often defined as moral distinction and goodness. A virtuous person exhibits good and beneficial qualities. Virtue ethics focuses on such words as responsibility, honesty, competence, humility, courage, fairness and loyalty – virtues ; and dishonesty, disloyalty, arrogance, incompetence, cowardice, unfairness and irresponsibility - vices . Virtue ethics is closely tied to personal character.

Page 121: Engineering Ethics

VIRTUE ETHICS• Virtue ethics emphasizes character more than rights

and rules. Character is the pattern of virtues (morally desirable features) and vices (morally undesirable features) in an individual.

• Virtues are desirable habits or tendencies in action, commitment, motive, attitude, emotion, ways of reasoning and ways of relating to others.

• Vices are morally undesirable habits or tendencies.• Words for specific virtues (previous slide) remain

familiar, both in Engineering and everyday life.

Page 122: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES• VIRTUE ETHICS: In many ways this theory seems to be

mostly personal ethics and not particularly applicable to Engineering or business ethics (at first glance). However, personal morality cannot or should not be separated from business morality. If behavior is virtuous in personal life, the behavior is virtuous in business or work life.

• How to apply virtue ethics to engineering? Trickier to apply because virtue ethics less susceptible to rigorous analysis and harder to describe nonhuman entities like corporation or government in terms of virtue.

• Question like “Is this action Honest”, “Will it demonstrate loyalty to my community or employer”, “Have I acted in responsible fashion” will make proper course of action obvious

• Be careful in applying. Some words like “Honour” are both virtue / vice.

Page 123: Engineering Ethics

VIRTUE ETHICS Most comprehensive virtue of engineers is

responsible professionalism. Four categories:

• Public spirited virtues

• Proficiency virtues

• Teamwork virtues

• Self-governance virtues

Page 124: Engineering Ethics

VIRTUE ETHICS• Public-spirited virtues: are focused on the good of

clients and the wider public. The minimum virtue is nonmaleficence, that is, the tendency not to harm others intentionally – engineering codes also call for preventing or removing harm to others – promoting the public safety, health and welfare. Also justice within corporations, government and economic practices is an essential virtue in the engineering.

• Proficiency virtues: are the virtues of mastery of one’s profession, in particular mastery of the technical skills that characterize good engineering practice – competence – diligence – creativity

Page 125: Engineering Ethics

VIRTUE ETHICS• Teamwork virtues: are those that are especially important

in enabling professionals to work successfully with other people. Like collegiality, cooperativeness, loyalty and respect for legitimate authority. Also important are leadership qualities that play key roles within authority-structured corporations – responsible authority – motivation.

• Self-governance virtues: are those necessary in exercising moral responsibility. Some center on moral understanding and perception – self-understanding & good moral judgment – practical wisdom. Others center on commitment & putting understanding into action – courage, self-discipline, perseverance, fidelity to commitments, self-respect, integrity, honesty.

Page 126: Engineering Ethics

VIRTUE ETHICS• Existential pleasures of engineering• Essence of engineering ethics is best captured by

the word conscientiousness – competence • The Golden Mean – virtues are tendencies to find

the golden mean between the extremes of too much (excess) and too little (deficiency) with regard to particular aspects of our lives – inspired by Aristotle who defined moral values as habits of reaching a proper balance between extremes in conduct, emotion, desire and attitude.

• Social Practices – only means of progress

Page 127: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL THEORIES• SELF-REALIZATION ETHICS: Emphasizes the

moral significance of self-fulfillment – that is pursuing what is good for oneself. Two versions: in one version the self to be realized is defined by caring relationships with other individuals and communities. In another version called ethical egoism, right action consists in always promoting what is good for oneself, with no presumption that the self is defined in terms of caring and community relationships.

Page 128: Engineering Ethics

SELF-REALIZATION ETHICS• Each of the preceding theories leaves considerable

room for self-interest – pursuing what is good for oneself.

• Utilitarians believe that self-interest should enter into our calculations of the overall good; rights ethics says we have rights to pursue our legitimate interests; duty ethics says we have duties to ourselves; and virtue ethics links our personal good with participating in communities and social practices.

• Self-realization ethics gives greater prominence to self-interest and to personal commitments that individuals develop.

Page 129: Engineering Ethics

SELF-REALIZATION ETHICS• Two versions – depending on how the self (person)

is conceived.• Ethical Egoism – self conceived in a highly

individualistic manner. Each of us ought always and only to promote our own self-interest. Self-interest is understood as our long-term and enlightened well being (good, happiness), rather than a narrow, short-sighted pursuit of immediate pleasures that leaves us frustrated or damaged in the long run.

• Second version – self to be realized is understood in terms of caring relationships and communities.

Page 130: Engineering Ethics

SELF-REALIZATION ETHICS• Can ethical egoism be supported?• Importance of self-respect vs Altruism• World be a better place if all or most people

embraced ethical egoism.• Ethical egoism is the only psychologically realistic

ethical theory – by nature human beings are exclusively self-seeking; sole motives are to benefit ourselves.

• Psychological egoism is true: all people are always and only motivated by what they believe is good for them in some respect.

Page 131: Engineering Ethics

SELF-REALIZATION ETHICS• Psychological egoism is a theory about psychology,

about what actually motivates human beings.• Ethical egoism is a statement about how they ought

to act.• If psychological egoism is true, ethical egoism

becomes the only plausible ethical theory.• Psychological egoism says the only thing an

engineer cares about is his own well being.• Psychological egoism flies in the face of common

sense – motives of human decency, compassion and justice – no sound reasons for psychological egoism

Page 132: Engineering Ethics

SELF-REALIZATION ETHICS• What are or should be the motives of engineers?• Predominant egoism: strongest desire for most

people most of the time is self seeking – most acts of helping and service to others involved mixed motives – combination of self-concern / others

• Predominant egoism acknowledges human capacities for love, friendship and community involvement – engineer: public safety, health, welfare

• Motives of Professionals – Proficiency motives, Compensation motives and Moral motives

Page 133: Engineering Ethics

SELF-REALIZATION ETHICS• These motives are interwoven and mutually supportive

– all of them contribute to providing valuable services to the community as well as professional relationships among engineers, other involved workers and clients.

• Engineering is demanding and it requires engineers to summon and to integrate a wide range of motivations – life is demanding and our survival requires constant interweaving and cross-fertilization of motives.

• Human nature must consist of a number of motives which are genuinely distinct and autonomous, but which are adapted to fit together, in the normal maturing of the individual, into a life that can satisfy.

Page 134: Engineering Ethics

SELF-REALIZATION ETHICS• Second version says that each individual ought to

pursue self-realization, but it emphasizes the importance of caring relationships and communities in understanding self-realization and in defining the “self” to be fulfilled.

• This version highlights personal commitments which express and develop individual talents while enriching communities – Jack Kilby

• This version emphasizes that we are social beings whose identities and meaning are linked to communities in which we participate.

• Personal Commitments are relevant in professions.

Page 135: Engineering Ethics

PERSONAL VS CORPORATE MORALITY• Is there a distinction between the ethics practiced

by an individual and the ethics of a corporation• Can a corporation be a moral agent as an individual

can – if corporation has no moral agency then it cannot be held accountable for its actions.

• Dilemma most sharp in virtue ethics – can a company be expected to display honesty or loyalty – these are human traits, cannot be ascribed to Co

• Corporations should be considered pseudomoral agents and held accountable – corporate wrongdoing should not be hidden behind

Page 136: Engineering Ethics

WHICH ETHICAL THEORY IS BEST• How to decide which theory is applicable to a given

problem – can use all of them to analyze a problem from different angles ad see what result each gives

• Arguments for and against each theory.• Ethical theories are attempts to provide clarity and

consistency, systematic and comprehensive understanding and practical guidance in moral matters – sound ethical theories meet these aims.

• Sound ethical theories are clear and coherent, they organize basic moral values in a systematic and comprehensive way, they provide helpful guidance that is compatible with our moral convictions.

Page 137: Engineering Ethics

WHICH ETHICAL THEORY IS BEST• An important role of a sound ethical theory is to

improve our moral insight into particular problems.• There is an ongoing checking of an ethical theory

against the judgments about specific situations that we are most confident are correct and in reverse a checking of our judgments about specific situations by reference to the ethical theory.

• Theories and specific judgments are continually adjusted to each other in a back-and-forth process until we reach what is called reflective equilibrium.

Page 138: Engineering Ethics

WHICH ETHICAL THEORY IS BEST• It is an equilibrium because our principles and judgments

coincide; and it is reflective since we know to what principles our judgments conform and the premises of their derivation.

• Which of the ethical theories most fully satisfy these criteria?

• Some versions of rule-utilitarianism, rights ethics, duty ethics, virtue ethics and self-realization ethics all satisfy the criteria in high degrees – there are more similarities and connections than differences

• Community-oriented version of self realization ethics can be linked to duties to oneself, personal liberty and pursuit of excellence.

Page 139: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES

• Need to develop analysis and problem-solving strategies to help engineers to decide whether it is ethical to work on a particular product or process.

• What tools are there for an engineer to decide which is the ethically correct path to take?

• These techniques will allow us to put ethical problems in the proper perspective and will point us in the direction of the correct solution.

• In engineering we look for an appropriate formula, plug in the numbers and calculate the answer – not possible in ethical problem solving

Page 140: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING ANALYSIS OF ISSUES

• First step is to completely understand all of the issues involved – once issues determined a solution to the problem becomes apparent.

• Issues involved in understanding ethical problems can be split into three categories: Factual Conceptual Moral

• Understanding these issues helps to put an ethical problem in the proper framework and helps point the way to a solution.

Page 141: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING TYPES OF ISSUES

• Factual issues involve what is known about case – what the facts are. Concept seems straightforward, the facts of a case are not always clear/controversial – right to die – global warming

• Conceptual issues have to do with the meaning or applicability of an idea – defining what constitutes a bribe as opposed to an acceptable gift – determining whether certain business information is proprietary – conceptual issues are not always clear-cut and will often result in controversy.

Page 142: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING TYPES OF ISSUES

• Once the factual and conceptual issues have been resolved all that remains is to determine which moral principle is applicable to the situation.

• Resolution of moral issues is often more obvious – once the problem is defined, it is usually clear which moral concept applies, and the correct decision becomes obvious.

• Issues surrounding an ethical problem can be controversial, how can these controversies be resolved? – research to establish the truth – not always possible to achieve final “truth”- everyone

Page 143: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING TYPES OF ISSUES

• Generally, further research helps clarify the situation, can increase the areas of agreement, and can sometimes achieve consensus on the facts.

• Conceptual issues are resolved by agreeing on the meaning of terms and concepts – sometimes agreement not possible but further analysis of the concepts at least clarifies some of the issues and helps to facilitate agreement.

• Moral issues are resolved by agreement as to which moral principles are pertinent and how they should be applied.

Page 144: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING CASE STUDY – PARADYNE COMPUTERS

• Paradyne Computers bid to supply Social Security Administration (SSA) with new computer systems

• Request for proposals clearly specified that only existing systems would be considered. Paradyne did not have any such system and had never tested the software on the product they proposed to sell.

• Employment of a former SSA worker by Paradyne to help lobby SSA for contract is also clear.

• Factual issues do not appear controversial.

Page 145: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING CASE STUDY – PARADYNE COMPUTERS

• Conceptual issues involve whether bidding to provide an off-the-shelf product when the actual product is only in the planning stages is lying or is an acceptable business practice.

• Is placing a Paradyne label over the real manufacturer’s deceptive?

• Does lobbying your former employer on behalf of your current employer constitute a conflict of interest?

• These questions generate discussions.

Page 146: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING CASE STUDY – PARADYNE COMPUTERS

• Paradyne asserted that it had done nothing wrong and was simply engaging in common business practices.

• Issue of conflict of interest is so hard to decide that laws have been enacted making it illegal for workers who have left government employment to lobby their former employers for specific period of time.

• Moral issues include the following: Is lying an acceptable business practice? Is it alright to be deceptive if doing so allows your

company to get a contract?

Page 147: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING LINE DRAWING

• Line Drawing Technique useful for situations in which the applicable moral principles are clear, but there seems to be great deal of “gray area” about which ethical principles apply.

• Performed by drawing a line along which various examples and hypothetical situations are placed.

• At one end is placed “positive paradigm”, an example of something that is unambiguously morally acceptable. At the other end the “negative paradigm” an example of something that is unambiguously not morally acceptable.

• In between is placed the problem under consideration, along with other similar examples.

Page 148: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING LINE DRAWING

• Those examples that more closely conform to the +ve paradigm are placed near it and vice versa.

• By carefully examining this continuum and placing the moral problem under consideration in the appropriate place along the line, it is possible to determine whether is more like the +ve or –ve paradigm and therefore whether it is acceptable or unacceptable.

• Example of disposing slightly toxic waste by dumping it into a local lake from which a town gets its drinking water.

Page 149: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGLINE DRAWING

• To determine if this practice is acceptable ? Start by defining the problem and +ve and –ve paradigms.

• Research indicates that that the concentration of toxic waste in lake will be 5 parts per million (ppm).

• Regulation limit on this waste is 10 ppm – at 5 ppm no health problems and consumers not able to detect compound in their drinking water.

• +ve paradigm – water supply should be clean & safe• –ve paradigm – toxic levels of waste are put in lake .• Draw a line and place +ve and –ve paradigms on it.

Page 150: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGLINE DRAWING

• Establish some other hypothetical examples:1. At 5 ppm chemical will be harmless, but town’s

water will have an unusual taste.2. Chemical can be removed by existing water

treatment system.3. Chemical can be removed by the town with new

equipment that will be purchased by the company.4. Chemical can be removed by the town with new

equipment for which the taxpayer will pay.5. Occasional exposure to the chemical can make

people feel ill but this only lasts an hour and is rare

Page 151: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGLINE DRAWING

6. At 5 ppm, some people can get fairly sick, but the sickness only lasts a week, and there is no long-term harm.

7. Equipment can be installed at the plant to further reduce the waste level to 1 ppm.

• More and more test examples can be created but generally where the problem fits along the line is obvious with only a few examples.

• Re-draw line with examples inserted appropriately.• After setting examples it may be clear that there is

gap in knowledge – seasonal variations, H2O usage

Page 152: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGLINE DRAWING

• Complete exercise by denoting the problem with “P” and inserting it at the appropriate place along the line – somewhat subjective.

• Clear that dumping waste is probably a morally acceptable choice since no humans harmed – but far from +ve paradigm and there are probably better choices that can be made and company should investigate these alternatives.

• Other considerations

Page 153: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING LINE DRAWING

• Although action seems ethically acceptable many other considerations may be factored into the final decision: Political aspects Community may regard dumping toxin as unacceptable Company may want to avoid lengthy amount of time

required to obtain a permit / oversight by government• Line drawing can help solve the ethical aspects of a

problem, but a choice that appears morally acceptable still might not be the best choice when politics and community relations are considered. In any case immoral choice is never the correct choice.

Page 154: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVING LINE DRAWING

• This technique seems to help with problem analysis and can lead to solutions there are many pitfalls in its use – if not used properly, gives incorrect results

• Can be used to prove that something is right when it is actually wrong – effective when used objectively and honestly – choice to put examples and define paradigms is up to individual.

• Can reach false conclusions by using incorrect paradigms – by dishonest placement of examples along line and dishonest placement of problem with examples – say problem like example 2 and near PP

Page 155: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGLINE DRAWING

• Apply this technique to Pentium Chip Case – in 90s reported that latest Intel chip had flaws. At first Intel sought to hide this information, but later agreed to a policy of offering chips without flaws.

• +ve paradigm – products should perform as adv• –ve paradigm – knowingly sell products that are

defective and will negatively affect applications.• Few examples that can be added are:

1. There is a flaw in the chip, but it is undetectable and won’t affect any customer’s applications.

2. There are flaws in the chip, the customer is informed of them, but no help is offered.

Page 156: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGLINE DRAWING

3. A warning label says that the chip should not be used for certain applications.

4. Recall notices are sent out, and all flawed chips are replaced.

5. Replacement chips are offered only if the customer notices the problem.

• Other examples can also be added – if line drawn and Intel’s approach – there is a flaw, customer’s aren’t informed, and the magnitude of the problem is minimized .

• Line drawing analysis says that the approach taken by Intel in this case wasn’t the best ethical choice.

Page 157: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGFLOW CHARTING

• Familiar and used in developing computer programs and other engineering disciplines.

• In engineering ethics helpful for analyzing a variety of cases, especially those in which there is a sequence of events to be considered or a series of consequences that flows from each decision.

• Advantage to analyze ethical problems is that it gives a visual picture of a situation and allows to readily see the consequences that flow ….

• No unique flow chart that is applicable to a problem – different flow charts can be used to emphasize different aspects of the same problem.

Page 158: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGFLOW CHARTING

• Like line drawing essential to be as objective as possible and to approach flow charting honestly.

• Otherwise possible to draw any conclusion, even one that is clearly wrong.

• Apply to disaster at Bhopal – Union Carbide chemical plant leaked in 1984 – highly toxic chemical used in manufacture of pesticides – toxic cloud of gas over Bhopal killing 2000 and injuries to over 200,000.

• Inadequate safety measures by US company.

Page 159: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGFLOW CHARTING

• Flow charts deal with the decision making process that might have gone on at Union Carbide as they decided whether or not to build a plant at Bhopal.

• Chart emphasizes safety issues for the surrounding community.

• There were several paths that might have been taken and multiple decisions that had to be made.

• Flow chart helps to visualize the consequences of each decision and indicates both the ethical and unethical choices.

• Key to effective use of flow charts is to be creative.

Page 160: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGCONFLICT PROBLEMS

• An area that presents us with a choice between two conflicting moral values, each of which seems to be correct. How to make the correct choice?

• Conflict problems can be solved in three ways.• Often in conflicting moral choices, one is more

significant than the other – resolution easy.• Second solution called “creative middle way” –

attempt at some kind of compromise – nobody gets what they want.

• When no easy choice – hard choice, bite the bullet.

Page 161: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGCONFLICT PROBLEMS

• Examine Challenger case to illustrate resolution of conflict problems – dilemma by Engineering Mngr

• Conflict was clear – unknown probability that shuttle would explode – Mngr had responsibility to his company and people who worked for him.

• Consequences of postponing the launch may lead to loss of future contracts from NASA, loss of jobs.

• For many easy choice simply not to launch – risk to lives far outweighs any other considerations.

• Impossible to balance jobs against lives.• Not everyone finds this easy choice – Engg Mngr

Page 162: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGCONFLICT PROBLEMS

• Creative middle ground might involve delaying launch until later in day – temperature warmed up

• May not be possible for timing related completion of planned missions.

• Astronauts could be informed of engineer’s concern and be allowed to make the choice whether to launch or not.

• If risk is informed and choice made by those taking the risk, somewhat relieves the company of the responsibility if an accident occurs.

Page 163: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGCONFLICT PROBLEMS

• Hard choice is what Engg Mngr made.• Choose to risk the launch, perhaps because the

data were ambiguous.• Might also have wanted to help ensure the future

health of the shuttle program and to save the jobs of Thiokol workers.

• Gamble did not pay off – shuttle exploded.• Causing deaths of astronauts, leading to lengthy

delays in the shuttle program, political problems for NASA and business difficulties for Thiokol.

Page 164: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGBRIBERY / ACCEPTANCE OF GIFTS

• Gray area of engineering ethics is acceptance of gifts from vendors or the offering of gifts to customers to secure business.

• Difficulty is because of the potential for gifts to become bribes or to be perceived as bribes.

• Frequently engineers find themselves in the position of either dealing with vendors who wish to sell them products or acting as vendors themselves and working on sales to other engineers or companies.

Page 165: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGBRIBERY / ACCEPTANCE OF GIFTS

• Bribery is illegal nearly everywhere although in some places it may be overlooked or even expected, but it always takes place under the table.

• Never a legitimate business practice – laws against.• Fine line between bribery and a simple gift –

sometimes the distinction has to do with the value of the gift – always it has to do with the intent.

• Important to ensure no matter how innocent the gift, the appearance of impropriety is avoided.

Page 166: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGBRIBERY / ACCEPTANCE OF GIFTS

• Bribe is something, such as money or a favour, offered or given to someone in a position of trust in order to induce him to act dishonestly – it is something offered or serving to influence or persuade.

• Bribery corrupts economic system – bribery does not reward the most efficient producer.

• Sellout to the rich – corrupts justice and public policy by allowing rich to make all the rules – guarantees that only large, powerful corporations survive since they are more capable of providing bribes – small business not able to give favours.

Page 167: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGBRIBERY / ACCEPTANCE OF GIFTS

• Bribery treats people as commodities that can be bought and sold – degrading to human beings.

• Boundary between a legitimate gift and a bribe is very subtle – coffee mugs, calendars with logo, dining together shared / low-cost – ok

• Social interaction facilitates close and successful interactions required by both sides – but when meals or gifts are no longer low cost possibility of abuse becomes large.

• Examples – mug vs crystal bowl, fast food vs PC, sales seminar in Rawalpindi vs Dubai with family.

Page 168: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGBRIBERY / ACCEPTANCE OF GIFTS

• Gifts can be before purchase or afterwards does not change the situation.

• Bribery can easily be analyzed by looking at the factual, conceptual and moral issues.

• Line drawing can be effectively applied to bribery cases. Subtle differences between value of gift, timing of gift, etc easily visualized using line drawing and often very clear what the ethical choice will be based on a well drawn line.

• Flow charting can be used to examine the consequences that will result from acceptance or offer of a gift.

Page 169: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGBRIBERY / ACCEPTANCE OF GIFTS

• How to ensure that accepting a gift does not cross the line into bribery.

• Most companies have clear policy about acceptance of gift – deviation requires approval from higher management.

• Philosophy rooted in sense of trying to avoid any conflict of interest and any appearance of impropriety.

• Companies that realize importance of social interactions allow employees more discretion, otherwise preapproval required from management – absence of guidelines – use media test.

Page 170: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGCOMPUTER ETHICS

• Computers have become a ubiquitous tool in engineering and business.

• Numerous ways in which in which computers have been misused leading to serious ethical issues.

• Engineer’s role as designer, manager and user of computers brings responsibility for ethical use.

• Ethical issues associated with computers are variations on other issues – unauthorized use of information stored on computer databases relate to issue of confidentiality and proprietary info

• Same ethical problem solving techniques used.

Page 171: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGCOMPUTER ETHICS

• Three broad categories of computer ethics problems:• Those for which the computer is the instrument of

the unethical act, such as the use of a computer to defraud a bank.

• Those for which the computer is the object of the act, as when computer software is stolen and installed on one’s own computer or when information is accessed from someone else’s computer.

• Problems associated with the autonomous nature of computers.

Page 172: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGCOMPUTER AS THE INSTRUMENT

• Computers can be used to more efficiently steal money from the bank vis-à-vis masked bandit.

• Bank robbery easier to perform and harder to trace – robber sits at a computer terminal (modern equivalent of a mask) invades the bank’s computer system and directs bank assets to a location accessible to him – using a computer a criminal can make it difficult for the theft to be detected and traced – no difference between robbery in person or via computer although higher amounts taken then armed robbery – crime impersonal.

Page 173: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGCOMPUTER AS THE INSTRUMENT

• Another instrumental area involves privacy – widely held that certain information is private and cannot be divulged without consent – information about individuals as well as corporate information.

• Computers did not create the issues involved in privacy, but they certainly have exacerbated them.

• Computers make privacy more difficult to protect, since large amounts of data on individuals and corporations are centrally stored on computers where an increasing number of people can access it – privacy – harassment – information like personal property – theft.

Page 174: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGCOMPUTERS AS THE OBJECT

• This unethical act popularly referred to as “hacking” with sometimes the hacker being portrayed as heroic.

• Hacking comes in many forms: gaining unauthorized access to a data base, implanting false information in a data base or altering existing information and disseminating viruses over the Internet.

• Hacking clearly ethically troublesome – privacy invaded, information altered, secret military info could have implications on national security.

Page 175: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGAUTONOMOUS COMPUTERS

• Autonomy refers to ability of a computer to make decisions without the intervention of humans.

• Applications for which autonomy is valuable – manufacturing process that require monitoring and control at frequent intervals can benefit – little impact beyond the interests of the manufacturer.

• Automatic trading on stock exchange can create unstable situation – computers start selling stocks automatically as prices drop causing other computers to sell until major market crash – 1987.

Page 176: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGAUTONOMOUS COMPUTERS

• Autonomy of computers has also been called into question with regard to military weapons – many weapons rely heavily on computer sensors and computer controls – due speed with which events can happen on modern battlefield valuable to have weapons that can operate autonomously.

• Weapon systems operating without human intervention can be unstable – malfunctioning sensor may lead a computer to think enemy has increased its military activity, causing increased readiness followed by increased activity by enemy – could lead to conflict – human control necessary.

Page 177: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

• Is the act by an employee of informing the public or higher management of unethical or illegal behaviour by an employer or supervisor.

• Examine the ethical aspects of whistleblowing and discuss when it is appropriate or inappropriate.

• Also look at what corporations and government agencies can do to lessen the need for employees to take this drastic action.

• Whistleblowing straddles the line between rights and responsibilities – engineers have a duty to protect the health and safety of the public and in many cases engineer is compelled to blow whistle.

Page 178: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

• Engineers also have the professional right to disclose wrongdoing within their organizations and expect to see appropriate action taken.

• Whistleblowing can take several forms: Internal, external, acknowledged and anonymous.

• Internal whistleblowing occurs when an employee goes over the head of an immediate supervisor to report a problem to a higher level of management or all levels of management are bypassed and the employee goes directly to the President, CEO of the company or the board of directors – when done this whistleblowing is kept within the org.

Page 179: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

• External whistleblowing occurs when the employee goes outside the company and reports wrongdoing to newspapers or law-enforcement authorities / government.

• Either type of whistleblowing is likely to be perceived as disloyalty – however keeping it within the company is often seen as less serious than going outside of the company.

• Anonymous whistleblowing occurs when the employee who is blowing the whistle refuses to divulge his name when making accusations – these might be memos or phone calls or talk to media.

Page 180: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

• Acknowledged whistleblowing on the other hand occurs when the employee puts his name behind the accusations and is willing to withstand the scrutiny brought on by his accusations.

• Whistleblowing can be very bad from a corporation’s point of view because it can lead to distrust, disharmony and an inability of employees to work together – sports penalty by own teammate – extreme disloyalty though “gentlemanly” thing to do. In business whistle blowing is perceived as an act of extreme disloyalty to the company and to coworkers.

Page 181: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

• During course of professional life might come across cases of wrongdoing. How do you know when you should blow the whistle?

• To answer this question let’s look at when you may blow the whistle and then look at when you should blow the whistle.

• Whistleblowing should only be attempted if the following four conditions are met:

1. Need – there must be clear and important harm that can be avoided by blowing the whistle. In deciding whether to go public, the employee needs to have a sense of proportion.

Page 182: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

1. (contd) Don’t need to blow the whistle about everything, just the important things. If there is a pattern of many small things that are going on, this can add up to a major and important matter requiring that the whistle be blown – toxic spill in nearby waterway, but immediately cleaned vs this event happening repeatedly and no corrective action taken to rectify the problem despite repeated attempts by employees. First case does not merit notifying outside authorities. But in second case the situation is serious enough to warrant the extreme measure of whistleblowing.

Page 183: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

2. Proximity – the whistleblower must be in a clear position to report on the problem. Hearsay is not adequate. Firsthand knowledge is essential to making an effective case about wrongdoing. This also implies that the whistleblower must have enough expertise in the area to make a realistic assessment of the situation. This condition stems from the clauses in several codes of ethics that mandate that an engineer not undertake work in areas outside his / her expertise. This principle applies equally well to making assessments about whether wrongdoing is taking place.

Page 184: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

3. Capability – the whistleblower must have a reasonable chance of success in stopping the harmful activity. Not obligated to risk your career and the financial security of your family if you can’t see the case through to completion or you don’t feel that you have access to the proper channels to ensure that the situation is resolved.

4. Last Resort – whistleblowing should be attempted only if there is no one else more capable or more proximate to blow the whistle and if you feel that all other lines of action within the context of the organization have been explored and shut off.

Page 185: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

• These four conditions tell us when whistleblowing is morally acceptable. But when is an engineer morally obligated to blow the whistle?

• There may be situations in which you are aware of wrongdoing and the four conditions above have been met. In this case the whistle may be blown if you feel that the matter is sufficiently important.

• You are only obligated to blow the whistle when there is great imminent danger of harm to someone if the activity continues and the four conditions have been met.

Page 186: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

• A great deal of introspection and reflection is required before whistleblowing is undertaken.

• Important for the whistleblower to understand his motives before undertaking this step. It is acceptable to blow the whistle to protect the public interest, but not to exact revenge upon fellow employees, supervisors or your company.

• Nor is it acceptable to blow the whistle in the hopes of future gains through promotion, publicity, media coverage or just being considered very important and pure and righteous.

Page 187: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

• Look at whistleblowing from the employer’s point of view – should seek to minimize the need for employees to blow the whistle within organization.

• If information about wrongdoing becomes public, it is harmful to the organization’s image and will negatively affect the future prospects of the Co.

• It is probably impossible to eliminate all wrongdoing in a corporation or government deptt – even good organizations with strong ethical culture will have employees who succumb to the temptation to do something wrong.

Page 188: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

• Typical corporate approach to stemming whistleblowing and the resulting bad publicity is to fire whistleblowers and to intimidate others that might seem likely to blow the whistle – this approach ineffective and ethically unacceptable.

• Four ways to stop whistle blowing: Strong corporate ethics culture Clear lines of communication Employees have meaningful access to high-level mangr Willingness on the part of management to admit

mistakes, publicly if necessary.

Page 189: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGWHISTLE BLOWING

Strong corporate ethics culture: This should include a clear commitment to ethical behaviour, starting at the highest levels of management, and mandatory ethics training for all employees. All managers must set the tone for the ethical behaviour of their employees.

Clear lines of communication: within the corporation, this openness gives an employee, who feels that there is something that must be fixed, a clear path to air his concerns.

Employees have meaningful access to high-level manager: in order to bring their concerns forward. This access must come with a guarantee that their will be no retaliation. Rather employees willing to come forward should be rewarded for their commitment to fostering the ethical behaviour of the company.

Willingness on the part of management to admit mistakes: publicly if necessary. This attitude will set the stage for ethical behaviour by all employees.

Page 190: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGETHICS AND RESEARCH

• Two major ethical issues related to research: Honesty in approaching the research problem. Honesty in reporting the results.

• The first relates to a state of mind essential to successfully performing research – this state of mind includes avoiding preconceived notions about what the results will be, being open to changing the hypothesis when such action is warranted by the evidence, and generally ensuring that an objective frame of mind is maintained.

• This attitude is not necessarily easy to assume, but essential to producing useful research/test results.

Page 191: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGETHICS AND RESEARCH

• Results must also be accurately reported – once an experiment or test has been performed, the results of the experiment must not be overstated, but rather an accurate assessment and interpretation of the data must be given.

• The environment that most researchers work in fosters temptations and rewards for overstating research results.

• Academic researchers must publish significant research results in order to get tenure/promotion.

• If an experiment isn’t working out, it is tempting to “massage” the results to achieve the desired outcome.

Page 192: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGETHICS AND RESEARCH

• Even for researchers in industrial environment and faculty, the quest for fame or the desire to be the first with new results can be overwhelming and can lead to falsification of data – the pressure to get a new product to market leads the test engineer to “fudge” data to qualify the product.

• Important to note the difference between intentional deception and results or interpretations that are incorrect – sometimes results are published that upon further research turn out to be incorrect – not an ethical issue unless clarification of the results not presented.

Page 193: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGETHICS AND RESEARCH

• Important to ensure that proper credit is given to everyone who participated in a research project – rarely is research performed by a single investigator, generally there is participation by other people who should be acknowledged.

• Fraud and deception in research are not rare and are performed both by lower level and well-known scientists – even Nobel prize winning scientists have had lapses of ethical judgment – 1923 Nobel winner in Physics excluded 49 of 140 experimental observations from the paper he published although he stated that the work contained all of the data.

Page 194: Engineering Ethics

ETHICAL PROBLEM SOLVINGETHICS AND RESEARCH

• How can ethical issues relating to research best be analyzed?

• Easiest means to determine the best ethical course in performing research and experiment is to consult the codes of ethics of the engineering profession.

• All codes require engineers to be honest in reporting results of work and assigning credit for work done.

• Several ethical theories can be used to analyze issues involving research. Utilitarianism or rights and duty ethics can be applied to research, but it is easiest to examine research using virtue ethics.

Page 195: Engineering Ethics

ETHICS AND RESEARCH PATHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

• Self-deception is one of the biggest impediments to the successful completion of a research or experimental project.

• Self-deception in research is a frequent occurrence in many areas of science and has led to some notorious cases throughout history – a term has been coined for this phenomenon – pathological science.

• Six characteristics have been proposed for pathological science.

Page 196: Engineering Ethics

ETHICS AND RESEARCH PATHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

1. The maximum effect that is observed is produced by a causative agent of barely detectable intensity, and the magnitude of the effect is substantially independent of the intensity of the cause.

2. The effect is of a magnitude that remains close to the limit of detectability; or many measurements are necessary because of the very low statistical significance of the results.

3. Claims of great accuracy.4. Fantastic theories contrary to experience.5. Criticisms are met by adhoc excuses thought up on the spur of

the moment.6. Ratio of supporters to critics rises upto somewhere near 50%

and then falls gradually to oblivion.

Page 197: Engineering Ethics

ETHICS AND RESEARCH PATHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

• The term does not imply any intentional dishonesty, but only that the researcher comes to false conclusions based on lack of understanding about how easy it is to trick yourself through wishful thinking and subjectivity.

• A great deal of objectivity and care in the pursuit of research or testing is required. Drawing conclusions on very subtle effects is very tricky and these conclusions should be confirmed by as many colleagues as possible. The goal of research is not publicity and fame but discovery of new knowledge.


Top Related