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Dissertations Graduate College
4-1986
Executive Personality Types: A Comparison ofMilitary and Civilian Leaders in a SingleOrganizationJohn Edward DeWaldWestern Michigan University
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Recommended CitationDeWald, John Edward, "Executive Personality Types: A Comparison of Military and Civilian Leaders in a Single Organization"(1986). Dissertations. 2299.https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/2299
EXECUTIVE PERSONALITY TYPES: A COMPARISON OF MILITARY AND CIVILIAN LEADERS IN A SINGLE ORGANIZATION
by
John Edward DeWald
A Dissertation Submitted to the
Faculty of the Graduate College in partia l fu lfillm en t of the
requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education
Department of Educational Leadership
Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan
April 1986
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EXECUTIVE PERSONALITY TYPES: A COMPARISON OF MILITARY AND CIVILIANLEADERS IN A SINGLE ORGANIZATION
John Edward DeWald, Ed.D.
Western Michigan University, 1986
Differences between comparable m ilita ry and c iv ilian
upper-level leaders in a single m ilita ry organization were examined
in terms of personality types. The survey instrument used was the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBIT), which was developed for use in
personality assessment of normal individuals through the practical
application of C. G. Jung's (1921/1971) theory of psychological
types. Thirty pairs of executives were surveyed. Each
participating pair consisted of a chief and his deputy, one m ilitary
and one c iv ilia n , who shared the same o ffice , authority, and
responsibilities. Response to the survey was 100 percent.
Two sets of findings emerged from this study, the f i r s t
covering the relationship between m ilita ry and c iv ilian MBTI types,
and the second concerning MBTI type representation in d ifferent
organizational units.
The distributions of MBTI types and type processes for the
m ilita ry officers in this study were essentially similar to those
for the c iv ilia n executives. The most striking s im ilarity was the
large and identical percentage (B0%) of both m ilita ry and c iv ilian
participants who were thinking-judgers (TJs). The MBTI type and
type process distributions for the m ilita ry participants were
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generally in line with expectation, as they closely paralleled those
in prior studies of m ilita ry program managers. The distributions
for the c iv ilia n participants, however, were significantly d ifferent
from those published for c iv ilia n managers and administrators, and,
in fac t, were more in accord with published distributions for
m ilita ry program managers.
Although the data did not indicate d ifferent distributions of
personality types for the four organizational units studied, there
was a significant difference in the expected direction on the
sensing-intuition (SN) dimension. Research and Development and
Support units were highly represented by in tu itives , while the
Readiness unit and Program Managers' Offices consisted chiefly of
sensors.
I t was concluded that the close s im ilarity in types between the
m ilita ry and c iv ilian executives has evolved from the m ilitary
requirements of the organization. That is , the situational demands
have dictated the selection of particular personality types for
executive positions. In the same way, each of the four
organizational units has attracted personality types compatible with
its focus. Thus, situational demands are also responsible for the
gravitation of particular personality types to organizational units
having correspondingly sim ilar orientations.
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8625598
DeWald, John Edward
EXECUTIVE PERSONALITY TYPES: A COMPARISON OF MILITARY AND CIVILIAN LEADERS IN A SINGLE ORGANIZATION
Western Michigan University Ed.D. 1986
University Microfilms
I nternstionsl 300 N. zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106
Copyright 1986
by
DeWald, John Edward
All Rights Reserved
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Copyright by John Edward DeWald
1986
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A man's reach should exceed his grasp.
Robert Browning
DEDICATED TO;
My parents, John A. and L illia n E. DeWald
My wife, Ruth E. DeWald
My brother, George F. DeWald
My daughter and son-in-law, Diana and Stan Beckettand granddaughters, Hope and Beth Beckett
My daughter and son-in-law, Sue and Ron Cook,grandson, John Edward Cook, and granddaughter, Sarah Ann Cook
Without their loving support and influence, this grasp could not have been achieved.
John E. DeWald
n
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There seemed to be two c ritic a l stages in this study where a
considerable number of people were needed for idea formulation and
for guidance in idea consolidation. Evolution of the problem and
evolution of the fin a l document were those two crucial stages.
Approval of the idea for this study was obtained in i t ia l ly from
Major General Oscar Decker, with final approval granted by Major
General Arthur Holmes, J r . , Commanders, U. S. Army Tank-Automotive
Command; without th e ir approvals, this study would not exist.
Particular appreciation is extended to Dr. Harold Boles,
Dr. Richard E. Munsterman, Dr. Carol Sheffer, and Dr. David Cowden,
a ll of whom served at one time or another as my doctoral committee
chairperson, for th e ir patient counseling and persistent
encouragement throughout the process of dissertation preparation
for Western Michigan University. My gratitude is also extended to
my doctoral committee members. Dr. Uldis Smidchens, Dr. George
DePillo, and Dr. Herbert H. Dobbs, for their guidance, support, and
friendship.
Appreciation is also extended to Dr. Loretta Church and to
Dr. Genevieve Gangler-Brown for providing sterling examples of
achievement, to Major John K. Stake for help with the s ta tis tica l
analysis, and to Dr. Carol A. Vale for editing the document. My
classmates in the Selfridge Air National Guard classes have earned
my sincere thanks for the ir camaraderie and support.i i i
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Recognition and appreciation of a ll those scholars who provided
references. Ideas, and quiet beckoning via the lite ra tu re must be
expressed. Complete response to a study survey Is most unusual, so
appreciation Is due the sixty unidentified, but self-knowing,
participants.
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION.............................................................................................. i i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... i i i
LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................... v i i i
CHAPTER
I . PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY . . . 1
Introduction ................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem ........................................... 2
Significance of the Study ........................................... 4
Limitations of the Study ........................................... 4
Overview of the Dissertation ................................... 5
I I . REVIEW OF THE PERTINENT LITERATURE ............................... 8
Leaders and Leadership ............................................... 8
The Great Man Theory ............................................... 9
The T ra it Theory of Leadership ............................ 9
Situational Leadership Theory ............................ 11
Behavioral and Environmental LeadershipT h e o ry ........................................................................... 11
Present Status of Leadership Theories . . . . 12
Theories of Personality ............................................... 13
Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis ........................ 13
C. G. Jung and Psychological T y p e s .................... 14
Murray's Contribution to Personality Theory . 19
Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization . . . . 19
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Table of Contents—Continued
The T ra it Theories of All port and Cattell . . 20
Personality Measurement Instruments ........................ 22
Woodworth's Personal Data Sheet ........................... 22
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) ........................ 23
Self-Report Inventories ........................................... 24
Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) ................ 24
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire(16PFQ) 25
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) ...................................................................... 26
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) . . . 27
Selection of the MBTI as the Survey Instrument . . 28
R e lia b ility of the M B T I ........................................... 30
V alid ity of the MBTI ............................................... 31
MBTI Correlations with Other Instruments . . . 32
Extraversion-Introversion (E l) ........................ 33
Sensing-intuition (SN) ....................................... 33
Thinking-Feeling (TF) ....................................... 33
Judgment-Perception (JP) ................................... 33
Summary of MBTI Advantages ................................... 34
Personality Characteristics of M ilita ryand C ivilian Leaders ....................................................... 34
C ivilian Managers and Executives ....................... 34
Quasi-Military Personnel ....................................... 35
The M ilita ry M in d ....................................................... 36
VI
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Table of Contents—Continued
M ilita ry Program Managers ....................................... 37
MBTI Typing of M ilita ry and C ivilianPersonnel ...................................................................... 39
MBTI Types Associated with Executivesand Managers ...................................................................... 42
ISTJ .............................................................................. 42
ESTJ .............................................................................. 43
INTJ .............................................................................. 44
ENTJ .............................................................................. 44
Summary .............................................................................. 45
I I I . METHODOLOGY.............................................................................. 47
Formulation of the Research Hypotheses .................... 47
Research Question 1 and Hypotheses .................... 47
D isc u ss io n ............................................................... 47
Research Hypotheses forResearch Question 1 48
Null Hypotheses for Research Question ! . . 49
Research Question 2 and Hypotheses .................... 49
D isc u ss io n ............................................................... 49
Research Hypothesis forResearch Question 2 5D
Null Hypothesis for Research Question 2 . . 50
Research Design ............................................................... 51
Independent Variables ............................................... 51
Dependent Variables ................................................... 51
vn
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Table of Contents—Continued
Method of Analysis ................................................... 52
Selection of the Participating Executives . . . . 52
Survey Instrument: The Myers-BriggsType Indicator ............................................................... 53
P ilo t Testing .................................................................. 54
Data Collection Procedures ....................................... 55
Summary.............................................................................. 56
IV. RESULTS ................................................................................... 57
Comparison of M ilitary and C ivilian MBTI Types . 57
Comparison of MBTI Types across TACOMOrganizational Units ................................................... 64
V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................... 68
M ilita ry and C ivilian MBTI Type Comparison . . . 68
MBTI Type Comparisons across TACOMOrganizational Units ................................................... 70
Recommendations for Future Investigation . . . . 71
APPENDICES
A. General Decker's Permission (Signed) ............................. 74Memorandum of Understanding ........................................... 75
B. Introductory Letter ............................................................ 77Questionnaire Procedure ................................................... 78Thank-You Letter .................................................................. 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................... 80
v m
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LIST OF TABLES
1. MBTI Personality Types for M ilita ry and C ivilianExecutives at TACOM ...................................................................... 58
2. MBTI Personality Functions for M ilita ry and C ivilian Executives at TACOM ...................................................................... 60
3. Comparison of Present Study Data with Myers andMcCaulley (1985) and Nid iffe r (1984) Data ............................. 61
4. Chi-Square Tests for Comparisons of Present Study Datawith Myers and McCaulley (1985) andN id iffer (1984) Data........................ ................................................ 62
5. Distribution of MBTI Personality Types in TACOM Units . . 65
I X
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CHAPTER I
PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY
Introduction
The concept of leadership has long been important to
philosophers, who have attempted to understand the personal tra its
and mental qualities that characterize leaders (Runes, 1959). In
early times, a leader was either a hereditary ruler or a superhuman
being, a demi-god or fo lk hero, who was capable of tremendous feats
that no ordinary man could hope to achieve. When Carlyle (1858)
conducted the f i r s t formal study of leadership in the nineteenth
century, he based his theory on historical records that appeared to
support his premise that the lives of great men have altered the
course of history. Later researchers tried to discover what
qualities distinguished leaders from followers, an inquiry which
produced the t r a i t theories of leadership. More recently, the 1920s
saw the beginning of sc ie n tific , empirical, data-based studies using
structured tests.
M ilita ry studies of leadership have continued to emphasize the
importance of the individual's personal qualities . During World War
I I , a new method of personality assessment was developed by Murray
and his colleagues (US OSS, 1948) to determine whether a recruit had
the potential to perform satisfactorily in future quasi-m ilitary
assignments. The evaluation consisted of personality tests,1
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exhausting physical exercise, and performance in re a lis tic a lly
simulated combat situations requiring both in it ia t iv e and teamwork
in support of the designated leader. Selection was based on the
recru it's personality and leadership potential, as determined by
Murray's testing procedure.
The present study compared m ilita ry and c iv ilian upper-level
executives in terms of the ir personality types. Thirty pairs of
executives were selected from within the same organization, the
U. S. Army Tank-Automotive Command (TACOM) in Warren, Michigan.
Each pair consisted of a m ilita ry officer and a c iv ilian executive
in comparable organizational positions, where responsibilities and
authority were e ffective ly equal. This duality is standard Army
management practice, established to ensure both an input to the
organization from m ilita ry fie ld experience and maintenance of
organizational continuity when the m ilita ry officers are reassigned,
which happens about every three years. This practice results in a
m ilita ry -c iv ilia n check and balance system which also provides dual
lines of communication.
Statement of the Problem
A general opinion is prevalent at TACOM that there are
appreciable differences in personality characteristics between
m ilita ry and c iv ilia n leaders in the upper levels of the
organizational hierarchy. Professional training and career paths of
the two groups are divergent. M ilita ry personnel within TACOM
usually serve a three-year tour, which has been carefully planned so
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that the officers gain managerial experience and leadership training
at ever-increasing levels of responsibility. C ivilian executives,
on the other hand, progress by transfer into d ifferen t assignments,
not necessarily related, within the overall organization. Assignment
of c iv ilians is constrained by the authorized number of employees
for the particular department. Although these practices suggest a
basis for the presumed personality differences, when nineteen
civ ilians and officers were questioned about actual experiences with
recognizable personality differences, no evidence could be offered.
In order to either substantiate or negate the existence of the
disparate personality types, the researcher was granted the
opportunity to survey those particular chief executives at TACOM
with deputies who actually shared the same executive
responsibilities and thus had tru ly comparable status.
The research questions which provide the basis for this study
were generated by the researcher's professional associations at the
TACOM organization and from extensive review of the academic and
m ilitary lite ra tu re described in Chapter I I . These questions have
been phrased as follows: (1) Are there differences in personality
types between m ilita ry and c iv ilian leaders? and (2) Are there
differences in personality type associated with assignment to
different organizational units? To address the questions, the
participants' personality types were determined by the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI), a widely used survey instrument for such
purposes (Myers & McCaulley, 1985).
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significance of the Study
Comparison of the personality type profiles of m ilitary and
c iv ilian leaders at equivalent levels of authority has not been
pursued previously to any extent, a data void indicated by the
re la tive ly few references discovered during the lite ra tu re search.
Guidance for selection and training of executives may evolve from
such studies, with resulting impact on management practice and
planning. In addition, the individuals who participated in this
study may receive personal benefit through new understanding of
their own individual leadership styles.
Limitations of the Study
This study surveyed a m ilita ry organization, highly structured
hierarchically, but with an unusual executive upper level of
comparable m ilita ry officers and c iv ilians sharing the same
managerial responsibilities. Chiefs of directorates or divisions
and key s ta ff officers were selected, together with their designated
deputies. Persons holding lesser positions were not surveyed
because individuals in those positions are not readily comparable
and are lik e ly to be more heterogeneous.
While such a study is unusual, the study conclusions may be
directly generalizable to a number of other similar U. S. Army
Command populations. However, such an extension of the results
obtained here is outside the scope of this study, which has been
limited solely to the TACOM organization. The mission orientation.
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organizational policies and climate, and operational methodologies
can be quite d ifferen t for other organizations, even for other
research-oriented Commands, when the ir technical work and products
d iffe r significantly from those of the groups studied here.
The survey instrument used, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI), is to some degree subjective in nature because the answers
to the questionnaire are the participants' own qualitative choices.
Nonetheless, the judgment and thinking patterns indicated by
extensive application of the MBTI have been found to be re liab ly
indicative of personality type (Carlyn, 1977; Carskadon, 1979;
McCaulley, 1980; and Myers & McCaulley, 1985).
Overview of the Dissertation
Chapter I . Problem Statement and Rationale for the Study
Chapter I introduces the subject matter and provides the
context needed to understand the research problem. The U. S. Army
Tank-Automotive Command (TACOM), the single organization studied,
is described to provide a general understanding of a government
(m ilita ry -c iv ilia n ) operation. A delineation of the study its e lf ,
i . e . . Statement of the Problem, Significance of the Study, and
Limitations of the Study, rounds out the chapter.
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Chapter I I . Review of the Pertinent Literature
Chapter I I presents a review of pertinent leadership litera tu re
relevant to the topic of personality differences between m ilitary
and c iv ilian leaders. The following four principal theories of
leadership are examined: (1) the great man theory; (2) theory of
personal tra its ; (3) situational demands theory; and (4) theories
based on behavioral concepts. Personality theories and Instruments
are next addressed, followed by an extensive review of the
characteristics of the MBTI, which led to Its selection as the
personality Instrument for this study. Personality characteristics
of m ilita ry and c iv ilians leaders are reviewed. Including selections
which Introduce the Idea of the m ilitary mind and describe the
m ilita ry and c iv ilia n MBTI types. The fin a l section Includes a
discussion of MBTI types associated with executives and managers.
Chapter I I I . Methodology
The litera ture review leads to the logical development of the
research hypotheses regarding relationships. Identifiab le
characteristics, and predispositions derived from personality types.
The resultant research hypotheses are formulated. The research
design Is presented, along with the method of analysis used. The
Implementation of the survey also Is examined In d e ta il. Including
selection of participants, scoring procedure for the MBTI, p ilo t
testing, and data collection procedures.
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Chapter IV. Results
Findings based on the research data are presented. Each of' the
hypotheses identified in Chapter I I I is examined.
Chapter V. Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusions and recommendations are presented.
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CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF THE PERTINENT LITERATURE
This chapter reviews the topics basic to an understanding of
the question of personality differences between m ilitary and
c iv ilia n leaders. Thus, the lite ra tu re review f i r s t examines the
principal theories of leadership. Next, the major theories of
personality are addressed, with special emphasis on Jung's typology.
The several tests developed to assess personality from the
perspective of the various theories are discussed, and the survey
instrument, the MBTI, is extensively reviewed. Research on
personality characteristics of leaders in both c iv ilian and m ilita ry
sectors is discussed next, along with MBTI type data from a data
bank of a quarter m illion individual MBTI records. An examination
of MBTI types associated with executives and managers concludes the
chapter.
Leaders and Leadership
Four defin itive studies of leadership are the primary sources
for this discussion: Smith and Krueger (1933), Stogdill (1948),
Jennings (1960), and Bass (1981). These studies are particularly
valuable because th e ir findings are applicable not only to
leadership in the f ie ld of education but also to leadership in
business, m ilita ry , and governmental organizations.
8
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The Great Man Theory
According to Jennings (1960), "The parent of our modern
approach to leadership is the great man theory" (p. 3 ). This
theory, formulated by Carlyle (1858), is based on the premise that
historical events are the direct result of the influence and
ac tiv ities of a handful of outstanding individuals. American
philosopher William James (1880) subscribed to a modified version of
the great man theory but emphasized in addition that leaders are
characterized by boundless energy and by an extremely strong w ill to
succeed. Woods (1913) studied the progress of several European
countries and concluded that a particular country's success,
relative to that of other nations, was tied to the personal
attributes of that country's hereditary ruler or king. There arose
a philosophical requirement to identify what there was about great
men that made them great, as well as to learn whether they possessed
identifiab le personal attributes, characteristics, or tra its which
distinguished them from ordinary individuals and enabled them to
manifest leadership qualities .
The T ra it Theory of Leadership
Ross and Hendry (1957) stated that the earliest studies of
leadership concentrated on the leader as a person. For centuries,
leadership was considered to be a matter of inheritance; leaders
were born, not made. However, when Napoleon ended the feudal system
in Europe, the French egalitarian democracy demonstrated that
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10
leaders could be made, and were not solely born to that status. An
individual's personal qualities were primarily responsible for his
success in becoming a leader and in remaining in a leadership
position. Thus, the great man theory was followed by the t r a i t
theory, instigating studies which purported to identify those
elusive, distinctive qualities which were resident in the individual
leader.
Smith and Krueger (1933) devoted ten fu ll pages of their
pioneering study on the lite ra tu re of leadership to the subject of
tra its of leaders. The personality tra its they identified included
knowledge, substantial physical as well as mental energy,
enthusiasm, o rig in a lity , in it ia t iv e , imagination, purpose,
persistence, and speed of decision. One of their references, Cowley
(1931), in his paper on leaders in face-to-face situations, stated
that speed of making decisions, coupled with the a b ility to grasp
the situation quickly and make a firm decision based on the
circumstances, characterized dynamic leaders, particularly m ilita ry
officers.
Stogdill's (1948) monumental work on leadership focused
particularly on tra its and personality. In spite of his very
thorough investigation, however, Stogdill could not formulate a l is t
of defin itive leadership tra its that were the exclusive property of
leaders. All of the tra its he was able to define were also found in
individuals who in no sense could be said to be leaders. This
apparent lack of exclusive leadership tra its led to rejection of the
t r a i t theory in its entirety (Fiedler, 1967).
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11
Situational Leadership Theory
Smith and Krueger (1933) anticipated future studies with the
question, "Are the tra its of leaders general or are they specific
with reference to the type of situation?" (p .72). Jenkins (1947)
noted that wide variations in the tra its of m ilita ry leaders
occurred even in sim ilar situations, and an even greater divergence
appeared evident in leadership behavior in d ifferent situations.
Fiedler's (1967) contingency leadership model provided a widely used
situational continuum that related the leader's power not only to
leader-follower relations but also to the task structure. Fiedler
and Chemers (1974) subsequently concluded that there was no such
thing as an ideal leader whose a b ilit ie s and leadership style would
be successful under a ll circumstances. These authors recommended
the management practice of moving leaders into suitable situations,
rather than trying to change the leaders' personalities or
leadership styles.
Behavioral and Environmental Leadership Theory
Leadership studies conducted during the 1950s recognized that
the leader did not operate in complete isolation. Organizational
goals, objectives, norms, and other variables were inherent in
leader positions. Expectations and viewpoints of superiors,
subordinates, and peers also constrained the leader's behavior
(Gordon, 1984). Mersey and Blanchard (1972) developed their
life -cy c le , three-dimensional, situational leadership model, which
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12
related the leader's task and relationship behaviors with the
maturity level of his followers. Thus, the leader's style could
vary from authoritarian to laissez-fa ire within the task and
socio-emotional dimensions, depending on the psychological maturity
level of the followers in relation to a specific task.
Present Status of Leadership Theories
In S togdill's Handbook of Leadership. Bass (1981) summarized
the characterisitics of a leader by enumerating the manifold
personal attributes of leadership as follows:
The leader is characterized by a strong drive for responsibility and task completion, vigor and persistence in pursuit of goals, venturesomeness and o rig ina lity in problem solving, drive to exercise in it ia t iv e in social situations, self-confidence and sense of personal identity , willingness to accept consequences of decision and action, readiness to absorb interpersonal stress, willingness to to lerate frustration and delay, a b ility to influence other persons' behavior, and capacity to structure social interaction systems to the purpose at hand. (p. 81)
Bass thus recognized that leadership theory has shifted once again
to the revitalized concept of the leader's personal and intellectual
leadership qualities which are also the outward observable signs of
his personality. The next section w ill outline the major
personality theories and review the interrelationships of leadership
and personality.
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13
Theories of Personality
The measurement of personality, and particularly personality
differences, provides the means to compare individual leaders from a
common psychological base. Personality theories are fu lly as
diverse as the leadership theories discussed ea rlie r. I t is thus
again necessary to concentrate on those most representative of the
major thrusts. The personality theorists whose work w ill be
reviewed are Freud, Jung, Murray, Maslow, A llport, and C atte ll.
This review w ill follow Hergenhahn's (1980) lead in
categorizing the main personality theories into generalized
paradigms or models which express the viewpoint held by the
particular theorist. Hergenhahn included Freud and Jung in his
psychoanalytic paradigm. All port and Cattell in his t r a i t model, and
Maslow in his existential-humanistic viewpoint. Murray, with
degrees in medicine, biochemistry, and psychology, applied his
unusual talents to the development of psychological screening,
testing, and personality assessment procedures for the U. S. Army
during World War I I . Despite their diversity, the underlying aim of
these theories has been to derive an explanation of human nature and
behavior.
Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis
L. M. M ille r (1978), writing from the perspective of a manager
who aimed to build a productive organization, described Freud's
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14
psychological influence as follows:
The most popular of the major influences in current psychological thought that may be viewed among the indirect approaches to behavior are the personality theories derived primarily from the work of Sigmund Freud. Our entire culture has been strongly influenced by Freudian psychology, (p. 22)
Freud was the f i r s t to recognize the influence of the
unconscious mind, in which reside an individual's innermost desires
and basic instincts (Munn, 1966; Bugelski, 1960). Freud fe l t that an
individual's personality was a direct result of his basic instincts,
that he was governed by a desire for pleasure and the avoidance of
pain, and that he grew from infancy through various sexual stages
until adolescence, the maximum level of maturity (Lauzan, 1962).
The French neurologist, Jean-Martin Charcot, with whom Freud
studied in 1865 (Gatchel & Mears, 1982), and who used hypnosis to
trea t patients suffering from hysteria, made the statement that this
malady always had a sexual basis (Freud, 1914/1957). Freud
discarded hypnosis as a method of treatment, but retained the
conviction that human sexuality was the underlying cause of mental
problems. This insistence on the role of sexuality eventually
caused Freud to break with his most famous student, Carl G. Jung
(Gatchel & Mears, 1982).
C. G. Jung and Psychological Types
Jung received a medical degree from the University of Basel in
1900 and shortly thereafter was appointed to the position of
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15
psychiatrie resident in a public hospital in Zurich, headed by Eugen
Bleuler, a psychiatrist. Under Bleuler's guidance, Jung worked to
develop a word association test to aid in the treatment of patients.
During this same time (about 1905), Jung read Freud's (1900/1953)
Interpretation of Dreams. These two events led to a very close
association and correspondence with Freud which lasted until 1913.
Their friendship ended over Jung's disagreement with Freud's
insistence that the instinctive driving energy of the human
personality, the lib ido , was essentially sexual in nature. Jung was
equally adamant in his stand that the lib ido was a creative l i f e
force that applied to the continuous psychological growth of the
person throughout his life tim e (Mattoon, 1981).
In contrast with Freud, who believed that an individual's
maximum mental growth was reached with adolescence, Jung (1939) was
convinced that people could continue to grow and mature into middle
l i f e . Consequently, the individual can achieve his personal goals
through self-actualization , which Jung considered an inner driving
force of the personality. The concept of self-actualization would
be rearticulated by Maslow (1954, 1970) as the outstanding
individual's primary motivation to work.
In his seminal work, Psychological Types. Jung (1921/1971)
enunciated a theory of personality based upon the postulate that
everyone uses one or the other of two basic attitudes toward the
world: extraversion or introversion. Mattoon (1981), a Jungian
psychologist, explained the concept of extraversion, as follows:
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16
The extravert concentrates his attention (his psychic or mental energy) on the outside world. He shows an interest in events, people, and things; a relationship with them, and a dependence on them. (p. 55)
Isabel Briggs Myers, co-developer of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(Myers & Myers, 1980), contrasted the difference in outlook between
the two basic Jungian attitudes of extraversion and introversion:
The in trovert's main interests are in the inner world of concepts and ideas, while the extravert is more involved with the outer world of people and things. Therefore, when circumstances permit, the introvert concentrates perception and judgment upon ideas, while the extravert likes to focus them on the outside environment, (p. 7)
In order to account for a ll dimensions of conscious
personality, Jung (1921/1971) expanded his theory of psychological
types to include four mental functions: sensing, in tu ition ,
thinking, and feeling, as well as the dimensions of extraversion and
introversion.
Sensing is the use of the five physical senses to gather and
evaluate facts, whereas the in tu itive function integrates facts with
memory and experience to enable a person to see possible
applications for those facts. Individuals characterized by the
sensing function tend to be very practical, "m atter-of-fact,
down-to-earth, fascinated with facts and with discovering and
observing how things work" (Mattoon, 1981, p. 63). In tuition was
defined by Jung (1938/1959) as "the function of unconscious
perception. I t is represented by a certain attitude of expectation.
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17
a perceptive and penetrating vision" (p. 211). Myers and McCaulley
(1985) have amplified Jung's concept of in tu ition by stating:
Jung characterized in tuition as perception by way of the unconscious. Intuitions may come to the surface of consciousness suddenly, as a "hunch," the sudden perception of a pattern in seemingly unrelated events, or as a creative discovery . . . Intu ition permits perception beyond what is v is ib le to the senses, including possible future events, (p. 12)
Jung (1938/1959) termed the thinking and feeling functions
rational "because they are characterized by the supremacy of the
reasoning and judging functions" (p. 207). Corsini and Marsella
(1983) have stated that the Jungian thinker tends to base his
judgment on recorded past experience with factual data, which
follows an orderly, log ica l, structured procedure that can give the
impression of appearing impersonal and cold to those inclined toward
the feeling function. McCaulley (1981) has described the thinking
individual thus:
Persons who are oriented to l i f e primarily through thinking typ ica lly develop strong powers of analysis, objectively weighing events with regard to logical outcomes, a time perspective concerned with connections from past through present to the future, and a tough-minded skepticism, (p. 300)
By contrast, the person who is oriented toward the feeling function
tends to arrive at decisions through value judgments in line with
his own personal set of values. He relates well to other people and
easily expresses warm consideration for their welfare. He is adept
at negotiations and compromise and can be an invaluable
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18
member of a team e ffo rt (Jung, 1938/1959; Myers & Myers, 1980;
E llis , 1982).
Corsini and Marsella (1983) have emphasized the point that
Jungian typology provides a way to understand individual
differences. Everyone uses both extraversion and introversion
attitudes, as well as a ll four functions of sensing, in tu ition ,
feeling, and thinking, but in varying degrees. Each person, as he
matures, develops a preference for one of the two attitudes and for
two of the four functions. Since he w ill use his preferred attitude
and functions more often, they become highly developed and thus are
indicative of how he relates to his inner se lf and to the outside
world.
When Jung's Psychological Types was published in English in
1923, the value of his typology as a basis for personality theory
was immediately recognized by Katharine Cooke Briggs and her
daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, developers of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI), an instrument for identifying Jungian
psychological types (Myers, 1962; Myers & McCaulley, 1985). During
this same time, the English translation was being avidly read by
another young American, Henry A. Murray, a doctoral student in
biochemistry at Cambridge University in England. Murray spent a
month v is iting Jung in Switzerland and became convinced that
psychology would become his l i f e work (Murray, 1938).
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Murray's Contribution to Personality Theory
While director of the Harvard Psychological C lin ic, Murray
published his Explorations in Personality in 1938, in which he
outlined his own theory of personality, closely related to Jung's
theory, since i t was humanistic, addressed the normal individual,
and was optimistic about the future (Hergenhahn, 1980). Murray was
the f i r s t to identify the brain "as the focus of personality and a ll
its component parts" (Hall & Lindzey, 1970, p. 161).
Murray's most important contributions to the fie ld of
psychology were his Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and his
personality assessment techniques. These were developed while
Murray was the senior m ilita ry o fficer in charge of the assessment
s ta ff of the U. S. Army Office of Strategic Services in World War
I I . His work became the springboard for further study of the
relationships among leadership, personality, biological factors, and
the environmental situations in which the individual may be called
upon to operate during conditions dictated by m ilita ry requirements.
Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization
Abraham Maslow is most closely associated with his hierarchy of
needs, published in 1954. These needs follow a pattern within which
each of five levels of human needs serves as a motivational stimulus
to achieve satisfaction before the person reaches the top level,
where he is self-actualized and requires no outside stimulation.
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Later, Maslow (1954, 1970) rediscovered Jung's concept of
self-actualization. Maslow (1970) continued his investigation and
identified several de fin itive personality characteristics manifested
by self-actualized individuals. He found them to be well
integrated, creative, inventive; problem solvers; open to new
experiences; independent; tolerant of others' d iffering opinions,
yet oriented toward democratic values; re a lis tic in outlook;
genuine, with strong social consciousness, even to the extent of
nonconformity; and possessed of strong moral values and friendships.
Thus, Maslow takes his place as the optimistic leader of
humanistic psychology (Hergenhahn, 1980). Maslow studied the
personalities of normal, healthy individuals with a view toward
helping them express th e ir potential as human beings to the greatest
extent possible. Maslow believed that everyone is capable of being
motivated by his self-actualizing inner drive.
The T ra it Theories of A llport and Cattell
While All port and Cattell are both considered t r a i t theorists
(Hall & Lindzey, 1970; Geiwitz, 1969), their perspectives are very
differen t. A llport (1965) studied the personalities of a re la tive ly
few individuals in depth, whereas Cattell (1983) accumulated
personality t r a i t data from large numbers of people and used factor
analytic techniques to categorize his voluminous data.
A llport's theory is ho lis tic , humanistic, and motivational
(Geiwitz, 1969). A llport's most frequently quoted definition of
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21
personality reflects his own views:
Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his own unique adjustment to his environment.(1937, p. 48)
From his study of the whole man, All port (1960) identified
several personal tra its that are evidenced in the lives of healthy,
mature adults. Such individuals tend to be compassionate; tolerant
of other be liefs , frustration, change, and uncertainty; adaptable;
emotionally stable; re a lis tic in their appraisals of both their own
a b ilit ie s and those of others; friendly , with a noncynical sense of
humor; and goal-directed with a purpose in l i f e (Hergenhahn, 1980).
Many of these characteristics are also found in Maslow's (1971)
description of self-actualizing , successful individuals. A llport's
personality theory can be classified as both humanistic and
optim istically oriented toward the future.
Raymond B. Cattell (1983) has studied personality t r a it data
chiefly by means of factor analysis. Cattell founded the Laboratory
of Personality Assessment at the University of I l l in o is , where he
developed the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PFQ), a
written test for identifying personality tra its . Cattell (1946)
placed major emphasis on the study of groups and the identification
of personality tra its pertinent to large numbers of people. He fe lt
that tra its common to a ll individuals could be identified by a
combination of methods: the person's l i f e history, questionnaire
data from the 16PFQ, and observational test data. Once an
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22
individual's tra its have been identified , C attell believed that i t
would be possible to predict the individual's future behavior with
reasonable accuracy (C attell & Dreger, 1977). Although Cattell is
respected as a dedicated sc ien tific researcher (Pervin, 1975;
Hergenhahn, 1980), some psychologists consider his factor analytic
approach and his 16PFQ to be not entire ly satisfactory as a means of
assessing personality tra its .
The next section discusses a number of instruments used for the
study of personality.
Personality Measurement Instruments
Each of the personality theorists used certain experimental
approaches in consonance with his own particular theory. Freud and
Jung both relied heavily on the clin ical interview to learn about
their patients' mental problems. Since they each were trained as
physicians prior to their work as psychiatrists, they tended to use
both physiological and mental measurement methods. Jung developed
an early version of the word association test as a diagnostic tool.
Such a test uses the projective technique of giving the patient
ambiguous stim uli. The patient's answers are scored subjectively by
the tester.
Woodworth's Personal Data Sheet
The f i r s t so-called personality test ever used by the U. S.
Army was Woodworth's Personal Data Sheet (Kleinmuntz, 1975), which
was designed to screen the large number of draftees in World War I
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(1914-1918) to identify emotionally maladjusted male recruits and
prevent their induction into the armed forces.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Murray and his colleagues (US OSS, 1948) used several data
sources in recruitment and training of World War I I Office of
Strategic Services overt and covert agents. They were the f ir s t
group of psychologists and psychiatrists to expand their test
battery by the introduction of re a lis tic situational tests. Murray
(Morgan & Murray, 1935) developed his projective Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT) to assess the personalities of healthy,
normal individuals, rather than those with mental disorders.
The TAT is a projective personality test in which several
ambiguous pictures are shown to the participant, who is told to make
up a story about each picture. The participant is asked to describe
what the people in the picture are doing, what they are probably
thinking about, what th e ir feelings are, and what would be the
results of the situation shown in the picture. From the content of
these stories, psychologists trained in personality theory and
projective testing should be able to learn something about the
mental processes of the participant and make reasonable assumptions
about the participant's needs, wants, ambitions, conflicts, and
values.
Murray and his associates were very successful in using the
TAT. However, because i t is a projective tes t, the TAT has the
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disadvantage of being heavily dependent for its interpretation upon
the background and experience of the psychologist.
Self-Report Inventories
All port (1937) studied the personality of individuals by use of
their personal records, historical documents, and data acquired by
face-to-face interviews. Since both interviews and the various
projective techniques tended to be too time-consuming, several
different self-report personality inventories or questionnaires were
developed to assist in the studies. Their objectives were to deal
with "the problem of personal adjustment" or to study the
"conceptions of the structure of individual difference stemming from
theoretical concepts about the nature of personality" (Lanyon &
Goodstein, 1982, p. 12). Four prominent self-report inventories
were reviewed for possible use in th is study. These are the Eysenck
Personality Inventory (EPI), the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire (16PFQ), the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI), and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)
In 1947, Eysenck introduced the Maudsley Personality Inventory,
la ter t it le d the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), to measure
what he considered to be the two major dimensions of personality:
the Jungian extraversion-introversion dimension and neuroticism
operating along a continuum. Eysenck considered neuroticism to be
"the inclination to respond with excessively high levels of
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25
emotionality" (Corsini & Marsella, 1983, p. 386). This research was
conducted with a group of 700 neurotic soldiers during his
assignment as a psychologist in the Maudsley hospital.
Lingoes (1970) and Tellegren (1978) critic ized the design of
the EPI on the basis that using only two or three dimensions would
be insufficient to analyze a patient's personality in a clin ical
situation.
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF0)
Cattell (C a tte ll, Eber & Tatsuoka, 1970) developed his Sixteen
Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PFQ) to provide researchers with
an instrument to evaluate the personality of individuals through
identification of second-order tra its or factors. Cattell used
factor analysis to derive and consolidate these factors. According
to Corsini and Marsella (1983), C a tte ll's prodigious work in the
f ie ld of personality assessment has not yet received wide acceptance
"because of his reliance on quantitative methods (e .g ., factor
analysis), the complexity of which exceeded the understanding of
many psychology professors" (p. 394). Nonetheless, Lanyon and
Goodstein (1982) recognized the 16PFQ as one of only two personality
inventories that they consider to have a sound theoretical base, the
second being the Myers-8riggs Type Indicator.
Harsh (1970), a U. S. Navy research psychologist, expressed
dissatisfaction with the 16PFQ test manual because of the absence of
re lia b il ity data for the various personality factors. Harsh also
objected to the complicated scoring method presented, which he
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considered a potential source of error. Lubin (1970) warned against
the use of the 16PFQ without further validation of the instrument.
Wittenborn (1970) did not consider the 16PFQ "a finished tool"
(p. 562).
Adcock (1970) disagreed with the reviewers just cited. For his
applications of the instrument, Adcock considered the 16PFQ easy to
administer and score. He particularly valued the av a ila b ility of
"average profiles for 28 occupational groups and 6 behavior
disorders" (p. 820).
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was
orig inally developed by Hathaway and McKinley (1951) as a diagnostic
test instrument for c lin ica l psychologists to use in a medical
setting in order "to diagnose or detect individuals whose behavior
patterns were psychopathological" (Kleinmuntz, 1975, p. 10).
When the MMPI has been used in other than clin ical settings,
the results have not been uniformly satisfactory. King (1978) cited
the Congressional hearings in 1964, during which te s tifie rs
denounced "the use of the MMPI as a selection instrument for
employment" (p. 935). King further stated that the attempted use of
the MMPI to predict industrial job performance or to anticipate
success or fa ilu re in m ilita ry training could be expected to produce
negative consequences. Although the MMPI ranks very high as a
clin ica l tool, much less support has been found for its use in
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management situations for personality assessment of normal, healthy
human beings. ^
The Mvers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Briggs and Myers (Myers, 1962; Myers & Myers, 1980) based their
development of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), an instrument
for use in personality assessment of normal individuals, on Jungian
typology. As stated by Myers and McCaulley (1985), "The purpose of
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is to make the theory of
psychological types described by C. G. Jung (1921/1971)
understandable and useful in people's lives" (p. 1). The MBTI has
been recognized by Lanyon and Goodstein (1982) as one of only two
personality inventories constructed from a sound basis in
personality theory (the other being the 16PFQ). The MBTI measures
the two Jungian attitudes, extraversion (E) and introversion ( I ) , as
well as the four basic mental processes or functions: sensing (S),
in tuition (N), thinking (T ), and feeling (F ).
After years of research and observation, Briggs and Myers
(Myers, 1962) added the judgment-perception (JP) preference, implied
by Jungian type theory, to the exp lic it Jungian dimensions of El,
SN, and TF. Myers and McCaulley (1985) have explained the
importance of the JP preference as follows:
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The JP preference has two uses. F irs t, i t describes indentifiab le attitudes and behaviors to the outside world. Second, i t is used, in conjunction with El, to identify which of the two preferred functions is the leading or dominant function and which is the auxiliary. The recognition and development of facts about the JP function are a major contribution of Briggs and Myers to the theory of psychological types, (p. 13)
Thus, a person's orientation to the outer world is determined by his
JP preference, which also determines his dominant function. Only
one of the four functions, S, N, T, or F, can be dominant in an
individual's mental processes. I f his JP preference is for J, his
dominant function w ill be either thinking (T) or feeling (F ).
Should he show a P preference, his dominant function w ill be either
sensing (S) or in tuition (N). Direction and consistent focus for
the individual's personality are provided by his dominant function.
The second preferred function, the auxiliary , balances the effect of
the dominant function. For example, a dominant perceptive function
(S or N) is balanced by an auxiliary judgment function (T or F), and
vice versa.
Selection of the MBTI as the Survey Instrument
Five major personality instruments have been discussed for
possible use in this study. The TAT, the only projective test,
could not be used because the test must be administered and
interpreted by a trained psychologist with wide experience in
personality assessment. The EPI has only one scale devoted to the
El dimension. Its other two scales are related to abnormal
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psychology and thus are unsuitable for th is application. The
frequently used MMPI is also primarily a diagnostic tool for
clin ica l psychologists, and for th is reason is not considered
applicable for the purpose of this study. The 16PFQ, in spite of
its theoretical base, was not used because of its complicated
scoring procedures and the applicab ility of only certain selected
scales.
The MBTI, on the other hand, is a self-report inventory which
is easy to administer and score and also has a strong theoretical
base. I t uses a forced-choice format in which answers to each
question are paired, thus guiding the participant to select the one
answer he thinks is more nearly correct. The forced choice
technique avoids the phenomenon of response set, i . e . , inappropriate
answers to the question content (Maddi, 1980).
The MBTI personality type is measured by questions structured
to ascertain the re la tive strengths of the person's preference along
the four dimensions. The symbology used by Myers-Briggs to describe
these dimensions is alphabetical. Basically, the f i r s t le tte r of
each of the eight preferences is used to designate the person's
preference for that particular mental process: extraversion is
represented by (E); introversion by ( I ) ; sensing by (S); intuition
by (N); thinking by (T); feeling by (F); judgment by (J); and
perception by (P). Thus, a fo u r-le tte r combination may be used to
represent one of the sixteen possible MBTI psychological types. For
example, the MBTI type designation, ESTP, represents a person who
uses the mental processes of extraversion, sensing, thinking, and
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perception as his dominant preferences for dealing with his
environment. In Myers-Briggs terminology, these preferences
translate into his personality type (McCaulley, 1980).
Before the MBTI was selected, however, its re lia b il ity and
va lid ity were extensively researched.
R e lia b ility of the MBTI
Mendelsohn (1970) commented on the large amount of re lia b il ity
and va lid ity data that had been accumulated for the MBTI at that
time. He reported internal consistency re lia b ilit ie s ranging from
.75 to .85 for the E l, SN, and JP scales, but somewhat lower
coefficients for the TF scale. Strieker and Ross (1963) reported
similar re lia b ility coefficients in the .70 to .80 range for the El,
SN, and JP scales, but a lower range (.64 to .74) for the TF scale.
Since the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT)
was established in 1975, more specific research on testing with the
MBTI has been achieved. Carlyn (1977) conducted a thorough
assessment of the MBTI and concluded that the internal consistency
studies which she had reviewed had "usually produced acceptable
re lia b ilit ie s for both continuous and dichotomous scores" (p. 465).
With regard to tes t-re test r e lia b il ity , Myers and McCaulley
(1985) have stated that:
The practical questions revolve around the likelihood that on retest a person w ill come out the same MBTI type, that is , a person w ill choose the same pole of a ll four dichotomous preferences, (p. 170)
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In other words, the r e lia b il ity of the MBTI is dependent on how
consistently i t can indicate a person's type. In her 1977 review,
Carlyn found that professional adults upon retest showed l i t t l e or
no change in their MBTI type designation. For both male and female
college students, however, she observed ranges of .73 to .83 for the
El dimension, .69 to .78 for SN, .48 to .82 for TF, and .69 to .82
for JP. Carlyn offered the opinion that "s tab ility of scores is a
function of occupation or age" (p .467). Carskadon's (1979) findings
showed similar ranges, based on student data.
Myers (1962) anticipated that correlations might not be so high
with the thinking-feeling (TF) dimension because thinking (T) and
feeling (F) are judgment functions. Myers believed that fa c il ity in
judgment tended to be related to the age, maturity, and experience
of the individual, whether his decisions were reached through the
logical thinking mode or through the feeling and personal value
system process. Myers' contention thus agrees with Jung's
(1921/1971) theory that individuals continue to mature well into
middle l i f e .
The preponderance of accumulated data in the revised MBTI
Manual corroborates the a b ility of the MBTI to give consistent
results upon retest of participants.
V alid ity of the MBTI
Kerlinger (1973) has stated that the significance of construct
va lid ity "is its preoccupation with theory, theoretical constructs
and sc ien tific empirical inquiry involving the testing of
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hypothesized relations" (pp. 461-462). The MBTI was developed by
Briggs and Myers (Myers, 1962; Myers & McCaulley, 1985) with the
avowed purpose of making Jung's (1921/1971) psychological types
measurable and thus of practical importance. Lanyon and Goodstein
(1982) have attested to the sound theoretical basis for the MBTI.
Bradway's (1964) study supported the construct va lid ity of the
MBTI. He reported the views of 28 Jungian analysts toward the MBTI
with regard to identification of their own types. The analysts
typed themselves and then compared their self-typing with the types
indicated by the MBTI. The comparison showed substantial agreement,
especially for the El preference. Carskadon and Cook (1982)
reported that two-thirds of their college students, even though
unfamiliar with type theory, were able to recognize and identify
their own type from a random group of type descriptions, only one of
which was correct for each student.
MBTI Correlations with Other Instruments
Because the MBTI purports to measure strengths of Jungian
constructs, i . e . , the El, SN, TF, and JP scales, the MBTI can be
compared with other personality instruments which are measuring
similar constructs. Myers and McCaulley (1985) have correlated MBTI
preference dimensions with relevant scales on each of the other
three prominent personality instruments already reviewed, the EPI,
the MMPI, and the 16PFQ. These correlations, a ll significant at the
.01 level, are discussed below.
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Extraversion-Introversion (El)
The EPI has only one dimension in common with the MBTI, i .e . ,
Extraversion-Introversion. The EPI shows a correlation range of .63
to .74 with the MBTI (E ), but .27 with MBTI ( I ) . Two of the MMPI
scales are correlated with the MBTI ( I ) preference, i . e . , .63 for
Social Introversion and .39 for Depression. Two of the 16PFQ
second-order tra its correlate with the MBTI (E ), i . e . . Extraversion
(.51 to .74) and Leadership (.44 to .58). The 16PFQ's Anxiety Index
correlates .35 with the MBTI ( I ) .
Sensinq-Intuition (SN)
The MMPI Masculinity and Femininity scale correlates .33 with
the MBTI SN preference. The 16PFQ Independence factor correlates
from .33 to .46 with SN, its Leadership factor correlates .35 with
SN, and its Creativity factor correlates .50 with SN.
Thinking-Feeling (TF)
The MMPI Masculinity and Femininity scale shows a correlation
of .22 with the MBTI TF scale. The 16PFQ shows a correlation with
TF of .28 for its A lert Poise factor and of .26 for its Leadership
factor.
Judgment-Perception (JP)
The 16PFQ shows correlations with JP in the range of .32 to .36
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for its Independence factor and in the range of .25 to .39 for its
Creativity factor.
These accumulated findings give support to the construct
va lid ity of the MBTI and to its a b ility to identify types in
accordance with Jungian psychological type theory.
Summary of MBTI Advantages
Three advantages of using the MBTI have been noted by Sundberg
(1970): the simple procedures for administrating and scoring the
instrument; the sound Jungian psychological base; and the MBTI's
evidential relationship with measures of "creativ ity , achievement,
and success at certain jobs" (p. 1127). Sundberg further reported
that a c lien t, when counseled, could easily comprehend how the
results from the MBTI could enable "the person to see and understand
his own preferences" (p. 1130). The importance of this particular
aspect of the MBTI is apparent i f the test results must be clearly
explained to and understood by each participant. Selection of the
MBTI as the survey test instrument is thus considered ju s tifie d by
its cited advantages and its su ita b ility for application to this
study.
Personality Characteristics of M ilita ry and C ivilian Leaders
C ivilian Managers and Executives
Based on interviews with 36 c iv ilia n executives in U.S. Army
logistics ac tiv itie s , Holland (1973) found three pragmatically
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35
useful c r ite r ia for determining executive potential: knowledge of
the job, s k ills required to perform the job, and the personal
attitudes of the candidates.
In his study for the Office of Naval Research, England (1973)
analyzed the value systems of industrial managers and
administrators. England's findings indicated that U. S. industrial
managers in the private sector showed a consistent profile of being
highly pragmatic, having a low concern with po litica l and social
values, and being actively goal-oriented. Similar results were
found by Pinder, Pinto, and England (1973) in their study of 200
American business managers relating behavioral style with
personality characteristics.
Hackman, Oldham, and Purdy (1975) found that leadership and
executive status were closely associated with personality
characteristics. Holland (1973) postulated a relationship between a
leader's personality and his job role. Church (1982) supported
Holland's postulate in a study of personality types of middle- and
high-level industrial leaders. McGregor (1967) summarily observed:
The role of the manager can be visualized as a dynamic interplay between environmental forces and pressures operating on the manager . . . and forces originating from within the manager, his values, personality, and aspirations, (p. 55)
Quasi-Military Personnel
The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was organized by the
U. S. Army during World War I I to provide a worldwide network of
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36
U. S. agents and in-country foreign sympathizers to support A llied
and U. S. m ilita ry operations (US OSS, 1948). The OSS was
responsible for recruiting and training personnel to operate the
network. Because the assignment of the OSS operative could easily
have changed before he arrived at his station, the OSS Assessment
Staff decided to rely upon the ho listic psychological approach: use
of both the projective TAT to assess the recru it's personality and
simulated m ilita ry situations to analyze his potential operational
performance. Ten selected personality tra its and individual sk ills
were evaluated in less than two days: "motivation, energy and
in it ia t iv e , effective intelligence, social relations, leadership,
physical a b ility , security, observing, reporting, and propaganda
sk ills" (p. 511).
The M ilita ry Mind
Flanagan (1984), a retired three-star general, advocated the
existence of the so-called m ilita ry mind and addressed the alleged
difference between m ilita ry and c iv ilia n leaders from an
organizational point of view. Flanagan argued that the m ilitary
organizational system was more e ffic ie n t than its c iv ilian
counterpart. Basic m ilita ry features that he identified were:
chain of command, s ta ff specialization, efficiency reports,
punctuality, and regulatory authority. The corporate rebuttal
pointed out that the well-defined m ilita ry charter included clearly
specified goals, which made the means of accomplishment
straightforward. Flanagan replied that the m ilita ry must be in a
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37
constant state of readiness to respond to goals (usually spontaneous
and urgent) dictated by the p o litica l environment. He added that
combative actions usually require quick reaction, often without
adequate preparation time or warning.
M ilita ry historian Dyer (1985a, 1985b) has claimed that the
m ilita ry mind is the result of combat tra in ing , during which
soldiers are taught to follow orders without question:
To be able to do such extraordinary things, m ilita ry men need very special beliefs and attitudes . . . in order to survive and function in combat. I t makes them a group apart, for i t 's the nature of combat that shapes the m ilita ry world and the m ilitary mind. (1985a, p. 1)
Dyer has observed that the m ilitary society is separate from that of
c iv ilian s , i . e . , separate family housing, separate schools, e tc .,
and that this a r t i f ic ia l separation can result in a disorientation
with respect to c iv ilia n attitudes.
Both Flanagan (1984) and Dyer (1985a) have postulated the
existence of the m ilita ry mind, together with a difference in
thought, outlook, and personal value systems for m ilita ry personnel
as compared with c iv ilians .
M ilita ry Program Managers
Specific personality tra its that project managers should
manifest were identifed by Lockwood (1973) through his research at
the U. S. Army War College. These personality tra its included
in tegrity , intelligence, emotional s ta b ility , drive and motivation,
and a basic managerial aptitude. The five most significant
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38
attributes of U. S. A ir Force program managers were found by Brahany
(1976) to be essentially similar to Lockwood's, i . e . , high
motivation, self-confidence, sensitiv ity , in teg rity , and s e lf-
discipline.
Successful programs in the defense acquisition f ie ld , which
includes m ilita ry , c iv ilia n , and industrial leaders, have been shown
by Baumgartner, Brown, and Kelley (1984) to depend upon the
leadership a b ilit ie s of the m ilitary program manager, along with
good management practices, careful selection of competent personnel,
and the consistent maintenance of rapport and goal-sharing with the
program's industrial contractors. R. C. Smith (1982) noted that
successful program managers were also people-oriented and in tu itive .
Characteristic attributes for success as a program manager were
identified by Kelley (1984), who found examples of Department of
Defense program managers with the same attributes as those of
successful managers in private industrial companies found by Peters
and Waterman (1982). All the program managers that Kelley
interviewed stressed the importance of good, open communications
with s ta ff and contractors and of the existence of a working team.
Kelley noted that program managers enjoyed their jobs, were
enthusiastic, and were patrio tic m ilitary officers who believed they
were doing a good job for their country.
The decision-making process within management is substantially
influenced by the behavior and attitude, i . e . , the personality, of
the decision maker. N id iffer (1984) found the program manager to be
a "tough-minded, technical and business person who approached
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39
problems in a similar way to a systems engineer" (p. 14). However,
he warned against the concept of the optimum of one particular
personality type because the program manager must adjust his
management style to f i t the situation.
MBTI Typing of M ilita ry and C ivilian Personnel
E llis (1982) administered the MBTI to three successive classes
(N = 450 approximately) of the Program Manager's Course at the
Defense Systems Management College, Ft. Belvoir, V irginia, for the
purpose of building more effective student work teams. The purpose
was achieved because the student managers at th is graduate-level
government educational fa c il ity , upon learning their types,
enthusiastically studied type theory in order to promote even better
working relationships within their own groups and with the other
student groups in their classes.
Stake (1985) administered the MBTI to a random sample (N=80) of
his chaplain's constituency at TACOM during February 1983. The
composite profile developed from the entire sample showed ISTJ to be
the most representative type. The sample included ten m ilitary
officers whose composite pro file was ESTJ. Both profiles showed
strength in each of the functions S, T, and J, but l i t t l e difference
on the El attitudinal dimension. Stake (1985) reasoned that the
officers ' p ro file was "closely balanced in the El dimension, and
could be interpreted as ESTJ or ISTJ" (p. 21).
N id iffe r's (1984) research was aimed at determining the
probable MBTI type for a program manager. He analyzed data from the
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40
Industrial College of the Armed Forces and the Defense Systems
Management College (N=803) covering the period from 1981 to 1984.
N id iffer found that, while the ISTJ type was manifested by 30% of
the program management students, three other MBTI types (ESTJ, INTJ,
and ENTJ) accounted for 33% more of these students. In other words,
two-thirds of the future executives and program managers were
characterized by the thinking-judging (TJ) type grouping.
P o ll it t (1982) studied type differences in a sample of
approximately 300 industrial middle- and upper-level managers in the
fie lds of finance and comptrollership, manufacturing, engineering,
science and research, personnel, and overall general management.
P o llit t found that both engineering and finance had 80% TJs and thus
were heavily represented by ISTJ, ESTJ, INTJ, and ENTJ types.
P o llit t commented on the surprisingly greater than expected numbers
of in tu itives (from 40% to 50%) which finance, engineering, and
manufacturing included to meet the need for long-range corporate
planning. Although the major concentration of feeling types was in
the corporate personnel departments (55%), manufacturing showed 26%,
because, as P o llit t explained, "manufacturing must always be done
through people—and people who are highly motivated and feel well
treated" (p. 8 ). The scientists and researchers were 80% intuitives
and 60% introverts. Most of the scientists were INTJ, INTP, ENFP,
and ENTJ types. Even though the scientists and researchers included
more in tu itives than did engineering and manufacturing, the
scientists were equally balanced between perceptive and judging
types. Both engineering and manufacturing were low in perceptives
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41
(13%). The Individuals In general management who were tested were
heads of large divisions or general managers who were responsible
for corporate growth of th e ir organizations. These managers were
generally extraverts. In tu itives , thinkers, and about equally
divided between judgers and perceptives. P o ll it t concluded that:
The Myers-Brlggs does seem to fa c ilita te an Improved climate In organizations. When people can understand themselves better, and also understand others, the normal conflicts can be resolved more quickly and easily. I t becomes more natural for people to work out a problem rather than avoid one another or cover things up. Having a rational set of concepts for what has often been the mystery of human differences seems to be enormously useful to people, (p. 19)
The Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT) has
established a computer-accessible data bank containing over a
quarter of a m illion MBTI records, which have been coded to Indicate
the age, occupation, and education of Individuals completing the
MBTI. Myers and McCaulley (1985) have reported on the compiled CAPT
data for various occupations, Including c iv ilia n managers and
administrators (N=7,463). They found that a majority (57%) of the
managers and administrators preferred extraversion (E) over
Introversion ( I ) . About the same percentage (56%) preferred sensing
(S) over In tu ition (N). Thinking (T) was favored over feeling (F)
by 61% of the managers, and over two-thirds (69%) preferred judging
(J) to perception (P). The three MBTI types most heavily
represented among the managers were ESTJ (17%), ISTJ (15%), and ENTJ
(10%). The remaining 58% of the managers were scattered over the
other thirteen MBTI types at levels of about 2% to 7%. Although
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42
Myers and McCaulley also reported on m ilita ry personnel, the number
of these in the data bank is much smaller (N=264), and the m ilitary
are not identified specifically by responsibility level, rank, or
job classification. In other words, they are not a well-defined
population for comparison with the m ilita ry executives in the
present study.
MBTI Types Associated with Executives and Managers
Myers and Myers (1980) analyzed each of the sixteen personality
types identified by the MBTI and showed how the type characteristics
tend to be manifested by various professions or occupations. Four
MBTI types are prominently represented in business and technical
fie lds . These types, ISTJ, ESTJ, INTJ, and ENTJ, are located on the
four corners of the standard Type Table format and constitute a
pattern of management types. These four thinking-judging (TJ) types
are recognized by Myers and McCaulley (1985) as "logical decision
makers, tough-minded, executive, analytical, and instrumental
leaders" (p. 36).
ISTJ
Myers and Myers (1980) have characterized the introverted
sensing type, ISTJ, as representative of managers who are practical,
responsible, "systematic, painstaking, thorough, and can absorb and
enjoy using an immense number of facts" (p. 104). Myers has noted
that, in addition to the ir responsible attitude, they are very
stable.
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43
Their use of experience contributes to their s ta b ility . They habitually compare present and past situations. Used in an executive capacity, this quality makes for consistent policy and for care in the introduction of changes, (p. 105)
Elston (1984) noted that ISTJs are "excellent at maintaining and
keeping an operation functioning" (p. 43), and that comptrollers,
accountants, bankers, and lawyers, as well as technical managers,
generally manifest the ISTJ type.
ESTJ
The ESTJ has been called by Myers and Myers (1980) "the
standard executive type" (p. 86). These extraverted thinking
executives or technical managers tend to have very high
organizational capability. Elston (1984) has stated that ESTJs are
goal- and achievement-oriented individuals who can
put people, things, and ac tiv ities in order and tune them with an efficiency that is what every organization of any size needs, and needs very much. . . . [They] strongly dislike slip-shod, in e ffic ien t ways or people, (p. 22)
Myers has further described ESTJs as
analytical, and impersonal, . . . decisive, logical, strong in reasoning power, . . . [who] value truth in the form of fac t, formula, and method, (p. 85)
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44
INTJ
"Originator" is the term used by Elston (1984) to describe the
introverted in tu itive INTJ type, which includes "scientists,
researchers, scholars and inventors" (p. 37). Strongly independent
and consistently innovative, they welcome challenges. They are
particu larly good at solving complicated problems in a practical
way. Myers and Myers (1980) have pointed out that
In business, they are born reorganizers. Intuition gives them an iconoclastic imagination and an unhampered view of the possib ilities; extraverted thinking supplies a keenly c ritic a l organizing faculty, (p. 115)
ENTJ
Elston (1984) has designated "Leader" as the single word to
describe the ENTJ type, characterized as a "very disciplined,
conscientious, re liab le , work-oriented individual" (p. 12) who
performs ably as an administrator, "especially in the fie lds of
business, education or government" (p. 12). Myers and Myers (1980)
have emphasized that th is type expresses extraverted thinking
supported by in tu ition and consequently is "mainly interested in the
possib ilities beyond the present, obvious, or known" (p. 88).
Because ENTJ executives tend to select other in tu itives for their
organizations, Myers and Myers recommended that they balance their
perspective with the deliberate addition of some sensing types "to
keep them from overlooking relevant facts and important details"
(p. 89).
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45
Summary
The purpose of th is chapter was to examine both public and
m ilita ry lite ra tu re for relevant studies of the personality link to
leaders. Theories of leadership were examined in the order in which
they evolved, beginning with the theory of hereditary a b ility , and
followed by the great man theory, theory of tra its , situational
theory, and current behavioral theories. The lite ra tu re review
indicated that additional research is required to c la rify these
leadership theories, especially in terms of parallel developments in
the fie ld of personality research.
Personality theories were then surveyed. These included Freud
and psychoanalysis, Jung and psychological type theory, Murray and
personality assessment, Maslow's theory of self-actualization , and
the t r a i t theories of All port and C a tte ll. Jung's theory of
psychological types was deemed the most appropriate personality
theory applicable to th is study.
Personality instruments were reviewed next. Most of those
examined were shown to re flec t a rb itra r ily selected tra its or
characteristics extrapolated from observations of abnormal
individuals in c lin ica l settings. C a tte ll's Sixteen Personality
Factor Questionnaire (C a tte ll, 1946; 1983), Eysenck's Personality
Inventory (Eysenck, 1967), and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (Hathaway & McKinley, 1951) are representative of
instruments which are primarily c lin ic a l. Murray's Thematic
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46
Apperception Test (Morgan & Murray, 1935) 1s a projective test which
must be administered and scored by a highly trained professional.
The Myers-Brlggs Type Indicator (Myers, 1962) was chosen as the
test Instrument to be used In th is study because I t was developed
specifically to Identify personality type In accordance with the
psychological type theory originated by Jung (1921/1971). The
preponderance of evidence showing the wide and continually growing
use and acceptance of the MBTI (CAPT, 1985) Indicated that I t would
readily meet a ll the requirements (Carlyn, 1977) of a suitable test
Instrument for this research Into personality types.
Research on the personality characteristics of m ilita ry and
c iv ilian leaders was reviewed next, followed by a discussion of the
MBTI types found In studies of c iv ilia n and m ilita ry executives.
The chapter concluded with a description of MBTI types
characteristic of executives and managers.
The next chapter details the hypotheses developed from the
litera ture review and outlines the research methodology.
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CHAPTER I I I
METHODOLOGY
Formulation of the Research Hypotheses
Specific research hypotheses evolved from the analysis of the
study problem reviewed in Chapter I and from the lite ra tu re search
in Chapter I I . These research hypotheses and the research questions
they address are presented below.
Research Ouestion 1 and Hypotheses
Are there differences in personality types between m ilita ry and
c iv ilia n upper-level leaders?
Discussion
The related lite ra tu re search outlined in Chapter I I showed a
prevailing consensus (Flanagan, 1984; Dyer, 1985a) on the existence
of personality differences between c iv ilian and m ilita ry executives.
Stake (1985) and N id iffer (1984) have shown that there is
support for the hypothesis that m ilita ry officers would tend to
manifest psychological characteristics corresponding to the
introversion ( I ) attitude, the sensing (S) function, and the
thinking-judgment (TJ) type grouping as measured by the MBTI. The
N id iffer (1984) data are particularly applicable to this study.
47
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48
N id iffer found that over half of the m ilita ry officers in his study
were introverts ( I ) and about two-thirds were sensors (S) and
thinking-judgers (TJs). These officers (N=803) consisted of three
classes at the Defense Systems Management College and one class from
the Industrial College of the Armed Forces. When these officers
were graduated, they were immediately assigned as m ilita ry program
managers or industrial managers of large m ilitary-industria l
complexes. Their assignments would thus be comparable in
responsibility level to those of the m ilita ry officers in the
present study.
The hypothesis that c iv ilia n executives would tend to be more
extraverted (E) in th e ir attitud inal dimension and more feeling (F)
in their mental processes than their m ilita ry counterparts is
supported by the manager and administrator data from the CAPT MBTI
data bank reported by Myers and McCaulley (1985).
Research Hypotheses for Research Question 1
1. The distribution of MBTI types for m ilita ry executives w ill
d iffe r from that for c iv ilia n executives.
2. Differences w ill be found between m ilita ry and c iv ilian
executives with regard to the type attitudes (El) and the type
processes (SN, TF, and JP). I t is hypothesized that a higher
percentage of m ilita ry than of c iv ilia n executives w ill be
classified by the MBTI as introverts ( I ) , sensors (S), thinkers (T ),
and judgers (J ).
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49
3. The distributions of MBTI types for the c iv ilia n executives
In this study w ill be sim ilar to those for the c iv ilia n managers and
administrators described In the data from Myers and McCaulley
(1985), while the distributions of MBTI types for the m ilitary
executives In th is study w ill be sim ilar to those found by N id iffer
(1984).
Null Hypotheses for Research Question 1
1. No difference w ill be found In the distribution of MBTI
types between m ilita ry and c iv ilia n participants.
2. There w ill be no difference In the percentage of m ilitary
and c iv ilia n executives classified by the MBTI as Introverts ( I ) ,
sensors (S ), thinkers (T ), or judgers (J ).
3. The distribution of m ilita ry and c iv ilia n MBTI types found
In this study w ill d iffe r from those for m ilita ry personnel reported
by N id iffer (1984) and for c iv ilian managers and administrators
reported by Myers and McCaulley (1985), respectively.
Research Question 2 and Hypotheses
Does the distribution of MBTI types d iffe r across TACOM
organizational units (Research and Development, Readiness, Support,
and Program Managers' Offices)?
Discussion
The second Research Question concerned the possibility that the
Individual TACOM units would a ttract leaders of a particular type.
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50
The approximately 300 participants in P o ll it t 's (1982) research
covered industrial middle- and upper-level managers in the fie lds of
finance and comptrollership, manufacturing, engineering, science and
research, personnel, and overall general management. His study
supported the conceptual hypothesis that Research and Development
would tend to a ttract in tu itive introverts. Readiness would have
more judging extraverts, Support would have more in tu itive
extraverts, and the Project Managers' Offices would be represented
by sensing introverts.
Research Hypothesis for Research Question 2
The distribution of type attitudes and type processes w ill
d iffe r among the four TACOM organizational units. Research and
Development and Project Managers' Offices are expected to include a
higher proportion of introverts than are Readiness and Support. In
addition. Research and Development and Support are expected to
attract a higher percentage of in tu itives than are Readiness and
Program Managers' Offices.
Null Hypothesis for Research Question 2
There w ill be no difference in the distribution of MBTI type
attitudes and type processes among the four TACOM organizational
units.
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51
Research Design
This research was designed to obtain information from a
selected population of m ilitary and c iv ilia n executives regarding
their predispositions and innate attitudes in order that their
individual personality types might be identified and studied.
Information was gathered by questionnaire, using the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI) as the survey instrument.
Independent Variables
There are two independent variables in th is study. The f i r s t
is the category of participating executives, the m ilitary officers
and the ir c iv ilian deputies. The second is the category of TACOM
organizational unit to which each participant belongs.
Dependent Variables
The dependent variables are the representations of the sixteen
MBTI types and the type preferences (processes and groupings)
manifested by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). As postulated
in the hypotheses relating to the two research questions, the
c iv ilia n and m ilita ry participants are expected to manifest
d ifferent representation among the sixteen MBTI types as well as
differences in their individual preferences for particular mental
processes in accordance with Jungian type theory. Moreover, the
MBTI types are expected to d iffe r as a function of the TACOM
organizational unit assignment.
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52
Method of Analysis
This research generated data in categorical form. Thus, the
chi-square test of association was applied to test the differences
in representation of the various MBTI personality types and type
processes for the study participants as a function of their
classification as m ilita ry or c iv ilia n . In addition, the chi-square
test was used to compare the distributions found in this study with
those drawn from other MBTI studies reported in Chapter I I , in
particular, the investigations by Myers and McCaulley (1985) and by
N id iffer (1984).
Selection of the Participating Executives
Participants were selected from among upper-level executives
whose jobs were identified as executive caliber by their positions
on the TACOM organizational chart. Chiefs and the ir deputies were
each chosen from the same organizational unit in order to insure
that the work climate experienced by each of the two paired
executives would be essentially identical. Organizational duties,
responsibilities, and authority are shared by these paired
executives, a situation in which similar decision requirements and
behavioral demands could be presumed to occur. Thus, the work
environments were kept re la tive ly constant. Since these paired
executives' positions and responsibilities were equivalent, any
personality type differences between the participants could be
expected to be based upon their status as m ilita ry or c iv ilia n .
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53
In most cases, the TACOM organizational unit chiefs were
m ilita ry officers with the rank of colonel or lieutenant colonel.
Deputies were usually c iv ilians of high C ivil Service grade level:
General Service (Merit Pay) or members of the Senior Executive
Service (SES), having salary levels higher than the maximum possible
under the General Service schedule. In a l l , th irty pairs of
m ilita ry and c iv ilian executives, the total testable population
within TACOM, were identified . The th irty pairs of participants in
th is study were presumed to be representative of Army
m ilita ry -c iv ilian executive pairs in the Federal service. All sixty
executives participated in the study.
Survey Instrument: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Briggs and Myers (Myers & Myers, 1980; Myers & McCaulley, 1985)
developed their personality type indicator, the MBTI, as a means of
measuring Jung's (1921/1971) psychological types. Because the MBTI
is a self-report inventory using the forced-choice format, the
participant is forced to select the one answer he thinks is more
nearly correct. The 126 items in Form G of the MBTI, the survey form
in current use, are phrased in everyday, nonthreatening language to
encourage the participant to respond with answers which w ill
consistently tend to re flec t his true preferences (Myers, 1976).
The time required to f i l l out the MBTI averages one-half hour.
The score for each preference dimension is a le tte r and a
number. The le tte r identifies the direction of the bipolar
dimension, e .g ., E or I , whereas the number is an indication of the
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54
relative strength of the preference for that direction. Four such
letter-number combinations become the type score. For example, the
scores: 110, S20, T15, and J3G, w ill correspond to the ISTJ type,
which may be described very b rie fly as one who prefers the
introverted attitude, who makes his judgments through logical
thinking, balanced by sensing perceptions (McCaulley, 1980). In a
similar manner, the MBTI type of each participant can be identified
as one of the sixteen possible combinations of the four bipolar
preference dimensions, E l, SN, TF, and JP.
Myers (1962) devised a standard format, called a Type Table, to
organize data on the number and percentage representation of the
type attitudes, functions, groupings, and the sixteen MBTI types.
This is the preferred method of data presentation for studies using
the MBTI as the test instrument in order to achieve better
comparability of results (Myers & McCaulley, 1985).
P ilo t Testing
Selected upper-level TACOM executives participated in the p ilo t
testing. These leaders did not qualify for the main study because
their offices did not include a deputy or counterpart at the same
executive level. The p ilo t test group contained eleven
participants, of whom seven were m ilitary officers and four were
civ ilians.
The purposes of th is p ilo t test were to (1) obtain a qualified
jury review of the proposed survey methods to convince the
Commanding General at TACOM that the proposed research was
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55
worthwhile, (2) establish administrative procedures, and (3) ensure
that the survey instrument (the MBTI) could identify d ifferent
personality types among the respondents. Results of the p ilo t test
confirmed that the administrative procedures were satisfactory and
complete. The professional caliber of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) as a survey instrument particularly impressed the
executives in the p ilo t program, who commented favorably on the
entire survey packet.
The Commanding General of TACOM received a favorable report of
the p ilo t study. He directed his legal s ta ff to formulate a
Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) which would specify the details of
protocol to be followed, and he issued the general authorization to
proceed with the research.
Data Collection Procedures
Each survey packet contained an introductory le tte r to the
participant which outlined the study, its purpose, and its potential
benefits. A second sheet provided general instructions for s e lf
administration of the survey instrument. The MBTI questionnaire
booklet with a separate answer sheet completed the contents of the
survey packet.
All sixty survey packets were personally handcarried to each
executive within a period of two days. Each packet consisted of an
envelope stamped "Exclusively For", upon which each participant's
name and rank had been carefully lettered. This assured that only
the designee himself would open the envelope. Thus, confidentiality
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56
was maintained, and each participant's right to privacy was
respected.
When the questionnaire was completed, the participants notified
the researcher, who picked up the completed packet to preserve
confidentiality. All questionnaires were completed within fifteen
working days, thus enabling this study to achieve a 100% response
rate. Each participant was furnished a copy of his own results on
the standard MBTI form, accompanied by an explanation of his
particular personality type and its associated characteristics.
The sixty MBTI answer sheets were coded to maintain
confidentiality. The coded sheets were hand-scored, using the MBTI
authorized keys, and then summarized in a type table giving the
frequencies not only of each of the MBTI types represented, but also
of the attitudes, functions, and processes.
Summary
The study hypotheses were formulated within the framework of
the two research questions. Next, the research design was
described. The selection procedure for the TACOM participants was
discussed, along with some pertinent information about the survey
instrument. Next, the p ilo t test was discussed, followed by a
description of the data collection and scoring procedures.
The resultant data are analyzed in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
The study findings are presented in th is chapter. Data from
the standard MBTI Type Table provided the basic information for
analysis. Both research questions and the ir hypotheses are
addressed.
Comparison of M ilita ry and C ivilian MBTI Types
Hypothesis 1 postulated that the distribution of MBTI types for
m ilitary and c ivili9.n^executives would d iffe r . The MBTI type data
for the entire survey population of 30 m ilita ry and 30 c iv ilian
participants are presented in Table 1. Each participant is
classified into one of the sixteen MBTI personality types. Because
of the small numbers of participants represented by most of the
types, a chi-square test of the difference between the MBTI type
distributions was not va lid . Nonetheless, i t is evident from
inspection that the type distributions for the m ilita ry and c iv ilian
executives are essentially identica l. The highest representation
for the m ilitary was in Type ISTJ (36.7%) and Type ESTJ (20.0%).
For the c iv ilians , representation was about equal for Type ESTJ
(26.7%), Type ISTJ (23.3%), and Type ENTJ (20.0%). For the numbers
involved, these percentage differences amount to only one or two
participants, except for Type ISTJ, where the difference is larger,
but s t i l l not significant at the .05 level.
57
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58
Table 1
MBTI Personality Types for M ilita ry and C ivilian Executives at TACOM
Total M ilita ry CivilianMBTI Type Identification N % N % N %
Judging Introverts
ISTJ Sensing w/Thinking 18 30.0 11 36.7 7 23.3
ISFJ Sensing w/Feeling 0 0 0 0 0 0
INFJ In tu itive w/Feeling 1 1.7 0 0 1 3.3
INTJ In tu itive w/Thinking 6 10.0 3 10.0 3 10.0
Perceptive Introverts
ISTP Sensing w/Thinking 1 1.7 1 3.3 0 0
ISPF Sensing w/Feeling 0 0 0 0 0 0
INFP In tu itive w/Feeling 0 0 0 0 0 0
INTP In tu itive w/Thinking 3 5.0 1 3.3 2 6.7
Perceptive Extraverts
ESTP Sensing w/Thinking 4 6.7 2 6.7 2 6.7
ESFP Sensing w/Feeling 0 0 0 0 0 0
ENFP In tu itive w/Feeling 0 0 0 0 0 0
ENTP In tu itive w/Thinking 3 5.0 2 6.7 1 3.3
Judging Extraverts
ESTJ Sensing w/Thinking 14 23.3 6 20.0 8 26.7
ESFJ Sensing w/Feeling 0 0 0 0 0 0
ENFJ In tu itive w/Feeling 0 0 0 0 0 0
ENTJ In tu itive w/Thinking
Total
10
60
16.7 4
30
13.3 6
30
20.0
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59Thus, while the hypothesized outcome for the m ilita ry
executives was somewhat supported by the data (36.7% were ISTJs, the
largest single type represented), the hypothesized outcome for the
civ ilians was convincingly refuted by the data (only one of the 30
c iv ilian participants manifested the feeling (F) process).
Hypothesis 2 postulated that a higher percentage of m ilitary
than of c iv ilian executives would be classified on the MBTI-measured
personality attitudes and functional processes as introverts ( I ) ,
sensors (S), and thinking-judgers (TJs). Table 2 presents the data
on the individual personality functions, i . e . , the eight MBTI
attitudes and processes, and the TJ type grouping. While there were
some minor, but nonsignificant, differences between the m ilitary and
c iv ilian leaders, the most striking finding in Table 2 was the large
and identical proportion (80%) of both m ilita ry and c iv ilian
participants who were thinking-judgers (TJs). Therefore, the data
did not support hypothesis 2.
Hypothesis 3 postulated that the data from the present study
would be similar to the data from prior studies, in particular, the
Myers and McCaulley (1985) data for the c iv ilians and the Ni d iffe r
(1984) data for the m ilita ry . Table 3 compares the MBTI types and
type processes from this study with those of Myers and McCaulley
(1985) and N id iffer (1984). Table 4 presents the chi-square tests
of association for the MBTI type attitudes and type processes for
the present study versus the Myers and McCaulley and N id iffer data.
(Again, the small cell numbers prevented use of the chi-square test
for comparison of type distributions.)
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Table 2
MBTI Personality Functions for M ilita ry and C ivilian Executivesat TACOM
60
MBTIAttitude
or Total Mi 1i tarv C ivilianSymbol Function N % N % N %
E Extraversion 31 51.7 14 46.7 17 56.7
I Introversion 29 48.3 16 53.3 13 43.3
Total 60 100.0 30 100.0 30 100.0
S Sensing 37 61.7 20 66.7 17 56.7
N In tuition 23 38.3 10 33.3 13 43.3
Total 60 100.0 30 100.0 30 100.0
T Thinking 59 98.3 30 100.0 29 96.7
F Feeling 1 1.7 0 0 1 3.3
Total 60 100.0 30 100.0 30 100.0
J Judgment 44 81.7 24 80.0 25 83.3
P Perception 11 18.3 6 20.0 5 16.7
Total 60 100.0 30 100.0 30 100.0
TJ Thinking-Judgers 48 80.0 24 80.0 24 80.0
Non-TJ Other 12 20.0 6 20.0 6 20.0
Total 60 100.0 30 100.0 30 100.0
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61
Table 3
Comparison of Present Study Data with Myers and McCaulley (1985)and N id iffer (1984) Data
MBTITypeor
TypeProcess
Civilian Executives Mi 1i tarv ExecutivesPresent Study
(N = 30) N %
Myers & McCaulley® (N = 7463) N %
Present Study
(N = 30) N %
Nidiffer^ (N = 803) N %
ISTJ 7 23.3 1115 14.9 11 36.7 242 30.1ISFJ 0 0 469 6.3 0 0 28 3.5INFJ 1 3.3 232 3.1 0 0 14 1.7INTJ 3 10.0 421 5.6 3 10.0 82 10.2
ISTP 0 0 201 2.7 1 3.3 43 5.4ISFP 0 0 189 2.5 0 0 9 1.1INFP 0 0 340 4.6 0 0 20 2.5INTP 2 6.7 267 3.6 1 3.3 63 7.9
ESTP 2 6.7 202 2.7 2 6.7 29 3.6ESFP 0 0 209 2.8 0 0 5 0.6ENFP 0 0 517 6.9 0 0 15 1.9ENTP 1 3.3 365 4.9 2 6.7 38 4.7
ESTJ 8 26.7 1272 17.0 6 20.0 116 14.4ESFJ 0 0 546 7.3 0 0 22 2.7ENFJ 0 0 367 4.9 0 0 8 1.0ENTJ 6 20.0 751 10.1 4 13.3 69 8.6
E 17 56.7 4229 56.7 14 46.7 302 37.6I 13 43.3 3234 43.3 16 53.3 501 62.4
S 17 56.7 4203 56.3 20 66.7 494 61.5N 13 43.3 3260 43.7 10 33.3 309 38.4
T 29 96.7 4594 61.6 30 100.0 682 84.9F 1 3.3 2869 38.4 0 0 121 15.1
J 25 83.3 5173 69.3 24 80.0 581 72.4P 5 16.7 2290 30.7 6 20.0 222 27.6
Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Mvers-Briggs Type Indicator, by I . 8. Myers and M. H. McCaulley, 1985, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
^"The Personality Factor: Software Technology and the 'ThinkingStyles' of Program Managers," by K. E. N id iffe r, Program Manager. (July-August 1984), pp. 10-18.
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Table 4
Chi-Square Tests for Comparisons of Present Study Data with Myers & McCaulley (1985) and N id iffer (1984) Data
62
Chi-Square Tests of Association Chi-Square ^
Civilians
T N = 29 N = 459496.7% 61.6%
F N = 1 N = 28693.3% 38.4%
Present Study Myers & McCaulleyJ N = 25 N = 5173
83.3% 69.3%P N = 5 N = 2290
16.7% 30.7%
Present Study Myers & McCaulleyTJ N = 24 N = 3559
80.0% 47.7%Non- N = 6 N = 3904TJ 20.0% 52.3%
Mi 1i tarv
Present Study N id ifferE N = 14 N = 302
46.7% 37.6%I N = 16 N = 501
53.3% 62.4%
Present Study N id ifferTJ N = 24 N = 509
80.0% 63.4%Non- N = 6 N = 294TJ 20.0% 36.6%
15.58
2.77
12.49
1.01
3.46
<.001
n.s.
<.001
n.s.
n.s.
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63
For the c iv ilian data, the percentage of extraverts (57%) and
the percentage of sensing individuals (56%) were the same in the
present study as in the Myers and McCaulley data. However, the
major expected finding that the civ ilians would be predominantly
feeling (F) and perceptive (P) individuals was unsupported by the
present study, with only 3.3% Fs and 16.8% Ps. As can be seen from
Table 4, the difference between the present study c iv ilians and the
Myers and McCaulley c iv ilians with respect to the thinking-feeling
(IF ) dimension was highly significant. However, the difference for
the judging-perception (JP) dimension was not significant at the .05
level. The difference for the thinking-judging (TJ) type grouping
was also highly significant, with 80% of the c iv ilians in the
present study being TJs. In the Myers and McCaulley data, although
thinking-judging (TJ) was the most prevalent type grouping, only 48%
of the c iv ilian administrators and managers were TJs, whereas 52%
were either feeling individuals (Fs) or perceptives (Ps) or both.
The representation of perceptives (Ps) in the Myers and McCaulley
data was about twice as high (30.7%) as that in the present study
(16.8%), while the representation of feeling (Fs) individuals in the
Myers and McCaulley data was about ten times as high (38.4%) as that
in the present study (3.3%).
For the m ilita ry executives, the results presented in Tables 3
and 4 indicate close agreement between the participants in the
present study and those in N id iffer's study. More than half (53%
for the present study and 63% for N id iffer study) were introverts
( Is ) ; about the same percentage (34% vs. 38%) were in tu itives (Ns);
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64
a ll of the present study m ilitary participants vs. 85% of the
N id iffer participants were thinkers (Ts); and about the same
percentage (80% vs. 72%) were judgers (Js). The difference between
the thinking-judging (TJ) representation in the present study and
the N id iffer study is shown in Table 4 to be nonsignificant at the
.05 level. Interestingly, the c iv ilian TJ data in the present study
are identical to the m ilita ry TJ data and thus are also not
significantly d ifferen t from the N id iffer m ilita ry data.
Thus, the results for hypothesis 3 are mixed. The m ilita ry
data are consistent with expectation, as represented by the N id iffer
data. However, the present study c iv ilian data are not completely
consistent with the Myers and McCaulley c iv ilia n data, particularly
with respect to the thinking-feeling (TF) dimension and the
thinking-judging (TJ) type grouping. In fac t, the c iv ilian data in
the present study show more s im ilarity to the N id iffer m ilitary data
than to the Myers and McCaulley c iv ilian data.
Comparison of MBTI Types across TACOM Organizational Units
The hypothesis for Research Question 2 postulated that the
organizational units a t TACOM would tend to a ttrac t MBTI personality
types similar to the type distribution found in other organizations
performing comparable ac tiv ities (e .g ., ISTJ was the predominant
personality type among program managers as reported by Kelley (1984)
and N id iffer (1984)).
Table 5 presents the data on personality types in the four
TACOM organizational units to which the participating executive
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65
Table 5
Distribution of MBTI Personality Types in TACOM Units
MBTIType
TACOM Unit
TotalR & D Readiness PMO SupportN % N % N % N % N %
ISTJ 5 27.7 5 35.7 8 33.3 0 0 18 30.0
INFJ 0 0 1 7.1 0 0 0 0 1 1.7
INTJ 2 11.1 3 21.4 1 4.2 0 0 6 10.0
ISTP 0 0 1 7.1 0 0 0 0 1 1.7
INTP 1 5.6 0 0 2 8.3 0 0 3 5.0
ESTP 1 5.6 0 0 2 8.3 1 25.0 4 6.7
ENTP 1 5.6 0 0 1 4.2 1 25.0 3 5.0
ESTJ 2 11.1 4 28.6 7 29.2 1 25.0 14 23.3
ENTJ 6 33.3 0 0 3 12.5 1 25.0 10 16.7
Total 18 100.0 14 100.0 24 100.0 4 100.0 60 100.0
E 10 55.6 4 28.5 13 54.2 4 100.0 31 51.6I a 44.4 10 71.5 11 45.8 0 0 29 48.4
S 8 44.4 10 71.5 17 70.8 2 50.0 37 61.7N 10 55.6 4 28.5 7 29.2 2 50.0 23 38.3
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66
leaders were assigned. There appears to be essentially no
difference in the distribution of MBTI types among the four
organizational units. (Chi-square tests were inappropriate because
of small cell sizes.)
The expected outcomes for the extraversion-introversion (E l)
dimension were generally not supported by the data. Although
expected to be heavily represented by introverts, the Research and
Development unit and the Program Managers' Offices were almost
equally divided between introverts ( I ) and extraverts (E). The
executives in the Support group were 100% extraverts (E), as
expected, but the Readiness unit, contrary to expectation, consisted
of 72% introverts ( I ) .
The hypothesized outcome for the sensing-intuition (SN)
dimension was, however, supported by the data. More than half of
the Research and Development unit and half of the Support unit
participants were in tu itives (N), versus less than 30% intuitives
(N) for the Readiness unit and Program Managers' Offices, a
difference that was significant at the .05 level by chi-square test.
The hypothesis for Research Question 2 thus has mixed results.
Because the data are sparsely scattered over th MBTI types in a ll
four units, no convincing analysis of the distributional differences
was possible. For the extraversion-introversion (E l) dimension,
there were no significant differences between the Research and
Development unit and the Program Managers' Offices, on the one hand,
and the Readiness and Support units, on the other. The single
supported expectation was for the sensing-intuition (SN) dimension.
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67
where the Research and Development and the Support units were
significantly higher in representation by in tu itives (N) than were
the Readiness unit and the Program Managers' Offices.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Two important findings have resulted from this study. F irs t,
the expected differences between m ilitary and c iv ilia n executives in
MBTI personality type were not found in the survey population. In
other words, the personality types manifested by the m ilita ry and
c iv ilia n executive participants in this study were essentially
sim ilar. Second, the MBTI types of the executives assigned to the
four TACOM organizational units did not follow the expected
distribution associated with particular orientations. There was,
however, a significant difference in the predicted direction for the
sensing-intuition (SN) dimension.
M ilita ry and C ivilian MBTI Type Comparison
Not only were there essentially no differences in MBTI
personality types between the m ilitary and the c iv ilian executives,
but the types represented, whether m ilitary or c iv ilia n , closely
paralleled N id iffe r's (1984) m ilita ry program and industrial
managers. Thus, the type distribution for the c iv ilian executives
in this study follows the m ilita ry model reported by N id iffer,
rather than the private sector type pattern based on the Myers and
McCaulley (1985) data for managers and administrators.
68
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69
A possible explanation for this very evident s im ilarity of
personality types between m ilita ry and c iv ilians may l ie in the fact
that the U. S. Army Tank-Automotive Command (TACOM) is a m ilitary
organization, commanded by m ilita ry officers but supported by a
large c iv ilian workforce. TACOM is charged with responsibility for
the procurement and production of m ilita ry vehicles and repair parts
to be supplied to the U. S. Armed Services within budget and on
schedule. The m ilita ry officers at TACOM are consequently under
continuing heavy pressure to produce m ilita ry equipment for the Army
quickly and at lowest possible cost. Flanagan (1984) emphasized the
strong management qualifications which m ilita ry officers need in
order to perform th e ir duties. However, because m ilita ry officers
are assigned to TACOM for a period of three years and then rotated,
the c iv ilian executives must provide the continuity—the m ilitary
corporate memory, as i t were—to maintain the m ilita ry production
program.
I t is understandable that m ilita ry officers would choose
c iv ilian managers whose comprehension of the TACOM production
mission duplicates th e ir own m ilita ry outlook. The personnel
selection process at TACOM has resulted, over a period of years, in
the development of a body of executives within TACOM who, although
c iv ilian in c lassification , are imbued with the m ilitary
perspective, and therefore re flec t the distribution of personality
types manifested by the m ilita ry executives. This situation can be
regarded as an operational example of Jungian type theory in action.
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70
even as Carskadon and Cook (1982) have shown that persons untrained
in type theory could s t i l l recognize and identify the ir own types.
I t is therefore concluded that the close s im ila rity in types
between the m ilita ry and the c iv ilian executives has evolved from
the need to f u l f i l l the TACOM mission through formation of a
c iv ilian work force oriented closely to m ilita ry organizational
practices and viewpoints. Thus, the situational demands have
dictated the selection of particular personality types for executive
positions at TACOM.
MBTI Type Comparisons across TACOM Organizational Units
Even though the results did not support the hypothesis that
each of the four TACOM organizational units would a ttract d ifferent
MBTI types, the Program Managers' Offices did show the largest
number of ISTJ managers and ESTJ executives. This is in accord with
N id iffe r's (1984) prediction that the most probable type for a
program manager would be an ISTJ. Of the nine types represented,
most are distributed throughout a ll four TACOM units.
The strongest and only significant finding for this hypothesis
relates to the sensing-intuition (SN) dimension. As predicted, the
Research and Development and the Support units were staffed chiefly
by in tu itives (N), while the Readiness unit and the Program
Managers' Offices were represented mainly by sensors (S). Each
particular unit attracts personality types compatible with its
orientation. Just as the lack of d ifferentiation of m ilita ry and
civ ilian personality types was due to the overall m ilita ry
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71
situational requirements, so also are situational demands
responsible for the gravitation of particular personality types to
organizational units having correspondingly similar orientations.
Recommendations for Future Investigation
Although the purpose of this study was to investigate
differences between m ilita ry and c iv ilian upper-level executive
leaders in a single organization, the process actually determined
personality differences among the participants. Understanding those
personality differences could improve selection and assignment of
individuals and thereby benefit the organization. Organizational
goals and implementation of management objectives could be enhanced
by thorough knowledge of personality types and the derived
implications. Therefore, i t is recommended that the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI) be considered as a management tool; i . e . , that
the MBTI be used for individual (executive) self-improvement and for
improvement of interpersonal sk ills ; and that findings from such
applications be added to the lite ra tu re .
A second recommendation concerns extension of this study: to
identify the personality types and to study the interpersonal
relationships within the particular organizations in terms of
personality differences. Such a study would benefit both
manufacturing and service organizations while contributing to a
greater understanding of personal effectiveness in leadership
situations.
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72
APPENDICES
A. General Decker's Permission (Signed)
Memorandum of Understanding
B. Introductory Letter
Questionnaire Procedure
Thank You Letter
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73
APPENDIX
A. General Decker's Permission (Signed)
Memorandum of Understanding
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DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMYUNITED STATES ARMY TANK-AUTOMOTIVE COMMAND
WARREN. MICHIGAN 4 8 0 9 0
74REPLY TO ATTENTION OF
26 August 1982
DRSTA-L
Dr. Richard Munsterman Doctoral Committee Chairman Department of Educational Leadership Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008
Dear Dr. Munsterman:
Mr. John E. DeWald has requested permission to conduct a study of my upper level management for use in a dissertation. The purpose is to address the personality characteristics of both military and civilian executives in relation to their leadership roles.
Research of this nature may be highly beneficial to the US Army, not only in providing valuable information to this Command, but in stimulating additional informative studies.
It is a pleasure for me to grant permission for this study in accordance with the attached Memorandum of Understanding between Mr. DeWald and the US Army Tank-Automotive Command.
Sincerely,
/s/ Oscar C. Decker, Jr.
1 Incl OSCAR C. DECKER, JR.As S t a t e d Major General, USA
Commanding
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75MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING
Between JOHN E. DeWALD
andU.S. ARMY TANK-AUTOMOTIVE COMMAND
(TACOM)
I , John E. DeWald, agree to indemnify, and to hold harmless the United States for any damage or injury to persons or property of any third person or of the undersigned arising from the negligence or w illfu l misconduct, of the undersigned while participating in the study regarding behavioral patterns and personality characteristics of m ilita ry and c iv ilia n managers at TACOM.
John E. DeWald further agrees to abide by any and a ll regulations, directives, and other guides promulgated by the United States, the Department of the Army and any other agency with jurisdiction over the premises or ac tiv ities involved.
In consideration of John E. DeWald's compliance with the above stated requirements, TACOM agrees to permit John E. DeWald to conduct the Study of Behavioral Patterns and Personality Characteristics of M ilita ry and C ivilian Managers at TACOM.
John E. DeWald agrees to provide the US Army Tank-Automotive Command with a copy of the results of his study at no cost to TACOM and further agrees that i f the results of the study are published in any form whatsoever the US Army Tank-Automotive Command w ill not be identified as sponsoring or concurring in the results of this study.I t is noted, there are copyright implications should this study be published since Mr. DeWald is an employee of the United States Government. Results of the study w ill not be used for any commercial purpose.
This permit is revocable by the Commander, US Army Tank-Automotive Command at any time without prior notice required.
JOHN E. DeWALD/s / Oscar C. Decker, Jr.
OSCAR C. DECKER, JR. Major General, USA Commanding
DATE
28 Aug 1982
DATE
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76
APPENDIX
B. Introductory Letter
Questionnaire Procedure
Thank You Letter
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77
Participant:
A research study is being conducted at TACOM to determinewhether m ilita ry and c iv ilia n managers in executive positions haveparticular personality types.
Quite obviously, people d iffe r in their thinking, manner of judging, beliefs and values. Knowing your own personalitycharacteristics can be beneficial to you in your professional career, as well as in your interpersonal relations in business and at home. Recognizing the characteristics of other personality types can help you judge strengths and weaknesses in others and increase your own success in dealing with people.
As an upper-level executive, you are being asked to participate in this study. Your fu ll cooperation is needed to assure tru ly representative data for the study. Information concerning your own personality type, as well as the characteristics of other types, w ill be provided upon return of your completed questionnaire.Later, you w ill be provided with an overview of the study results. TACOM upper management in general, and the survey participants in particular, are expected to p ro fit from this study.
To maintain confidentia lity , your name w ill not appear anywhere in the study. Your reply is identified only by the number in the upper right hand corner of the answer sheet. All answer sheets w ill be destroyed after the study analysis has been completed.
HERBERT H. DOBBSColonel, OrdCC, Sys & Tech Ping Ofc
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78
Questionnaire Procedure
We suggest that you reserve suffic ient time (approximately 30
minutes), without interruptions, to complete the Demographic Data
Sheet and the MBTI Questionnaire. An environment conducive to
concentration, with a minimum of distractions, is recommended. Such
a location might best be found outside the TACOM workplace.
1. There are two parts to this survey:
a. Demographic Data (personal information) Sheet.
b. A printed questionnaire, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), with Answer Sheet
2. You are requested to completely f i l l out both parts of the survey.
a. Reply to each question on the Demographic Data Sheet and show your answer on the Data Sheet its e lf .
b. Please do not write in the MBTI Printed Questionnaire Booklet, so that i t may be used again.
c. Mark your answers to the MBTI Printed Questionnaire Bookleton the separate MBTI Answer Sheet.
d. Please be careful to answer a ll questions.
e. Do not skip any questions.
3. Return the three items (Demographic Data Sheet, Printed MBTI Questionnaire Booklet, and the MBTI Answer Sheet) in the envelope provided to you.
NOTE: Please telephone John E. DeWald (Ext. 4-5455), orRuth E. DeWald (Ext. 4-8669)
for pickup of your completed Questionnaire Packet.
We w ill not allow your valuable data to be lost.
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79
SUBJECT: Thank-You Letter to Survey Participants
Participant:
Thank-you for participating in the survey of TACOM executives to determine personality types.
As promised, an overview of the study results w ill be provided to you in the near future. Your answer sheet and demographic information sheet w ill be destroyed, following s ta tis tica l analysis. The Report Form you have now received w ill be the only record of your p ro file .
Upon completion of the entire project, a copy of the published dissertation, "Personality Characteristics of M ilita ry and C ivilian Executives in Equal Hierarchical Levels within the Same Organization," w ill be provided to the TACOM lib ra ry for reference.
Again, your cooperation has been most appreciated.
JOHN E. DEWALD
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adcock, C. J. (1970). The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire. In 0. K. Buros (E d .), Personality tests and reviews including an index to the Mental Measurements Yearbooks (pp. 817-820). Highland Park, NJ: Gryphon Press.
Alker, H. A. (1978). The MMPI, In 0. K. Buros (Ed.), The eighth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 931-935). Highland Park, NO: Gryphon Press.
A llport, G. W. (1937). Personal i ty : A psychological in terpretation .New York, NY: Henry Holt.
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