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The Environment and the
Middle East
Pathways to Sustainability
Volume 1
Middle East Institute Viewpoints
February 2011
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Table of Contents
About the Authors 6
Introduction 9
Sustainable Development and the Built Environment in the Middle East:Challenges and Opportunities,Karim Elgendy 10
Solar Power ScaleUp in the MENA: Resolving the Associated Water Use Challenges,Adriana M. Valenica 13
Impacts o Water Scarcity on the Social Welare o Citizens in the Middle East,Muawya Ahmed Hussein 20
Living with Soil Salinity: Is It Possible?,Mushtaque Ahmed and Salim A. Al-Rawah 25
Innovating Ways to Face the Eects o Environmental Degradation,
Mahi Tabet-Aoul 28
Improvement o Air Quality in Egypt: Te Role o Natural Gas,Ibrahim Abdel Gelil 32
Te Politics o Water Scarcity in Egypt,Brian Chatterton 35
Environmental Science at Qatar University: Realizing Qatars 2030 Vision,Malcolm Potts 40
LowCost Methods to reat Greywater: A Case Study rom Oman,Mushtaque Ahmed, S.A. Prathapar, and Seif Al-Adawi 45
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About the Authors
e views epressed in these Viewpoints are those of the authors; the Middle East Institute does not take positions on Middle East polic.
Brian Chatterton was educated in India, Australia, and Britain. He then became a farmer,grapegrower, and winemaker and was elected to the South Australian Parliament in 1973. He
became Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forests two ears later. Since retirement he hasconsulted on drland farming and water issues in North Africa and West Asia. See www.drlandfarming.org.
Dr. Mushtaque Ahmed is the Director of the Center for Environmental Studies and Research(CESAR) and Associate Professor of the Department of Soils, Water, and Agricultural Engineer-ing, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos Universit (SQU) of Oman.He joined SQU in 1996. He obtained a PhD in Water Resources (major) and Soil Phsics (minor)from Iowa State Universit, Ames, Iowa in 1988 and a MS in Civil Engineering from the Universitof Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu in 1984. He is a corporate member of the Institution of Engineers,Australia, and a member of the International Association of Hdrological Sciences and the AsiaOceania Geosciences Societ. Before joining SQU he worked for CSIRO in Australia and the
NSW state government.
Dr. Salim A. Al-Rawah teaches in the Department of Soils, Water & Agricultural Engineer-
ing at the College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences in Sultan Qaboos (SQU) Universit inOman. He received his PhD degree in Soil and Water Sciences at the Universit of Arizona, inTucson in 1989. He has been the Principal Investigator of Strategic Project Management ofSalt-Aected Soils and Water for Sustainable Agriculture (20062010).
Saif S. Al-Adawi is a Chief Technician (Agricultural Engineering) in the Department of SoilsWater, and Agricultural Engineering, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos Universit. He graduated in 1992 from Sultan Qaboos Universit with a BSc in Agricultura
Mechanization and in 1995 obtained a MSc degree in Agricultural Engineering from e OhioState Universit, Columbus, Ohio.
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Dr. Ibrahim Abdel Gelil is Professor, Academic Chair, H.H. Sheikh Zaed Bin Sultan Al Nahanin Environmental Science, and the Director of the Graduate Studies Program on EnvironmentalManagement, College of Graduate Studies, Arabian Gulf Universit (AGU), Kingdom of Bahrain.
Karim Elgend is an architect and sustainabilit consultant based in London. He is the found-er of Carboun, an initiative advocating sustainabilit and environmental conservation in theMiddle East. Carboun.com provides an online platform for sharing resources relating to sus-tainabilit and the environment in the region. For more information on the Carboun initiativeand to access these resources, visit www.carboun.com.
Muawa Ahmed Hussein is a professor at Dhofar Universit, College of Commerce & BusinesAdministration, Salalah,Oman.
Malcolm Potts is Professor of Biochemistr Emeritus in the Department of Biological and Envi-ronmental Sciences, Qatar Universit. Dr. Potts earned BSc, PhD, and DSc degrees from DurhamUniversit. His doctoral and post-doctoral studies include: Roal Societ Research Station Al-
dabra Atoll; Oldenburg Universit, German; Roal Societ Post-Doctoral Fellow Israel Acad-em of Sciences; and McMurdo Station, Antarctica. He has held academic positions at FloridaState Universit and Virginia Tech. Research and educational development activities of the authorand colleagues in the DBES are supported through a grant from the Qatar National Research Fund
(QNRF) of Qatar Foundation, in the National Priorities Research Program (grant NPRP 27-6-7-24), an Undergraduate Research Eperience Program award (UREP 07-020-1-004), and supportfrom Qatar Universit (QU). e views epressed in this article are solel those of the author anddo not necessaril reect the opinion of either QNRF or QU.
About the Authors (cont.)
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About the Authors (cont.)
Adriana M. Valencia has a PhD and a Masters in Science from the Universit of California,Berkele in Energ and Resources. She has several ears of multi-regional work eperience inthe environmental and renewable energ elds in various organizations.
Mahi Tabet-Aoul received degrees in telecommunications engineering and meteorolog engineering at Strasbourg Universit and Paris-Sorbonne. He specialized in the eld of the atmosphere aboth the Universit of Fort-Collins and the Universit of Miami, and has taught at Laval Univer-sit in Canada as a visiting professor. Aoul was the founder and rst Director of the Hdrom-torological Institute for training and research.
Sanmugam A. Prathapar is currentl the Dean of the College of Agricultural and Marine Sci-
ences, Sultan Qaboos Universit, Oman. He received a PhD degree in Agricultural Engineeringfrom Teas A & M Universit in 1986. Before joining SQU in 2002, he served at the Universitof Technolog, Sdne (20012002), the International Water Management Institute (19962001)and the Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial Research Organization (19871996).
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Introduction
As this publication is being launched, Egypt enters the third week o nationwide protests. Indeed, there is
evidence o political erment throughout the Arab world, as people have taken to the streets in unisia, Jordan
Lebanon, and Yemen. It is these events and where they may lead the region politically that have claimed the
headlines, and deservedly so. Yet, no less important than how the regions politics may be reshaped in the coming
months is whether, and how, its physical environment will be preserved in the ace o a multitude o challenges
Tis volume is the rst o several collections o essays dealing with the Environment and the Middle East. Impor
tantly, these essays ocus less on the problems themselves than on what can and should be done to address them.
As the subtitle Pathways to Sustainability suggests, the series eatures some o the many examples o environ
mental stewardship practiced and promoted throughout the region by scientists, teachers, nongovernmental
organizations, community activists, and many others. One can only hope that the current political turbulence
will give rise to arsighted leadership and a climate that embraces and supports such contributions.
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Sustainable Development and the Built Environment in the Middle East:
Challenges and Opportunities
Karim Elgendy
In the Western context, notions o sustainable development oen reer to the need to adjust existing economic modelsin order to maintain better balances between economic growth and social needs, while protecting local ecologies and
reducing the negative impact o growth on the global environment.
In the developing world, however, sustainable development takes on a rather dierent meaning. With the agendas o de
veloping nations ocused on addressing basic developmental challenges such as economic growth, water scarcity, ood
security, and health, other environmental and social aspects are considered secondary at best and, or the most part, a
luxury that a developing nation cannot aord.
In the absence o unctioning economic models in the developing world, sustainable development here is not about
adjustments to maintain balances. Instead, it is about using this economical tabula rasa to build the oundations o a
new economic model in which sustainability and the environment are integral. One o these economic oundations is
the built environment.
Te built environment o our cities plays a major role in shaping the way we live and work, and given its relatively long
liespan, its impact is long lasting. Our buildings determine how much energy we use to maintain thermal comort
,while our inrastructures determine how much energy we need or transportation. It is estimated that 40% o carbon
emissions worldwide are produced rom the occupation o buildings, with at least a portion o transportations 20%
share being a consequence o the way our cities are planned.
Our built environment also inuences our impact on the local environment as well as our collective health and wellbe
ing. Tus, as the cities o the developing world continue to grow, they continue to make decisions about the direction
their development takes.
In the Middle East, the role o the built environment is becoming more pronounced as the region continues to experience
rapid population increases and urbanization. Increased urban densities, together with the rise o consumerism, have notonly led to an increase in environmental degradation locally, but they have also meant that the regions traditionally low
energy use and consequently its carbon emissions are set to rise and play a larger role in global climate change.
But embracing sustainable development in the built environment o the Middle East aces many challenges, which pre
vents it rom becoming part o the regions development ramework and its building industry practices.
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CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
At the urban scale, sustainable development aces the lack o an urban development ramework in most o the regions
cities and the general lack o an encouraging regulatory environment that could stimulate a market change towards
sustainable development. It also aces the scarcity o successul regional precedents in energy and water conservation
as well as waste management. Te latter issue is even more concerning given rising energy consumption in buildings
growing water scarcity, and the increase in waste generation that accompanies rising consumption.
At the individual building scale, sustainable development aces dier
ent but equally dicult challenges. Chie among which is the re
gions hot and arid climate. While it is common knowledge that the rapid
growth o many o the regions cities was only possible with the help o
the great energy resources discovered under its sands, it is perhaps a less
known act that these cities require great energy supplies to keep themhabitable given the way they were planned and built.
Since the building orms that have shaped the cities o the Middle East in recent decades were mostly imported, they
were not environmentally responsive to the regions climatic conditions and relied on energyintensive air condition
ing to remain cool enough or human occupation. But given the extreme nature o the climate, or alternative building
orms that are less dependent on ossil uel to emerge and replace the existing ones, extreme design measures must be
taken to reduce the energy associated with cooling in new buildings while maintaining comort levels inside them.
Another challenge that aces sustainable development at the building scale is the regions construction industry. Te
general lack o enorceable energy eciency requirements or buildings together with the lack o nancial incentives
and the predominant lack o sucient sustainable design knowledge among building proessionals have all created an
industry that is reluctant to adopt sustainable construction. I the industry is to embrace the new designs and alternative
building orms described above, it must undergo a major transormation on all o these ronts.
OPPORTUNITIES AND NATURAL POTENTIALS
With the challenges above in mind, the Middle Easts urban environments also have natural potentials or sustainabledevelopment:
Te regions increasing urbanization and high population densities have a natural potential or the con
struction o the highlyeconomical neighborhoodscale energy systems;
Te regions heritage o traditional building models can also provide relevant guidance or designs that
Elgendy
Since the building orms thathave shaped the cities o the
Middle East in recent decadeswere mostly imported, theywere not environmentally
responsive to the regions cli-matic conditions
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Elgendy
are more energy ecient;
Te regions abundant solar and wind resources also present a potential or renewable energy systems to
be eectively employed and integrated into the built environment.
In addition to these inherent potentials, recent interest in sustainable development by governments, nongovernmentaorganizations, and proessional bodies around the region presents urther opportunities that can be capitalized upon
As it relates to the built environment, this interest has so ar taken the orm o eorts to establish sustainable develop
ment institutions and regulations.
Te Moroccan government, or example, has recently announced the establishment o a national charter or sustainable
development and the environment, while the governments o the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Egypt, and Jordan have
started introducing energy eciency standards or buildings. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and proes
sional organizations in Jordan, Qatar, and the UAE have established green building councils in their respective coun
tries with the goal o promoting sustainable design and developing or importing green building rating systems.
Te governments o the Emirates and Saudi Arabia have also been engaged in commissioning sustainable design pilot
projects, while others are considering providing nancial incentives or energy ecient buildings and small renewable
energy systems to make them commercially viable.
Tese positive developments and the opportunities they present indicate that the tide is turning albeit slowly to
wards more sustainable development in the Middle East. But they must be capitalized on i they are to overcome the
challenges described above. Te nature o the challenges aced by the region requires a commitment to sustainabledevelopment, a willingness to change the status quo, and a collaboration between governments, NGOs, proessional
bodies, and the public. Te region has a lot to learn rom the successul experiences o other developing countries tha
embraced sustainable development, but it will ultimately have to chart its own way i it is to create a sustainable uture
or its people.
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Solar Power ScaleUp in the MENA:
Resolving the Associated Water Use Challenges
Adriana M. Valencia
he Middle East and North Arica (MENA) region provides excellent conditions or the development o Concentrated Solar Power (CSP),1 notably much irradiation and unused at land2 in close proximity to road networks and
some transmission lines. Hence, a number o initiatives are underway to scaleup several donors are jointly launching a
program to scaleup CSP in the MENA to several gigawatt (GW) over the next decade.3
CSP deployment on this scale4 would bring substantial advantages to participating countries, including: leveraging
investments into CSP plants, thereby almost tripling current global investments in this technology; providing massive
investments in MENA countries; supporting MENA countries to achieve their development energy goals; and assisting
Europe to meet its greenhousegas emissions reduction commitments.
However, CSP scaleup is not exempt rom challenges, which comprise: the readiness o Europeans to purchase pro
duced power; aordability o the produced electricity or MENA countries versus the decision to instead purchase less
climateriendly natural gas; the readiness o transmission inrastructure; and the availability o clean water or CSP
requirements, along with environmental and social impacts. Tis article examines the latter.
WATER AVAILABILITy AS A CENTRAL CHALLENGE
Water use presents particular challenges in the MENA due to the regions water scarcity: the regions challenges rom
potential water scarcity are among the greatest in the world, with only 1,110 m3 o renewable water resources per person
per year in 2007, ar below the global average o 6,617 m3 p/c.5 Environmental problems resulting rom water issues cost
MENA countries between 0.52.5% o GDP every year.6 Future possible problems arising rom water scarcity include
ood security issues7 and possible conicts over water.8
Tis article represents the authors own viewpoints and not that o any institutions with which she is or has been aliated. Te authorwould like to thank Georg Caspary and Nishesh Mehta or their valuable contributions.1. One o the most promising renewable energy technologies.
2. Both major types o CSP technologies discussed in this paper require approximately 4 ha/MW or collectors and heliostats (UN Environment Programme [UNEP], 2003).3. Commitment investments or this development amount to nearly $5 billion at present.4. Note that the European industry consortium, DESEREC, intends to invest $400 billion in CSP and other renewable technologies inNorth Arica, making it perhaps the most ambitious climate change mitigation eort ever.5. WRI Earthtrends Database, Water Resources and Fresh Water Ecosystems (2007).6. World Bank, Making the Most o Water Scarcity: Accountability or Better Water Management in the Middle East and North Arica (2007)7. Hang Yang and Alexander Zehnder, Water Scarcity and Food Import: A Case Study or Southern Mediterranean Countries (2002).8. Conicts over water have occurred in other countries, with a recent example leading to the death o 15 Somalians a country whereland and access to water conicts are requent (See Dail News Egpt, March 67, 2010). Furthermore, it has been recorded that o the 37
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COMPARATIVE WATER USE: CSP VERSUS TRADITIONAL ENERGy TECHNOLOGIES
Te water needs o CSP (depending on design9) are similar in volume to standard energy technologies employed in
the region (notably thermal power). Yet, one o the challenges to CSP rollout in the region is that the technologys water
requirements (mainly or cooling) are nonetheless substantial.10
Data rom CSP plants built in other parts o the world (e.g., the United States) so ar suggest that parabolic trough CSP sys
tems use ~700800 gallons o water/MWh, compared to an average o ~500 gallons/MWh or coal and nuclear plants.
However, even though conventional power plants work at higher eciencies (due to their ability to achieve higher tem
peratures and pressure), such comparisons may exaggerate their advantages in water use terms because:
the comparisons use gures rom highly ecient USbased conventional plants, versus desert located CSP
plants; and
i water use or scrubbing/ash handling in coal power plants is included in the calculations, overall their
water use is similar.
Furthermore, conventional plants have very serious nonwater environmental issues: local and global pollution (coal)
scarcity (gas); or waste storage issues (nuclear). CSP arguably has less serious nonwater environmental impacts, mostly
rom the risk o toxic uid leakage which hardly compare to the risks mentioned or coal or nuclear.
actual military water conicts since 1950, 32 took place in the Middle East (30 o which involved Israel and its Arab neighbors in conictsover the Jordan River and its tributaries, which supply millions o people with water or drinking, bathing, and arming. See NationaParting the Waters, National Geographic (April 2010), http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/04/partingthewaters/belttext/1. Seealso Joyce Starr, Water Wars, Foreign Polic, No. 82 (Spring 1991), pp. 1736.9. Te key types o CSP design considered in this report (and being used in MENA) are parabolic trough and power tower. Power towersystems are one o the three types o concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies in use today. Some power towers use water/steam asthe heattranser uid. Other advanced designs are experimenting with molten nitrate salt because o its superior heattranser and energystorage capabilities. Power towers also oer good longerterm prospects because o the high solartoelectrical conversion eciency(see US Department o Energy [USDOE] website, 2010). Parabolic troughs are a type o linear concentrator and the most commerciallyavailable technology (e.g. they have been perorming reliably at a commercial scale in the US or more than 15 years). In such a system, the
receiver tube is positioned along the ocal line o each parabolashaped reector. Te tube is xed to the mirror structure and the heateduid either a heattranser uid or water/steam ows through and out o the eld o solar mirrors to where it is used to create steam(or, or the case o a water/steam receiver, it is sent directly to the turbine) and drives a generator to produce electricity (USDOE website2010). Note that another type o CSP is dish/engine systems, which use the Stirling thermodynamic cycle to directly produce electricityand thereore are aircooled and only require water or mirror washing. Tese systems use sunlight to power a small engine at the ocalpoint and the engines typically use hydrogen as the working uid. Tese are not widely used yet and are currently designed to provideelectricity only when the sun is shining (low possibilities or thermal storage) (USDOE, 2008). Since this is a disadvantage to utility scaleproduction and when the peak load period lasts past sunset, this technology is not discussed in this paper.10. A smaller portion is or cleaning o mirrors, while a certain amount o water is also needed or steam generation, i this is the chosenmethod o heat transer.
Valencia
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WATER IMPACTS FROM CSP
Te construction and operation o CSP projects lead to a variety o environmental and social impacts that need to be
identied, assessed, monitored, and mitigated. Tis environmental due diligence is sitespecic 11 and important at al
stages o the project.12 able 1, below, shows the key possible CSP impacts related to water.
ESTIMATING WATER NEEDS OF CSP IN THE MENA WITH DIFFERENT COOLING TECHNOLOGIES
Generally, decision makers must choose between wet/evaporative cooling, air cooling, or hybrid cooling technologies
or each prospective CSP project:13
Wet/evaporative cooling: ecient at moderate investment costs but high water consumption1.
(approximately 574 gal/MWh or between 23 m3
/MWh).
11. Te regional nature o this program may well necessitate a Strategic Impact Assessment or both environmental and social eects.12. Tree main stages may be dened as ollows (based on UNEP, 2003): (1) environmental regulatory ramework or the project; (2)environmental appraisal o the project; and (3) monitoring o environmental aspects during operation.13. Tere is also a cooling option in which water is drawn rom a body o water and then returned to that source. ermed oncethroughcooling, this option is not discussed here as it is now highly disregarded as an alternative due to its impacts on aquatic lie. Te losses romevaporation can also be signicant and the option requires an average o 25,000 gal/MWh or 94.6 m3/MWh (USDOE 2008).
Impacts Mitigation options
Water availability concernsUse o air cooling where use o wet cooling would result in water shortage.
Water conservation practices.
Routine/accidental release o
chemicals: e.g., antireeze or
rust inhibitors in coolant liquids.
Heat transer uids with harmul
chemicals.
Saety measures against such release through relevant components being
leakproo, regularly maintained, cleaned, and periodically replaced by ap
propriately trained sta.
Termal and/or chemical pol
lution o local water ways rom
cooling water/other waste water.
Euent treatment techniques to remove/reduce concentrations o contam
inants.
Monitoring o discharge water (e.g. eutrophication, oxygen content, tem
perature).Compliance with regulated pollutant emission levels o liquid euents (e.g.
local and/or national regulations, or international standards as deault).
Sources used to create this table include: Tsoutos et al. 2005; Biswas et al. 1992; Downing 1996; UNEP 2003, WB project documentation on eisting
CSP projects; and conversations with WB environmental safeguards sta.
able 1: Impacts rom CSP as they Possibly Relate to Water Issues and Mitigation Options
Valencia
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Air/dry cooling: less ecient2. 14 and more expensive than wet cooling but less than 10% o the water
consumption compared to wet cooling (between
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However, to make these calculations more accurate, it is important to know the number o hot days.19 Tis data is cur
rently unavailable (or one ull year) but is expected to become available by the end o 2011.20
MEETING CSP COOLING AND MENA WATER NEEDS: POTENTIAL DOUBLEDIVIDENDS FROM DESALINATION
Given the existing and growing water scarcity problems in the MENA, CSP scaleup should be done in a way that
contributes to solving the problems by: serving as a stable electricity source or desalination through processes such as
reverse osmosis (and thus partly meeting water needs o the region); and meeting the water needs o the CSP plants.
Since CSP plants are in essence thermal power plants, they can be used
or combined heat and power. Tus, they can be coupled with desali
nation technologies that use both heat and water such as MultiStage
Flash (MSF) and MultiEect Desalination (MED).21
An advantage o CSPpowered desalination is that a CSP plant can de
liver more stable and constant power capacity than wind or photovoltaic due to its thermal energy storage capacity (the
variability ound in wind and solar may lead to system ineciencies).
While a long implementation time rame should be expected (CSP desalination may need some 1015 years rom today
in order to reach a signicant share in the MENA water supply), CSP desalination has the highest potential to supply the
most economic (
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Given the assumptions o water requirement o 2.83.4 m3/MWh and capital costs o $1,5002,000/m3/d or MSF de
salination and $9001700/m3/d or MED, the additional capital costs required or the desalination equipment come to
~$3337/kW. For the CSP scaleup plan o 1,000MW, this amounts to an additional $33 million, assuming that each
plant reaches the economies o scale required or these costs. Since desalination is a mature technology in the region
these costs can be stated with a reasonable degree o accuracy. Te additional solar eld required would be in the ordero 13%.
Initial gures researched on the level o water and electricity needed in a combined CSP and desalination scenario sug
gest that or a 1,000 MW initial conguration o the plan (assumed to run or an average o seven hours a day), the water
requirements o the combined plants would be about 19,600 m3/day. Providing all o the needed water or the operation
o such 1,000 MW CPS scaleup capacity through desalination would require 0.52.8% o the electricity output o the
CSP plants, depending on the kind o technology utilized.
CONCLUSIONS
CSP scaleup may lead to a number o specic social and environmental issues, though ew o these CSPspecic is
sues have so ar arisen in actual CSP projects. For the most part, CSP projects are likely to give rise to the standard
saeguards issues o an inrastructure project o the relevant size; however, special care needs to be taken to avoid re
placement o agricultural water use or contamination o water bodies.
CSP scaleup throughout the MENA region may require vast amounts
o water depending on the selected cooling option. While water availability or CSP is, at the moment, only a side issue in CSP development
in the MENA (as CSP is still a technology with a limited geographical
scale), a largescale rollout o the technology (e.g., as proposed under
the DESEREC initiative) would imply taking a close look at water availability/scarcity and should bring the issue to
the oreront o CSP planning.
Tis article described that the water savings to be had rom hybrid cooling systems and air cooling systems vis--vis wet
cooling are considerable. Tis is o special importance, given the water scarcity in the MENA region. Additional water
savings generated by air cooling over hybrid cooling (at least at the upper end o the estimates range) generally out
weigh the rather marginal additional perormance and cost penalty associated with air and hybrid cooling. Nonetheless
the decision on the cooling technology ought to be made in each instance taking into account local conditions.22
22. E.g., water availability/cost, hourly ambient temperature, electricity costs, topography, population density, as well as the quality owater output needed.
Valencia
Combining CSP electricity
generation with desalinationtechnology can circumvent theproblem o water availability
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Te article also discussed the possible impact on perormance during hot days (air temperatures above 37.7C de
grees), and based on outside studies, indicated that as long as these hot days do not coincide with high plant output/
peak demand and high revenues, the perormance and costs impact may not be signicant. However, to be able to
perorm a true assessment o the possible perormance penalties associated with high temperatures, more data is re
quired on hourly temperatures throughout the year and more inormation is also needed on the expected loads in thecountries under consideration.
Combining CSP electricity generation with desalination technology can circumvent the problem o water availability
since the desalination plant can strike a symbiotic relationship where it supplies the requisite cooling water to the CSP
plants in return or electricity/heat needed to puriy water or various purposes. Tis is o particular signicance or the
MENA, where desalination is already a mature technology and CSP has a very high power generation potential.
Valencia
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Impacts o Water Scarcity on the Social Welare o Citizens in the Middle East
Muawya Ahmed Hussein
Over the past century, the Middle East and North Arica (MENA) has undergone huge changes. According to 2007
estimates, its population has risen rom less than 50 million a century ago to over 331 million, and is expected to reach
some 385 million people by 2015. During this same period, the environment has deteriorated and natural resources
have dwindled due to development patterns which were largely unsustainable. In most cases, policies were overwhelm
ingly sets o provisional shortterm measures, meant to tackle momentary challenges rather than engage in longterm
planning. Some parts o the region have seen unprecedented growth, bringing both economic and social prosperity to
millions o Arabs, thanks largely to income rom oil. Has this economic development, however, come at a cost? Can the
patterns o development which some Arab countries are experiencing continue while sustaining livelihood and quality
o lie or uture generations?
Te Middle Easts physical environment stands at a pivotal juncture, threatened by numerous current and imminent
problems. At the same time, awareness o the issues, as well as signs o political and social willingness to act, provide
hope or timely intervention.
Te growth o cities and towns poses particular challenges. Accelerating urbanization is straining alreadyoverstretched
inrastructure and creating overcrowded, unhealthy, and insecure living conditions in many cities. In 1970, 38% o the
Arab population was urban. By 2005, this gure had grown to 55%, and is likely to surpass 60% by 2020.1
Te two major environmental threats in the region are those related to water scarcity and desertication and land
degradation. Although the MENA has 5% o the worlds population, it has less than 1% o the worlds available
water supply. Meanwhile, the rate o water consumption is straining this supply. Per capita water use in the United
Arab Emirates (UAE), or example, is about our times that o Europe; consumption in Abu Dhabi is 550 liters o
water per person per day, two to three times the world average o 180200 liters.
WATER SCARCITy
Te issue o water scarcity is the most serious threat to Arab security, as virtually all Arab countries are well below theline o water poverty. Te World Bank has classied 22 countries as below the water poverty line (when per capita
water availability cubic meters/year is below 1,000). Fieen are Arab countries, and nine o them in the Middle East
(see able 1). Per capita water cubic meters/year in Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain is 91, 95, and 112, respectively. In the
1. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),Arab Human Development Report 2009, Challenges to Human Security in theArab Countries.
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cases o Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Yemen, unisia, and Oman the gures are 241, 318, 340, 434, and 874, respectively. 2 I this
is the case today, one can imagine the water shortages that the region will have to conront in ten years. An increasing
populations demand or water would reduce per capita share to 460 cubic meters by 2025, lower than the extreme water
poverty level according to international classications.
Due to poor agricultural technologies, agriculture remains the major user o water sources in most o the regions coun
tries. Tere is a low level o eciency in the utilization o water in all sectors that use water, typically between 37% and
53%. Tis has generated a range o problems such as water logging salinity, low productivity, inertility o soil, and the
deterioration o the quality o ground water.
Water governance remains ragmented among various institutions, which generates problems o the rationalization o
water use. Te problem is urther aggravated by the high rate o population increase, the geographical location o theregions countries in the Great Desert belt, and the lack o national programs to rationalize water consumption. In ad
dition, a high percentage o the water resources upon which the countries o the MENA depend originate outside the
region, giving rise to tensions in using jointlyshared water. Tis is acutely clear in the cases o the Nile, the Euphrates,
and the igris rivers.
Poor distribution and heavy demand, especially o ground resources, characterize water use in the Arab countries. Ti
leads to a lack o clean water or much o the population and the waste o signicant amounts in the agriculture, in
dustry, and tourism sectors. A report rom the UN Economic and Social Commission or Western Asia (UNESCWA)
applies the question o water stress to the national level in the Arab states (UNESCWA member countries are Bahrain
Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, the Occupied Palestinian erritories (OP), Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria
UAE, and Yemen). Te report distinguishes between our levels o water stress as gauged by the ratio o population to
2. UN Development Programme (UNDP), Arab Human Development Report 2002, Creating Opportunities or Future Generations,http://www.arabhdr.org/publications/other/ahdr/ahdr2002e.pd.3. United Nations Economic and Social Commission or Western Asia (UNESCWA), Water Development Report 2, State of Water Re-sources in the ESCWA Region (December 4, 2007), http://www.escwa.un.org/inormation/publications/edit/upload/sdpd076e.pd.
Hussein
Figure 1: Water-Scarce Countries in the Middle East and North Arica
Note: Water-scarce countries (shaded above) are those with less then 1,000 cubic meters of renewable fresh water per person per ear.
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renewable reshwater slight, signicant, serious, and critical. As shown in able 1, the study reveals that our countries
are acing slight water stress, two are acing signicant water stress, ve are acing serious water stress, and two
Kuwait and the UAE are acing critical water stress.
A particularly striking example o the conict that exists between rapid economic development and scarce water re
sources is the recent boom in the construction o gol courses in certain parts o the region. In act, most o the curren
and planned gol courses are in Egypt and the Gul region, particularly the UAE, where water resources are already low
even by regional standards.
Expansion o waterintensive projects like grass gol courses cannot go on unchecked, especially with meager investments
to develop sustainable desalination technologies. Tere are plans to increase the 16 gol courses operating in the Coopera
tion Council or the Arab States o the Gul (CCASG) to 40 in the near uture. In most cases, gol courses in the region are
irrigated with desalinated sea water, treated euent, or a combination o the two. A 2007 report released by the interna
tional consultants Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler (KPMG) estimated the use o water or each gol course in the region
at an average o 1.16 million cubic meters per year, reaching 1.3 million cubic meters in Dubai, enough to cover the water
consumption o 15,000 inhabitants. Currently, the quality o water resources in the region is aected by pollution, urban
ization, oods, and overuse o water resources. So, resh water is another problem in the region. (See able 2).
In the Northern part o the Jordan Valley, AbuTallam has estimated the impact o water shortage on the planted area
income, and labor at the regional level. It has been ound that reducing the quantity o irrigation water has lowered
cropping intensity and thus the area in cultivation has contracted. Tis, in turn, has resulted in a reduction in total net
income, and consequently a reduction in labor used in the area.
Hussein
Slight water stress
(less than 2,500
persons per million
cubic meters)
Signicant water
stress
(Between 2,500 and
5,000 persons per
million cubic meters)
Serious water stress
(Between 5,000 and
10,000 persons per
million cubic me-
ters)
Critical water stress
(More than 10,000
persons per million
cubic meters)
Egypt Jordan Bahrain Kuwait
Lebanon Saudi Arabia Iraq United Arab Emirates
Oman
Occupied Palestinian
erritories
Syria Qatar
Yemen
able 1: Levels o Water Stress in Tirteen Arab Countries, 2006
Source: UNESCWA, 2007.
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For instance, decreasing water supply by 20% will be ollowed by a reduction in the total cultivated area by about 14%
Tis will lead to a decrease in the total net income generated by 15%. Te reduction in employment will also be accom
panied by a direct and indirect loss in income too.4
4. K. AbuTallam, Assessment o Drought Impact on Agricultural Resources in Northern Jordan Valley, M.Sc. Tesis. Te University oJordan. Amman, Jordan (2003).
Hussein
Per Capita Annual Renewable Fresh Water (m2) % o Freshwater Use, by Sector
1970 2001 2025 Domestic Industrial
MENA 3,645 1,640 1,113 8 5
Algeria 1,040 462 331 25 15
Bahrain 455 140 97 39 4
Egypt 2,460 1,243 903 6 8
Iran 4,770 2,079 1,555 6 2Iraq 10,304 4,087 2,392 3 5
Israel 740 342 247 16 5
Jordan 555 174 103 22 3
Kuwait 27 9 5 37 2
Lebanon 1,944 1,120 896 28 4
Libya 302 114 72 11 2
Morocco 1,960 1,027 741 5 3
Oman 416 206 5 2 94
Qatar 901 170 129 23 3
Saudi Arabia 418 114 59 9 1
Syria 7,367 2,700 1,701 4 2
unisia 800 422 327 9 3
urkey 5,682 3,029 2,356 16 11
United Arab
Emirates897 60 44 24 9
Yemen 648 228 103 7 1
able 2: Per Capita Annual Renewable Fresh Water
Source: Peter Gleick, e Worlds Water 20002001, e Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources.
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Hussein
CONCLUSION
Te challenge o addressing water scarcity in the Middle East is aggravated by the regions ongoing population pres
sures. Utilizing new sources o water to meet the increased demand or resh water would relieve some o the regions
shortages, but as new sources o water become more expensive, they become less accessible to lowincome countriesgiven those nations limited nancial and technical opportunities. Regional cooperation and political, legal, and insti
tutional support are critical or enabling countries to address their reshwater shortages. Sound government policies
regarding water allocation, distribution, and use can help countries to adopt better strategies to manage their scarce
reshwater resources.
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Living with Soil Salinity: Is It Possible?
Mushtaque Ahmed and Salim A. Al-Rawah
Soil and groundwater salinity has emerged as the most signicant agricultural problem acing the Sultanate o Oman
Scant rainall, coupled with high temperature, is always conducive to the accumulation o salts in soils. Tese condition
are predominant in Oman. Secondary soil salinity has increased at a very rapid rate due to the persistent use o saline
groundwater, which, over time, has become more concentrated due to increased pumping by armers in the Batinah
region - the countrys most important agricultural area.
Te balance between total pumping and annual recharge that had existed prior to the 1990s has been greatly disturbed
resulting initially in reduction o crop yields and gradually in the abandonment o lands. Saline seawater intrusions
are also present in some areas o the region that are nearer to the sea as the result o overpumping. Saltaected lands
constitute about 44% o Omans total geographical area and 70% o the agriculturally suitable area o the country. Teannual losses due to salinity have been reported as 7.31 to 13.97 million Omani Rials (2005 data, 1 Omani Rial = 2.58
USD). When saltaected lands go out o cultivation, their owners become unemployed - engendering a host o so
cioeconomic problems. Clearly, thereore, soil salinity poses a huge threat to the sustainability o agriculture in Oman,
especially in Batinah.
Te research project Management o Salt Aected Soils and Water or Sustainable Agriculture, prepared and approved by
Sultan Qaboos University, was undertaken to explore ways to mitigate soil and water salinity. Te project ocused on our
approaches: soil rehabilitation, biosaline agriculture, odder production, and the integration o the sh culture into crop
production that could have compensatory economic returns to armers. Te project aimed at developing management
guidelines which are scientically sound or armers a) to sustain economically viable agricultural production in salta
ected areas with saline groundwater, b) improve ood security o Oman, and c) combat desertication. Te idea was not to
try to remove all salts rom soil and groundwater but to learn to live with the prevailing conditions by providing sucien
income to the armers in the aected areas through various means. Te project was conducted with the active participation
o Omani government scientists, armers, and international experts. Te tasks accomplished during the project include:
Assessing the intensity and extent o salinity in the Batinah region using remotely sensed satellite im
ages, groundtruthing, and preparation o temporal and spatial variation maps o salinity o soil andwater rom GIS.
Determining agronomic solutions (mulching, tillage, sowing methods, etc.) and nutritional aspects in
cluding microbial nitrogen mineralization in saline conditions.
Determining engineering and water management solutions (irrigation, subirrigation, leaching, lev
eling, etc.) to reduce water loss and salinization.
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Determining biological solutions by identiying salttolerant crops and ruit trees or various saltaect
ed regions o Oman. Tis includes introduction o halophytes.
Assessing the eects o eeding salttolerant orage crops to Omani sheep.
Integrating sh culture in marginal lands.
Determining socioeconomic costs and benets o salinity management practices in the Batinah region.
Findings rom the project conrmed that:
Salttolerant varieties o tomatoes, barley, sorghum, and pearl millet can be grown successully in saline
soils o the Batinah coast. It was possible to grow such crops with saline irrigation o 69 dS/m water (1
dS/m water is equivalent to 640 ppm o salts). omato (Ginan variety) was best grown with irrigation
water o 6 dS/m and by adding mixed ertilizer (organic and mineral in 1:1 combination).
Mulching surace soil with a thin layer o shredded date palm residues resulted in lesser salt accumula
tion in the soil resulting in more crop yield than other methods.
Fodder (sorghum) grown in saline soils with saline water has no negative eects on growth or meat
quality o goats.
Incorporation o aquaculture (using red hybrid tilapia Oreochromis sp.) in saline areas was proven ea
sible and could partially compensate or salinity induced crop losses. Nutrients in water that come out
o sh ponds enhanced crop growth.
Tomatoes grown under saline irrigation
Ahmed and Al-Rawah
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Te project has shown that under careul management, it is possible or armers to make a living rom saltaected
lands by adopting various techniques such as appropriate use o salttolerant crops, ertilizers, and mulches; and by
diversiying into nontraditional areas o income generation such as aquaculture. Tis lowcost system or treatment o
greywater and low quality surace water, i adopted on a large scale, will contribute to the overall environmental sustain
ability by lessening demands on reshwater resources in many countries o the world.
Ahmed and Al-Rawah
Sorghum grown under saline irrigation
Aquaculture using saline water
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Innovating Ways to Face the Eects o Environmental Degradation
Mahi Tabet-Aoul
Te environmental degradation process in the Maghreb is mainly o natural origin, but has been accelerated by human
activities. Te most dangerousthreats caused by environmental degradation are soil degradation and deserticationpollution, droughts, oods, and water scarcity.
Action is urgently needed to return lands to their original vocation, to implement largescale reorestation, to reha
bilitate the steppe and oasis, and to ensure the stability o rural communities. But what kind o action, and action by
whom?
Addressing the causes and consequences o environmental degradation requires a new model o governance one that
is democratic and decentralized. More specically, it requires the involvement o local communities in development
projects rom conception, through implementation, and aer completion. Enlisting this involvement and unleash
ing its potential in turn requires imagination, bold experimentation, and the application o new tools and technologies
As this essay demonstrates, some o these initiatives are already underway, providing encouraging evidence that many
others may lie within our reach.
INQUIRIES ON THE ExPOSURE OF VULNERABLE COMMUNITIES TO ENVIRONMENTAL RISK
Conducting surveys on the perception o the eects o environmental degradation can be an eective way to raise the
awareness o local policymakers, institutions, and communities to act against the sources o degradation. As a casestudy, we conducted an investigation1 regarding the environmental risk perception by the community living around the
industrial zone o Arzew in Algeria, which contains ten petrochemical complexes.
Tis industrial zone is located near a large urban area. It is devoid o an environmental monitoring system. Te adverse
eects on the health o nearby residents, and especially on the most vulnerable population, are patently obvious.
o assess the perception o environmental risk on the population, a survey was undertaken in 2006. Tis investigation
had two objectives: to understand peoples grievances and to raise awareness o industrial and institutional actors about
the environment.
Te survey covered 1,000 households randomly distributed over six municipalities, including the industrial area and
its surroundings. It ocused on our topics: economic data, environmental knowledge and risk perception, health status
1. Revue des Cahier du Centre de recherche en Anthropologie Sociale et Culture (CRASC), SENS Socit Environnement et Socit, December 2009.
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and actors role. Tis investigation allowed the gathering o a lot o inormation. It appears that the population lives
in relatively good conditions. With regard to the environment, 58% o the respondents attributed the occurrence odiseases to air pollution, 24% to solid wastes, and 14% water quality. In terms o health, 44% o households reported
that at least one person is sick. 60% o diseases are respiratory deaths, including 83% related to air pollution. Regarding
the issue o who is responsible or pollution, 37% o those surveyed blamed the decisionmakers and 30% blamed the
citizens.
Tese results show the high degree o awareness on environmental issues at the population level. Tis survey shows also that
the Arzew population is cognizant o the dangers o air pollution and its impact on their health. Consequently, their involve
ment is crucial. Te survey highlights the necessity or mutual listening and shared responsibility among all stakeholders
SHARING AVAILABLE INFORMATION ON THE ENVIRONMENT AT THE LOCAL LEVEL
oday, everyone agrees that whereas environmental degradation is occurring on a global scale, the responses to it must
take place on a local scale. Te question is how to deal locally with degradation? Te goal is to involve all local actors
concerned with development policy makers, businesses, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and community
representatives to set up local charters or sustainable development. Tis implies the participation o all to reach a
consensus on the choice o a development model based on local natural resources and human potential.
Te rst step to initiate this process is to raise awareness and to gather research, studies, and inormation already avail
able locally. Tis requires the establishment o centers or collecting and disseminating inormation. New media and
communication can serve as eective carriers or this action. Setting up platorms2 on the internet can boost inorma
tion exchange on climate, environment, and sustainable development in the Maghreb region. Tese sites are oen initi
2. See, or example, the authors website: http://maghrebclimenv.jimdo.com.
Aoul
An El
BiyaHassiMefsoukh
Mers El
Hadjadj
Sidi Ben
Yabka
Arzew
Bethioua
Zone
Industrielle
Wilaya dOran
Mditerrane
Figure: Area Covered in the Survey
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ated by volunteer leaders who are ghting against environmental degradation. Te sites allow researchers, students, and
the general public to nd reports on environment and development or the region that were carried out either by loca
researchers or institutions, or by researchers and experts involved in projects nanced by international partners. Tese
sites serve as a bridge between dierent actors, and are asked to provide inormation, expertise, and advice and run
workshops and conerences on the environment at the request o institutions, universities, and associations. Troughthese sites, actors learn to exchange their views in developing a consensus culture. Te sites also help build local insti
tutional capacity.
IMPLEMENTING VOLUNTARy ACTIONS ON ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
Te Synthetic Course on the Environment and Sustainable Development is a training program or experienced stas
o institutions, companies, universities, and associations. Tis initiative, begun in 2004 and based on two books3 by the
author, was taken outside any institutional, partisan, or associative tutorship.
Te basic idea is to provide concise and practical instruction on environment through study days. Each study day lasts
or ve hours and gathers groups o about 20 people. As o December 2010, 16 such groups, totaling more than 400
persons, have been trained. Te total production is o nearly 2,400 man days, covering the ull cycle at the rate o one
day every three weeks.
Te mission o this project is to invest in younger generations in particular to provide them with the conceptual and
practical tools that will help them to improve their environment and thereby protect their health and well being. Te
success o the project in ullling this mission is attributable to the solidarity, availability, and assistance o many willing partners who have sometimes engaged their own sta and have graciously provided all the logistics necessary to
convene the study days.
However, many things remain to be done or the eective implementation o the lessons learned through use o ac
quired tools and environmental management. At the end o the training, participants are asked to think about a number
o elds to be explored, such as: strengthening links to orm an active relationship through the establishment o an ex
change network via the internet; initiation o specic community projects to protect and rehabilitate the environment
types o contributions that can bring everyone to his/her own environment; a denition o a practical and common pro
cess or short, medium, and longterms; and need to build consensus around the learned concepts and techniques.
Each trained participant is called upon to share and disseminate his/her own experience as a new trainer or to develop an
3. Mahi abet Aoul, Environnement et dveloppement durable au Maghreb: Contraintes et enjeu [Environment and Sustainable Development: Constraints and Opportunities] (Quebec : Centre des Hautes Etudes Internationales (HEI), Laval University, 2010) ; and Sant Environnement Socit, [Health Environment Society] Cahiers du Centre de Recherche en Anthropologie Sociale et Culturelle(CRASC) (December 2009).
Aoul
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environmental initiative to ensure sustainability and amplication o this training action by implementing local projects
CONCLUSION
Te initiatives described above have sought to raise awareness, inorm, train, and develop projects to address the environmental degradation. Each o these initiatives has elicited positive eedback. ogether, they have enlarged the circle
o participants who are actively engaged in combating environmental degradation. Tey are illustrative not only o the
innovative work that is needed to arrest environmental degradation, but o its potential.
At one time or another, everyone eels concerned about environmental degradation. However, we must go beyond
sterile criticism and, instead, assume personal responsibility or working to combat it. Te solution to addressing envi
ronmental degradation lies within each o us.
Aoul
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Improvement o Air Quality in Egypt: Te Role o Natural Gas
Ibrahim Abdel Gelil
Egypt has had more than our decades o intensive natural gas exploration and development activities, which have
become the main ocus o the countrys hydrocarbon industry. Current natural gas reserves estimated at around 78 tril
lion cubic eet have developed to be ar more abundant than those o oil and are continuing to increase steadily.1 Since
the early 1980s, the Government o Egypt recognized that utilizing Egypts abundant natural gas could, in addition to
ostering economic growth, make a signicant contribution toward improving air quality and protecting public health
Given its unique economic and environmental advantages, Egypts energy policy was developed to maximize switching
to natural gas in various economic sectors. Strategies to achieve this policy included developing natural gas inrastruc
ture, whereby the national gas pipeline grid has expanded rom 1,000 to more than 17,000 km. Expanding the local gas
market and developing domestic gas demand have been other strategies that proved to be eective. As a result, the share
o natural gas in Egypts primary energy consumption has grown rom about 24% in 1990 to nearly 45%.2 Te number
o domestic gas consumers reached about 3.3 million and planned to grow to 5.5 million by 2015. Consuming about
60% o the total gas consumption, the electricity sector is the largest gas consumer, which plans to depend 100% on
natural gas in the years to come.
In addition to switching to natural gas in the electricity generation, industry, and residential sectors, the Egyptian
Government encouraged the private sector to commercialize natural gas vehicles (NGVs). In December 1994, the rs
company to convert gasoline vehicles to natural gas was ormed. Currently, there are 6 operating compressed natural gas
(CNG) companies, 119 CNG uelling stations, and about 110,000 CNG vehicles in use, 75% o which are taxis, mainly
in Cairo. A primary key to the NGV industrys success in Egypt is a package o nancial incentives oered by the Gov
ernment including 5year tax holidays or CNG companies, lowcost conversion charges or car owners, and attractive
price dierential between CNG and gasoline. At about $0.08 per cubic meter o CNG (equivalent in energy content to
a litre o gasoline), it is less than a quarter o the local gasoline price o 1.75 Egyptian Pound (LE) per liter ($0.30). In
addition, a typical vehicle conversion kit costs about $900. Owners o high uel use vehicles, such as taxis, can recover
their cost o vehicle conversion in as little as six months rom uel savings alone. Tis clearly explains why taxis have
been the most converted eet.
Another exciting development or Egypts CNG growth was the Joint Egypt/USsponsored $63 million Cairo Air Im
provement Project (CAIP). Tis initiative had ocused on improving Cairos air quality through reducing harmul emis
sions rom lead smelters and rom vehicles exhausts. Part o this program included providing 50 dedicated CNG public
transit buses to the Cairo public transport eet. Te bus bodies were locally manuactured, but the CNG engines and
1. Egyptian Natural Gas Holding Company (EGAS), 2010, http://www.egas.com.eg/Egyptian_Natural_Gas/Introduction.aspx.2. Egyptian Environmental Aairs Agency (EEAA), Egypts second national communication under the UNFCCC, 2010.
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Gelil
the rolling chasse were manuactured in the United States. Key challenges or the government have been replicating
that initiative by unding the conversion o the some 5,000 public buses operating in Cairo and changing the price di
erential between CNG and diesel uel, which is heavily subsidized. So ar, the government has managed to increase the
number o CNG buses to nearly 200. In parallel, another program is being implemented to convert governmentowned
vehicles to CNG. o date, more than 2,300 vehicles have been converted.3
Furthermore, the government is currently implementing an initiative aimed to swap a eet o nearly 40,000 old pollut
ing taxis with modern CNGuelled vehicles. Te initiative started in Metropolitan Cairo, hosting 25% o Egypts popu
lation and about 60% o registered vehicles, and will be expanded to other governorates aerwards. Again, economic
incentives are playing the major role behind the success o this initiative. In addition to concessional loans, new locally
assembled CNG vehicles are exempt rom about 55% o customs and consumption taxes. In return, participating taxi
owners have to scrap their old vehicles. Te project will have signicant impacts on the air quality o Cairo, a megacity
suering rom a high level o air pollution. Egypt is now being recognized as having one o the top ten most successu
CNG commercialization programs worldwide.
Tis policy o switching to natural gas has signicantly impacted the improve
ment o air quality, especially in Cairo. Addressing the problem o air quality has
been the ocus o environmental policy in Egypt or many years. Te national
air quality management program includes a broad array o policies and meas
ures to curb emissions o pollutants rom both stationary and mobile sources.
Pollution sources in Cairo include industrial activities, power stations, and vehicles emissions. Industry is a majorsource o pollution in Cairo. Tere are about 36,000 industrial establishments scattered in the area; heavypolluting in
dustries such as cement, steel, and chemical exist north and south o the urban center.Te total number o cars in Egypt
increased rom 2.1 million in 1992 to 4.3 million in 2008.4 Te number o current registered passenger cars in Cairo is
nearly one million, 25% o which are 20yearsold or more.5 Additionally, power stations are also a major source o air
emissions as Cairo is home to seven thermal power stations having a total capacity equal to 4600 megawatts.6
Moreover, the climate in Cairo is always sunny and dry. Rain is rare (about 22 mm annually) and wind speed averages
about ve meters per second. Tese climate conditions enable air pollutants to accumulate and suspend in the air, lead
ing to the smog phenomenon. When warm air stays near the ground instead o rising, a natural phenomenon known as
thermal inversion, and when winds are calm, smog orms and may stay in place or days, leading to high concentrations
o toxic gases that pose public health risks. Te locallynamed Black Cloud, a dense layer o smoke and og over Cairo
3. EEAA, State of the Environment Report, 2009.4. EEAA, State of the Environment Report, 2008.5. Te Egyptian Cabinet Inormation and Decision Support Center, Cars in Egypt, 2007.6. Egypt Container Holding Company (ECHC), Annual Report, 2007.
Te total number o carsin Egypt increased rom
2.1 million in 1992 to 4.3million in 2008.
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that occurs annually between October and November appeared or the rst time in 1999, when it sparked widespread
panic and heated debate. In addition to the sources o pollution discussed above, rice straw burning in the Delta and
burning solid waste in Cairo were also named as causes o that pollution episode. According to a World Bank study, the
annual cost o environmental degradation in Egypt was estimated to be 14.6 billion LE per year. It accounts or 4.5% o
GDP and air pollution costs represent 44% o the total costs.7
Air quality in Egypt has been partially monitored since the early 1970s. An air quality monitoring network has been
continuously updated with support rom the Danish Government to reach a total o 87 stations covering dierent geo
graphic locations. ypically, particulates (PM10
) and lead are the most critical air quality problems, especially in Cairo
Ambient lead concentration used to be ar beyond the World Health Organization (WHO) standards mainly due to
inormal secondary lead smelters scattered within the residential areas. Phasing out leaded gasoline, relocation o lead
smelters, and switching to natural gas have largely contributed to reduction o lead pollution.
A recent state o the environment report o Egypt recorded a gradual improvement o air quality. Te report indicated a
steady improvement in concentrations o sulur dioxide, lead and carbon monoxide over the period 20042008. On the
other hand, the chronic problem o pollution by particulates is still unsolved. It should be noted that the overall average
concentrations o nitrogen oxides during the last ve years had exceeded the limit. Tis might be a side eect o exces
sive use o natural gas; an issue that remains to be tackled by environmental experts. It is worth noting that the natura
gas switching policy in Egypt, although achieving several economic, social, and environmental objectives, is also con
sidered a cornerstone in mitigating greenhouse emissions. Switching to low carbon uels such as natural gas is eligible
or credit under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) o the Kyoto Protocol. It is estimated that about onethird
o the projected carbon credits earned by Egypt within the CDM would come rom natural gas projects.
7. Te World Bank, Cost of Environmental Degradation, 2002.
Gelil
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Te Politics o Water Scarcity in Egypt
Brian Chatterton
We are entering the era o water scarcity throughout the world. Water scarcity is dierent rom mined resources
that become scarce when the lode runs out. Water is almost always renewable. Te scarcity applies to expansion. For
thousands o years, supply has been expanded through engineering. Nowhere is that more obvious than in Egypt, where
water demand has been met by increasing supply. Expansion accelerated during the 19th and 20th centuries, but has now
ground to a halt as there is no more water to collect, store, and distribute.
Te hydraulic mission conducted by engineers is over. Te resource is now closed and must be allocated among armers
industry, and domestic users while enough remains in order to maintain the environment.
SCARCITy IN EGyPT
Te age o scarcity requires political and cultural change. Policymakers have been trained and have lived their lives dur
ing an age o plenty - not just or water but or all resources. Adjusting to a closed resource is dicult or politicians
administrators, and society as a whole.
In Egypt there is an acceptance o closure within the senior levels o the Ministry o Irrigation and other Ministries
connected to water but not within the public political discourse.
Te National Water Resource Plan 20171 prepared or the Ministry o Irrigation spells out the details o closure. Te
available Nile water remains stable at 55.5 billion cubic meters and while there are small increases rom ossil ground
water sources and recycling the plan goes on to predict a substantial all in the water available per irrigated hectare
Using a rather simple ormula o water = crop = income, it predicts a 20% reduction in armers income as a result o
water scarcity by the year 2017. Farmers are already one o the poorest sectors o Egyptian society; such a all in income
will have serious political consequences.
ALLOCATION
Te Egyptian water resource is closed or nearly closed to urther expansion. Population and land under irrigation are
increasing. Water will have to be rationed not just between agriculture and other uses but within agriculture itsel.
1. Water or the Future: National Water Resource Plan 2017, National Water Resources Plan, Ministry o Water Resources and IrrigationArab Republic o Egypt, Cairo (2005).
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A WATER MARKET
Te World Bank and other water economists are advocating a water market as a solution to the thorny problem o allo
cating a closed resource.2 In Australia, the Murray Darling basin has been converted into a water market. Te Australian
water market has been operating or over a decade.3 During rst decade o the 21st century, the catchment has suered
rom the worst drought recorded and provides a working example o a water market as a means o allocating a scarce
resource.
P R
Like all markets, that or water is based solidly on property rights. In Australia, most o the water is metered already. In
Egypt, that is not the case. During the Australian drought, when water scarcity was acute, the meters proved to be inad
equate. Farmers could, and did, tamper with them. Australia is now investing heavily in more sophisticated meters. For
Egypt, the cost o metering water to many millions o small armers would be extremely high.
R S
Reduced salinity was put orward as a benet rom the market in Australia. Te reasoning was that water could be tradedout o and into areas with low salinity but only out o areas with high salinity. Te natural turnover o the market would
gradually move water away rom these saline areas. Salinity is a much greater problem in Australia than in Egypt.
2. Making the Most o Scarcity. Accountability or Better Water Management Results in the Middle East and North Arica, Te WorldBank (2007).3. Brian and Lynne Chatterton, Te Australian Water Market Experiment, Water International, Vol. 26, No. 1 (March 2001), pp. 6268.
Chatterton
Unit 1997 Base 2017 (a)
Population Millions 59.3 83.1
Water resource - Nile Billions o cubic meters 55.5 55.5
Fossil ground water (non-renewable) Billions o cubic meters 0.71 3.96
Water /head including ossil water Cubic meters 936 710
Sel sufciency in cereals Percentage 73.00% 46.00%
Area irrigated Millions hectares 3.35 4.57
Water available per hectare Cu m./hectare/year 10700 9204
Average income o armers $US /year 923 742
Efciency (consumptive use/abstraction) percentage 67.00% 61.00%
able 1: Adapted rom able 5 in the Water or the Future: National Water Resources
Plan 2017 (NWRP 2005)
2017 (a) Based on water development plans but ecluding 105,000 of epansion in the Sinai, which is made dependent on more water reaching Egp
through the construction of the Jonglai canal.
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I E U
Saleable water rights encourage armers to use water eciently through improved irrigation techniques. Tis process
o improvement was taking place in Australia beore the water market and in Egypt armers already have a high leve
o eciency (See table above). Te water market gives an added incentive to eciency improvements as surplus watercan be sold.
Without a water market, this surplus water is an onarm reserve but when it is sold to another armer it is used to ex
pand the area under cultivation. When the Australian drought came, everyone suered, as allocations had to be reduced
well below the amount shown on the title certicate. Te onarm reserves had been sold.
H V C
Another claimed advantage o the water market is that it
makes the value o water obvious to the armer and that they
will then shi production rom lowvalue crops to highval
ue crops. Te World Bank has already suggested that Egypt
produce more highvalue crops or export and import cheap
cereal grains.4
Apparently, there are large gains to be made rom highvalue crops. In Australia, only 20% o the water produces more
than 80% o the value o production. It seems obvious that shiing water to higher value crops would improve armersincomes.
Tis is a rather watercentric view o arming. High returns to water do not necessarily represent high returns to capital
labor, or other actors o production. Australia is also in the lucky position o not having to consider ood security rom
its irrigated land, as it has a large export surplus o basic ood rom its dryland arming areas. Egypt has to balance the
risks o lowvalue grain or home consumption against the risks o highvalue resh ruit or export.
While highvalue crops are much loved by theoretical economists, armers tend to be more cynical, as they have seen
many highvalue crops converted into lowvalue crops through increased production.
Whatever the theoretical arguments, the acute water scarcity during the Australian drought demonstrated the ailure
o concept in practice. Te highvalue crops were not saved. While the executives o the basin authority5 claim a great
4. Agriculture or Development,World Development Report 2008, Te World Bank (2008).5. Wendy Craik, Irrigated Agriculture - Managing with Less, paper to ABARE Outlook 2008, March 4, 2008.
Chatterton
It seems obvious that shiing waterto higher value crops would improve
armers incomes [but] ... High returnsto water do not necessarily represent
high returns to capital, labor, or otheractors o production.
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success or the water market as more water was traded during the drought and the price increased three times, large
areas o high value vines and ruit trees were destroyed. Price alone could not drag enough water out rom other low
value uses, and the armers ability to pay or the highpriced water rights was not solely based on a water price/outpu
ormula. Experience rom other droughts shows that armers survival was mainly related to equity. Farmers with high
equity survive. Tose with high debts do not. Ecient arming rated very low as an indicator o survival.
Te executive o the basin authority did not intervene in the water market to allocate water directly to highvalue crops
but politicians in Egypt may not be so willing to give up their power to the market mechanism.
C N G
Giving water a monetary value is seen as a great benet by economic
theorists, but again the reality as demonstrated by the Australian ex
ample is dierent. New armers have to purchase water rights in order
to irrigate their land. Tis is a real capital cost. Te cost does not arise
immediately, as existing armers are given their water rights ree. How
ever, over the years they retire, and new entrants are burdened with this
added cost. In Egypt, with the projected all in income or armers by 2017, added costs or water rights would make
their position even worse.
Tere is also the question o airness. Te water o the Nile has been used by armers or thousands o years. Te intro
duction o water rights would, in eect, give that water to a single generation o armers who are lucky enough to bewater users at the time. Tey can leave with that bonanza in cash while uture generations have to nd and service the
additional capital needed to pay the rst generation their bonanza. Te second and urther generations can pass the
capital cost on when they leave arming, but their prots will be insignicant compared to the lucky rst.
E N C T
Te Australian drought demonstrated clearly that the water had been overallocated to armers. Te amount o water
delivered was at times as little as 5% o the amount shown on the title. Te environment suered even more severely, as
there was no surplus rom irrigation or environmental needs. Te Murray River stopped owing into the sea. Te lakes
at the river mouth shrunk due to a lack o recharge, as did many lakes along the course o the river. Te basin authority
has now advised the Australian government to reduce the amount diverted to arming by about 25%. Tis would pro
vide more water or the environment and greater stability or armers.
Buying back such a large amount o water rom the market will cost the Australian taxpayer billions o dollars. Australia
Chatterton
In Egypt, with the projectedall in income or armers by
2017, added costs or waterrights would make their posi-
tion even worse.
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Chatterton
can aord to do so as it has a large and prosperous economy outside irrigated agriculture. Te national debt is only 9% o
GDP. In Egypt, agriculture is relatively more important, and there is virtually none outside the irrigated sector.
THE POLITICAL SOLUTION DEMOCRATIC DEVOLUTION TO LOCAL GROUPS
Te water market provides a neat theoretical model or the allocation o scarce water resources, but the Australian
example shows clearly that many o the theoretical benets are not realized in practice while the costs to the govern
ment and uture generations are extremely high. Already the Egyptian government has indicated that it is opposed to
a market solution to water allocation. An alternative that is under discussion is to allocate water through democratic
devolution. Tis is not a neat theoretical model but a messy political solution. It is a process rather than a model. By
denition, the outcome is unclear, as the power is being delegated to the local armers.
Water could be allocated in bulk to the branch canals that serve some 1,0002,000 Egyptian armers, who could then
take responsibility or the urther allocation within the group. Te armers would develop their own allocation ormulas
based on cultivated area, type o crop, and soil in order to produce water quotas or individual armers.
CONCLUSION
Egypt is in a transitional phase. It is beginning to realize that the water resource is closed. However, the momentum
rom the old hydraulic mission is carrying expansion orward. Te result is less water per hectare and lower incomes or
armers. Tese could have serious political repercussions.
A water market and a democratic devolution are at extreme policy poles or coping with scarcity. Markets are institu
tions that concentrate power in the hands o a ew wealthy people while democratic devolution spreads power among
a wide group o water users. While the Egyptian government is being advised to take the market route or the sake o
eciency, the Australian case study has shown that many o the claimed advantages o the market are in the eye o the
economist, not on the ground. Te Australian water market has also proved to be extremely costly or taxpayers. Egyp
has undertaken an extensive program o land reorm that has provided the government with strong support among
armers. A water market would reverse the gains made under land reorm and place power over water in the hands o
a ew nancially strong groups.
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Environmental Science at Qatar University: Realizing Qatars 2030 Vision
Malcolm Potts
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES FOR THE COUNTRIES OF THE GCC
A primary indicator o the robustness o a countrys economy is the gross domestic product (GDP), which is essentially
the total dollar value o all goods and services. In this respect, Qatar is recognized as the richest nation in the world,
with an unprecedented projected expansion in its GDP, notable during these troubled economic times, o 18.5% or
2010.2 Oil and gas have made Qatar the second highest per capita income country, ollowing Liechtenstein.3 Such wealth
does not come without problems, however, and like other countries in the Gul region, Qatar is aced with a plethora o
environmental challenges.
Tere is an expansive literature on environmental issues, urban growth, and pollution in the countries o the Gul Cooperation Council (GCC) and an awareness that environmental pollution, degradation, and lack o resource manage
ment at the national and regional levels are priority issues o concern. Since the majority o the population lives in the
coastal zone, the important issues are air quality, sewage and waste water management, garbage disposal, degradation o
the near shore marine environment, land reclamation, provision o adequate electricity and pot