Copyright ©2021 Development Monitoring and Evaluation Office (DMEO), NITI
Aayog, Government of India
All rights reserved. This report or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or
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Sector Report: Rural Development
PREFACE
TheGovernmentofIndia(GoI)spendsclosetoRs.14lakhcroresannuallyondevelopmentactivities,
through nearly 750 schemes implemented by Union Ministries. To improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of public finance, and the quality of service-delivery to citizens, all schemes have been
mandated to undergo third party evaluations, to provide an evidentiary foundation for scheme
continuation from 2021-22 to 2025-26. In 2019, the DevelopmentMonitoring and Evaluation Office
(DMEO), NITI Aayogwas assigned the task of evaluating 28 Umbrella Centrally Sponsored Schemes
(UCSS),whichareschemes/programmesfundedjointlybytheCentreandtheStatesandimplemented
bytheStates.Thishistoricexercise,undertakenbetweenApril2019andFebruary2021,evaluated125
Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS), under 10 Sectors, together covering close to 30% of the GoI’s
developmentexpenditure,amountingtoapproximatelyRs.3lakhcrore(USD43billion)perannum.
Inordertofulfilthismandatetothehigheststandardpossible,tooptimizeboththerobustnessandthe
uptakeoftheevidencegenerated,DMEOadoptedanationallyrepresentativemixedmethodsevaluation
methodologyanda consultative reviewprocess for the reports.Throughqualitativeandquantitative
analysisofsecondaryliterature,analysiswasdoneatthreelevels:thesector,theumbrellaCSSandthe
schemeitself.Thestudiesthusproducedthenunderwentareviewprocessinvolvingconsultationswith
NITIAayogsubjectmatterdivisions,concernedMinistriesandDepartments,andexternalexperts.
The present report is an outcome of this evaluation study and presents an analysis of the Rural
DevelopmentSectorbasedonprimaryandsecondarydatacollection.InthisReport,weseektocover
ruraldevelopmentsector in India, identifyingthe intendedandactualcontributionofGoIschemesto
sectoroutcomes.Thisincludesareasformorefocusedefforttoachievenationalpriorities/SDGs.Italso
identifies opportunities for convergence of the schemes within the sector to other developmental
programmesoftheCentralandtheStateGovernmentsaswellaswithprivatesector,corporatesocial
responsibility(CSR)efforts,international,multilateralandbilateralaid,etc.
WehopethatthisReportwillfurtherourunderstandingoftheRuralDevelopmentSectorandhelpus
movetowardsachievingtheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandtheNationalDevelopmentAgenda,to
promotethewell-beingofallsovereigncitizensofIndia.
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Sector Report: Rural Development
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
WewouldliketoexpressourgratitudetoDr.RajivKumar,Vice-ChairmanNITIAayog,andShriAmitabhKant, Chief Executive Officer, who have been the driving force, first in entrusting this importantresponsibility to the Development Monitoring and Evaluation Office (DMEO) and subsequently asmentorsthroughoutthestudy,inprovidingallnecessarysupportandguidanceforthecompletionoftheproject.Wealsoexpressourgratitude to theMinistryofFinance for recognizing thecrucialneed forevidenceinthedeliberationsanddecisionspertainingschemebudgetallocations.OurinvaluablepartnersinthisexercisehavetheDepartmentofRuralDevelopment,withallitsofficials,withoutwhosecooperationthisevaluationwouldnothavebeenpossible.Wearegratefultothemforproviding us access to available data, for patiently sharing their expertise through Key InformantInterviews(KIIs),andforprovidingtheirvitalcommentsonthedraftreportsduringvariousstagesofthestudy.AdetailedlistoftheKeyInformantInterviewscanbefoundintheannexurestothisreport.Inourfederalstructure,equallyimportantpartnersinthisendeavourhavebeentheStateGovernmentsof Andhra Pradesh, Assam,Dadra andNagarHaveli, Gujarat,Haryana,Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand,Meghalaya,Odisha,Rajasthan,Uttarakhand,UttarPradeshandTamilNadu,andtheirChiefSecretaries.OfficialsacrosstheStategovernmentshaveextendedtheirgraciouscooperationtothestudy,forwhichwearedeeplythankful.Next, we must thank our external experts, Mr. S Vijay Kumar, Ex-Secretary, Ministry of RuralDevelopment,TERI,andDr.PSivaRam,NIRD&PRforhelpingrefineandrationalizethereportthroughtheirinsightfulcomments,correctionsandfeedback.Fromthefundamentalsofthesectortothelatestdevelopments,theyhelpedensurethatthereportwasascomprehensive,cogentandtechnicallyrobustaspossible,withintheshorttimeframesavailable.M/s IPEGlobalLtd., theconsultant firm,hasdonearemarkable job,particularlygiventhesignificantchallengesofscale,timeandresourcespresentedbythisproject.Addingtotheconstraints,theglobalpandemicandtheCOVID-19lockdowndidnotstopthemfromdeliveringtopqualitywork.ParticularappreciationisduetoDr.ManojMishra(TeamLeader);Mr.AmodKhanna(DeputyTeamLeader)andtheir team; Kriti Gupta (Manager); Rai (Research Associate), Beatriz (Research Associate), Ashish(ResearchAssociate)andShipra(ResearchAssociate);andfieldpartnerKantarPublicledbyMs.PallaviDhall(Director);Mr.AbisonPaulAnchalackal(AssociateDirector)andtheirteam.AtNITIAayog,thisexercisewouldnothavegottenoffthegroundwithouttheconsistentsupportoftheProcurement Management Committee and Bid Evaluation Committee, particularly Mr. Sonjoy Saha,Adviser(PPP/PAMD),Dr.A.PSingh,Ex-Adviser(Agriculture)andMs.SanchitaShukla,Director,InternalFinance Division. Staffs at the NITI Aayog Rural Development vertical, particularly Ms. SanyuktaSamaddar(Adviser)andMs.VandanaSharma(DeputyAdviser)havealsobeeninstrumentalinseeingthis project to fruition. The Internal Finance Division further merits special mention here for theirextensiveefforts.
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Sector Report: Rural Development
DMEOteamhasbeenatthecoreofthestudies-inthissectorspecifically,Ms.PriyankaDua,Mr.SaumyaChakravortyandMr.RajpalSinghworkedonevery lastdetailof thisherculeanendeavour,undertheguidance of Mr. Akhilesh Kumar, Director and Dr. Shweta Sharma, Consultant-II. Special thanks areextended to Ms. Harkiran Sanjeevi, ex-Deputy Director General who played an important role incompletingthestudy.TheteamwouldalsoliketothankDr.AmritPal,Mr.LavBhardawaj,Ms.PriyankaSethi,Mr.VijenderKumar,Mr.AnkitChoudhary,Ms.AyeshaAyaz,Mr.JayantaPatelandMr.ManojPankajfortheirsupportatvariousstagesofthestudy.Acrosspackages,DeputyDirectorGeneralMr.AshutoshJain also oversaw coordination, standardization and monitoring of the study design, analysis andimplementationprocesses.TheyweresupportedbytheEvaluationsCoreTeam:Dr.ShwetaSharma,Mr.AnandTrivedi,Ms.SanjanaManaktala,Ms.VatsalaAggarwal,Mr.O.P.ThakurandMr.JayantaPatel.TheDMEOadministrationandaccountsofficers,includingMr.D.Bandopadhyay,Mr.MunishSinghal,Mr.D.S.Sajwan,Mr.ManojKumarandothersprovidedvitalsupportondocumentation,approvals,paymentsetc.Inaccordancewiththemassivescopeandscaleoftheexercise,thisreportowesitssuccessfulcompletiontothededicatedeffortsofawidevarietyofstakeholders.
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Sector Report: Rural Development
Contents1.SectorLevelAnalysis..............................................................................................................................................1
1.1. BackgroundoftheSector....................................................................................................................................11.2. PerformanceoftheSector...............................................................................................................................10
1.2.1.Infrastructure............................................................................................................................................22
1.2.2.Livelihoods.................................................................................................................................................28
1.2.3.SocialSafetyNet.......................................................................................................................................31
1.2.4.GlobalBenchmarking............................................................................................................................35
1.2.5.CrossSectionalAnalysis.......................................................................................................................42
1.3. IssuesandChallenges......................................................................................................................................127ANNEX1:DETAILSOFKEYINFORMANTINTERVIEWS(KIIS)....................................................................136ANNEX2:BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................................186
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Sector Report: Rural Development
ListofAcronymsAAP AnnualActionPlan
ABPO AssistantBlockProgrammeOfficer
ABPS AadhaarBasedPaymentSystems
ACA AdditionalCentralAssistance
ADB AsianDevelopmentbank
ADIP AssistancetoDisabledPersonsforPurchase
ADO AgricultureDevelopmentOffice
AGEY AajeevikaGrameenExpressYojana
AIBP AcceleratedIrrigationBenefitProgramme
AIC AtalIncubationCentres
AIR AllIndiaradio
ALP AadhaarLinkedPayments
ANPR AutomaticNumberPlateRecognition
APL AbovePovertyline
APR AsiaandthePacificRegion
AWC AnganwadiCentres
BBBP BetiBachaoBetiPadhao
BCC BehaviouralChangeCommunication
BDO BlockDevelopmentOfficer
BDSP BusinessDevelopmentServiceProviders
BMCU BulkMilkCoolingUnits
BMMU BlockMissionManagementUnit
BNV BharatNirmanVolunteers
BPL BelowPovertyLines
BPO BlockProgrammeOfficer
BPT BlockPlanningTeam
BRC BlockResourceCentres
CAD&WM CommandAreaDevelopment&WaterManagement
CAG ContemplorAuditGeneral
CAMC ComprehensiveMaintenanceContract
CAPART CouncilforAdvancementofPeople’sActionandRuralTechnology
CB CapacityBuilding
CBI CantilanBankInc
CBO Communitybasedorganisations
CBPWD Community-basedparticipatorywatersheddevelopment
CBRI CentralBuildingResearchInstitute
CCMA Citizen-CentricMobileApplication
CDM CommunityDevelopmentMovement
CDMU ClusterDevelopmentandManagementUnit
CEF CommunityEnterpriseFund
CEF CommunityEnterpriseFund
CEGC CentralEmploymentGuaranteeCouncil
CEO ChiefExecutiveOfficer
CEPT CentreforEnvironmentalPlanningandTechnology
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CFR Communityforestright
CFT ClusterFacilitationTeam
CGF CriticalGapFunds
CGTFS CreditGuaranteeTrustFundScheme
CIF CommunityInvestmentFund
CISF CommunityInvestmentSupportFund
CLF ClusterLevelFederation
CLRP CommunityLivelihoodsResourcePersons
CMAT CommunityMonitorsandAuditorsTeam
CMRD TheCentreforMediaandRuralDocumentation
CMSPGHS ChiefMinister’sSolarPoweredGreenHouseScheme
CNCPL ComprehensiveNewConnectivityPriorityLists
CPI ConsumerPriceIndex
CPI-AL ConsumerPriceIndex-AgriculturalLabour
CPIO CentralPublicInformationOfficer
CPI-R ConsumerPriceIndex-Rural
CPI-RL ConsumerPriceIndex-RuralLabour
CPMU CentralProgrammeManagementUnit
CRM CommonReviewMission
CRP CommunityResourcePersons
CRRI CentralRoadResearchInstitute
CSDCI ConstructionSkillDevelopmentCouncilofIndia
CSIR CouncilofScientificandIndustrialResearch
CSO CivilSocietyOrganisation
CSP CustomerServiceProvider
CSR CorporateSocialResponsibility
CSS CentrallySponsoredScheme
CSSC CommunitySocialSupportCommittee
CUPL ComprehensiveUpgradationPriorityLists
CWS CurrentWeeklyStatus
CWT CommunityWatershedTeam
CYSD CentreforYouthandSocialDevelopment
DAY DeendayalAntyodayaYojana
DBT DirectBenefitTransfer
DDP DesertDevelopmentProgramme
DDRS DeendayalDisabledRehabilitationScheme
DDUGJY DeenDayalUpadhyayaGramJyotiYojana
DDU-GKY DeenDayalUpadhayaGrameenKaushalyaYojana
DFID DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment
DLP DefectLiabilityPeriod
DMEO DevelopmentMonitoringandEvaluationOffice
DMF DistrictMineralFoundation
DMMU DistrictMissionManagementUnit
DP DevelopmentPlan
DPAP DroughtProneAreaProgramme
DPC DistrictProgrammeCoordinator
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DPM DistrictProgrammeManager
DPMU DistrictProjectManagementUnit
DPO DistrictProgrammeOfficer
DPR DetailedProjectReport
DRDA DistrictRuralDevelopmentAuthority
DRRP DistrictRuralRoadsPlan
DST DepartmentofScienceandTechnology
DWCRA DevelopmentofWomenandChildinRuralAreas
EAG ExpertAdvisoryGroup
EAS EmploymentAssuranceScheme
EC ExecutiveCommittee
ECAI ExternalCreditAssessmentInstitutions
EDD EmpoweredDeliberativeDemocracy
EDI EntrepreneurshipDevelopmentInstituteofIndia
EGS EmploymentGuaranteeScheme
EGS EmploymentGuaranteeScheme
EPWP ExpandedPublicWorksProgramme
ER ElectedRepresentative
ESDP EuropeanSpatialDevelopmentPerspective
EU EuropeanUnion
FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganisation
FC FinanceCommission
FGD FocusGroupDiscussion
FMS FundManagementSystem
FPC FarmerProducerCompany
FPO FarmerProducerOrganizations
FPS FairPriceShops
FRA ForestRightsAct
FTO FundTransferOrder
GAP GenderActionPlan
GB GoverningBody
GBC GenderBudgetCells
GDP GrossDomesticProduct
GGGI GlobalGreenGrowthInstitute
GHG GreenHouseGas
GOI GovernmentofIndia
GP GramPanchayat
GPDP GramPanchayatDevelopmentPlan
GPRMP GramPanchayatRoadMaintenancePlan
GPS GlobalPositioningSystem
GRIMMS GISenabledRoadInformationManagement&MonitoringSystem
GRRIS GeospatialRuralRoadInformationSystem
GRS GramRozgarSahayak
GS GramSabha
GST GoodsandServicesTax
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HDB TheHousingandDevelopmentBoard
HP HimachalPradesh
HR HumanResource
HSCAS HouseSite-cumConstructionAssistanceScheme
HSNP TheHungerSafetyNetProgramme
IAP IntegratedActionPlans
IAY IndiraAwaasYojana
IBS IndividualBeneficiaryScheme
ICAP IntegratedClusterActionPlan
ICAR IndianCouncilofAgriculturalResearch
ICDS IntegratedChildDevelopmentServices
ICT InformationandCommunicationTechnology
IDA InternationalDevelopmentAssociation
IEC InformationEducationCommunication
IFAD InternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment
IFR IndividualForestRight
IGNDPS IndiraGandhiNationalDisabilityPensionScheme
IGNOAPS IndiraGandhiNationalOldAgePensionScheme
IGNWPS IndiraGandhiNationalWidowPensionScheme
IIFM IndianInstituteofForestManagement
IIPA IndianInstituteofPublicAdministration
IIT IndianinstituteofTechnology
ILO InternationalLabourOrganisation
IPC InterpersonalCommunication
IPPE IntegratedParticipatoryPlanningExercise
IRDP IntegratedRuralDevelopmentProgramme
IRMA InstituteofRuralManagement,Anand
ISRO IndianSpaceResearchOrganisation
IWMP IntegratedWatershedManagementProgramme
JAM JanDhanAadhaarMobileTrinity
JGSY JawaharGramSamridhiYojana
JRY JawaharRozgarYojana
KII KeyInformantInterview
KMC KnowledgeManagementandCommunication
KMU KnowledgeManagementUnit
KSS KesabchakSrijaniSangh
KVIC KhadiandVillageIndustriesCommission
LAC LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean
LBI LivelihoodBusinessIncubatorCenters
LFPR LabourForceParticipationRate
LGD LocalGovernmentDirectory
LIFE LivelihoodinFullEmployment
LPG LiquefiedPetroleumGas
LWE LeftWingExtremism
MB MeasurementBook
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Sector Report: Rural Development
MCP Micro-CreditPlan
MDMS Mid-DayMealScheme
MENA TheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica
MFI MicroFinanceInstitute
MGNREGA MahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct
MGNREGS MahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeScheme
MIP Micro-investmentPlan
MIS ManagementInformationSystem
MKSP MahilaKisanSashaktikaranPariyojna
MKSY MahilaKisanShramasakthiYojana
MLA MemberofLegislativeAssembly
MoA MinistryofAgriculture
MOOC MassiveOpenOnlineCourse
DORD MinistryofRuralDevelopment
MoWCD MinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment
MPCE MonthlyPerCapitaExpenditure
MPRLP MadhyaPradeshRuralLivelihoodsProject
MSC MigrationSupportCentre
MSME Micro,SmallandMediumEnterprises
MSP MinimumSupportPrice
MUDRA MicroUnitsDevelopmentandRefinanceAgencyLtd
NABARD NationalBankforAgricultureAndRuralDevelopment.
NACER NationalCentreforExcellenceofRSETIs
NBCP NationalBio-MassCookstovesProgramme
NDDB NationalDairyDevelopmentBoard
Ne-FMS NationalElectronicFundManagementSystem
NEGF NationalEmploymentGuaranteeFund
NFBS NationalFamilyBenefitScheme
NFFWP NationalFoodforWorkProgramme
NFHS NationalFamilyHealthSurvey
NGO Non-GovernmentOrganizations
NHAI NationalHighwaysAuthorityofIndia
NHB NationalHousingBank
NHM NationalHorticultureMission
NIC NationalInformaticsCentre
NIC NationalInformaticsCentre
NIOS NationalInstituteofOpenSchooling
NIPFP NationalInstituteofPublicFinance&Policy
NIRDPR NationalInstituteofRuralDevelopment&PanchayatiRaj
NLEC NationalLevelEmpoweredCommittee
NLM NationalLevelMonitors
NMBS NationalMaternityBenefitScheme
NMMU NationalMissionManagementUnit
NPM Non-ChemicalPestManagement
NQM NationalQualityMonitors
NRDC NationalResearchDevelopmentCorporation
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NRDWP NationalRuralDrinkingWaterProgramme
NREP NationalRuralEmploymentProgramme
NRETP NationalRuralEconomicTransformationProject
NRIDA NationalRuralInfrastructureDevelopmentAgency
NRLM NationalRuralLivelihoodMission
NRLP NationalRuralLivelihoodsProject
NRM NaturalResourceManagement
NRO NationalResourceOrganisations
NRRDC NationalRuralRoadDevelopmentCommittee
NSAAC NationalSocialAssistanceAdvisoryCommittee
NSAP NationalSocialAssistancePlan
NSDC NationalSocialAssistanceAdvisoryCommittee
NSS NationalSampleSurvey
NSSO NationalSampleSurveyOrganisation
NSQF NationalSkillQualificationFramework
NTFP Non-timberforestproducts
NTFS Non-TimberForestProducts
NTSA NationalTechnicalSupportAgency
NU NationalUnit
OBC OtherBackwardCaste
ODR OtherDistrictRoads
OECD OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment
OFWM OnFarmWaterManagement
OJT On-the-JobTraining
OLM OdishaLivelihoodsMission
OMMAS OnlineManagement,MonitoringandAccountingSystem
OOMF Output-OutcomeMonitoringFramework
OPM OxfordPolicyManagement
PBF ProgramaBolsaFamília
PC ProducerCompanies
PCCBP Plasticcell-filledconcreteblockpavement
PCI PavementConditionIndex
PD ProgrammeDivision
PDO projectdevelopmentobjectives
PDS PublicDistributionSystem
PF ProgrammeFund
PFMS PublicFundManagementSystem
PHC PrimaryHealthcareCentre
PIA ProgrammeImplementingAgency
PIB PressInformationBureau
PIN ProfessionalInstitutionalNetwork
PIO PublicInformationOfficer
PIU ProjectImplementationUnit
PLFS PeriodicLabourForceSurvey
PMAY PradhanMantriAwaasYojana
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PMAYG PradhanMantriAwaasYojana-Gramin
PMGKYP PradhanMantriGaribKalyanYojanaPackage
PMGSY PradhanMantriGramSadakYojana
PMKKKY PradhanMantriKhanijKshetraKalyanYojana
PMKSY PradhanMantriKrishiSinchayiYojana
PMU ProjectManagementUnit
PMUY PradhanMantriUjjwalaYojana
PO ProgrammeOfficer
PPP PublicPrivatePartnership
PRC PerformanceReviewCommittee
PREM People’sRuralEducationMovement
PRI PanchayatiRajInstitute
PSNP ProductiveSafetyNetProgramme
PSS PanchayatSwayamSevak
PSU PublicSectorUndertaking
PTG PrimitiveTribalGroup
PTR PupilTeacherRatio
PURA ProvisionofUrbanAmenitiesInRuralAreas
PVTG ParticularlyVulnerableTribalGroups
PwD PersonwithDisability
PWL PermanentWaitingList
QR QuickResponse
RBI ReserveBankofIndia
RBS ResourceBlockStrategy
RBV ResourceBasedViews
RCIP RuralConnectivityInvestmentProgramme
RCPLWEA RuralConnectivityProjectsforLeftWingExtremismAffectedAreas
RD RuralDevelopment
RF RevolvingFund
RFIP RuralFinancialInstitutionsProgramme
RHKN RuralHousingKnowledgeNetwork
RKVY RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana
RLEGP RuralLandlessEmploymentGuaranteeProgramme
RPD TheRightsofPersonswithDisabilitiesAct
RS RozgarSahayak
RSBY RashtriyaSwasthaBimaYojana
RSETI RuralSelfEmploymentTrainingInstitutes
RTI RighttoInformation
RUDA RuralUrbanDisparityAnalysis
SAC SocialAuditCommittee
SAGY SansadAadarshGramYojana
SAPCC StateActionPlansonClimateChange
SARAS SalesofArticlesofRuralArtisansSociety
SAU SocialAuditUnit
SBD StandardBiddingDocument
SBM SwacchBharatMission
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SCC ScheduledCastesComponent
SCM SmartCitiesMission
SCs ScheduledCastes
SCSP ScheduledCasteSub-Plan
SCTS SocialCashTransferScheme
SDG SustainableDevelopmentGoals
SDP SkillDevelopmentPlan
SECC SocioEconomicCasteCensus
SECURE SoftwareforEstimateCalculationUsingRuralRatesforEmployment
SEGC StateEmploymentGuaranteeCouncil
SEGF StateEmploymentGuaranteeFund
SGA TheSelling,GeneralandAdministrativeexpenses
SGRY SampoornaGrameenRozgarYojana
SGSY SwarnJayantiGramswarozgarYojana
SHGs SelfHelpGroups
SLACC SustainableLivelihoodsandAdaptationtoClimateChange
SLBC StateLevelBankersCommittees
SLEC StateLevelEmpoweredCommitted
SLSC StateLevelStandingCommittee
SMF TheSocialManagementFramework
SMMU StateMissionManagementUnit
SNA StateNodalAgency
SOC SoilOrganicCarbon
SoR ScheduleofRates
SPMRM ShyamaPrasadMukherjiRurbanMission
SPMU StateProjectManagementUnit
SPV SolarPhotoVoltaic
SQC StateQualityControl
SQM StateQualityMonitor
SRLM StateRurallivelihoodMission
SSA Sub-SaharanAfrica
SSM StateSkillMissions
STC ScheduledTribeComponent
STs ScheduledTribes
STSA StateTechnicalSupportAgencies
SVEP Start-upVillageEntrepreneurshipProgramme
SVYM SwamyVivekanandaYouthMovement
TA TechnicalAssistant
TAG TechnicalAdvisoryGroup
TCE ThiagarajarCollegeofEngineering
TCPO TownandCountryPlanningOrganisation
TEDA TamilNaduEnergyDevelopmentAgency
TISS TataInstituteofSocialSciences
TRYSEM TrainingofRuralYouthforSelf-Employment
TSP TribalSubPlan
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TSPL TalandiSaboPowerPlantLimited
UCSS UmbrellaCentrallysponsoredscheme
UIF UnemploymentInsuranceFund
UN UnitedNations
UNDP UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme
UNESCAP UnitedNationsEconomic&SocialCommissionforAsia&ThePacific
UNICEF UnitedNationsChildrenFund
UR UnemploymentRate
USAID UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment
VC VillageClusters
VMC VigilanceandMonitoringCommittee
VO VillageOrganizations
VPPC VillagePovertyReductionCommittee
VRF VulnerabilityReductionFund
VRP VillageResourcePersons
WHA WorldHealthAssembly
WHO WorldHealthOrganisation
WPR WorkPopulationRatio
YSD YouthforSocialDevelopment
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Sector Report: Rural Development
1. Sector Level Analysis
1.1. Background of the Sector The rural economyof India represents adomainof opportunity for India’s growthanddevelopmentwithin the currentpolicydiscourse.Thisperceptionof ruralopportunityalsobundles together ideasaboutthepropensityforinnovation1,technology,mechanisation,andentrepreneurshipandvaluechains.Thecurrentpushforinclusivenessandinvestingincollectivesforruralandnationaldevelopmentrestssquarely upon this set of intertwined ideas. DoRD has played a key role in steering rural India’sdevelopmentagendathroughimplementationofvariousprogrammes.Ithasbeenacatalystinaffectingchange in the rural panorama through poverty alleviation, employment generation, infrastructuredevelopmentandextendingsocialsecuritynettotheruralpopulation.
EvolutionoftheSector
Ruraldevelopmentasasectorhashadachequeredjourneyofevolution.SinceIndependencetherehavebeenfourphasesinwhichtheapproachtowardsaddressingissuesinruraldevelopmenthasundergonechangesinemphasis.Anoverviewofthesephasesisgivenbelow:
FirstPhase:StructuralReform
Theearlyphaseofruraldevelopmentlastedforalmostaquarterofacentury,fromtheFirsttotheFifthplanperiod,whichfocusedonestablishmentofCommunityDevelopmentBlocks,pilotedinthefirstplanandlaterextendedtocovertheentirecountry.TheSecondplanbroughtintheneedfortheestablishmentofvillagePanchayatsandformulationofDistrictPlansandhencebroughttheneedforstrongDistrictDevelopmentAdministrationtofunctionasanagencyofchangetowardsanewsocialorder2.
TheapproachduringtheThirdtoFifthplanwasanextensionoftheprincipleofcommunitydevelopmentlaiddowninthepreviousplanswithanaddeddimensionoftechnologyadoptionandmobilizationofresourcesbylocalinstitutionssothattheyareabletodecreasetheirdependencyonschematicassistancefromthecentreandbecomeself-reliantandlocallyrooted3.
RuraldevelopmentwaslargelysubsumedwithinagriculturewithintheThird,FourthandFifthplans.Therewasneitheraseparateministrynoradepartmenttodealwithissuesinruraldevelopmentforthefirstfourplans.ItwastowardsthebeginningofFifthplanperiodthataseparatedepartmentofRuralDevelopmentwasconstitutedwithintheconfinesofMinistryofAgriculture.
SecondPhase:TargetedApproach
TheSixthPlanwasanimportantmilestoneindefiningtheruraldevelopmentasasectorforthreemajorreasons:First,forthefirsttimeintheplandocuments,ruraldevelopmentemergedasaseparatesectorandachapterwasdevotedtoit.Second,theplanbroughttheelementofspecialareaapproachthroughlaunch of programmes like the Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), and Desert DevelopmentProgramme(DDP).Third,specialemploymentprogrammeswereformulatedandlaunchedduringthisperiod, namely the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) for self-employment and theNationalRuralEmploymentProgramme(NREP)forwageemployment.
1Sumberg,J.andHunt,S.(2018).RuralareasandInnovations:Claims,EvidenceandImplications.UnpublishedbackgroundpaperproducedforIFAD’sRuralDevelopmentReport2019,"InvestinginRuralareas".2PlanningCommission.(1956).SecondFiveYearPlan.GovernmentofIndia.3PlanningCommission.(1969).FourthFiveYearPlan.GovernmentofIndia.
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Sector Report: Rural Development
Thisphasewasinstrumentalininitiatingamoveawayfromgrowthorientedpublicinvestmenttowardsa targeted approach to address poverty and disparities. The approach continued andwas expandedduring the Seventh and Eighth plan periods with launching of Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment(TRYSEM)andDevelopmentofWomenandChildinRuralAreas(DWCRA).ThisaddedtoIRDP,RuralLandlessEmploymentGuaranteeProgramme(RLEGP)andJawaharRojgarYojana(JRY)assubsetsofNREP.
ThephaseexperiencedorganisationalchangesindealingwiththebusinessofruraldevelopmentattheCentrallevel.TheseparatedepartmentofRuralDepartmentwasupgradedtoafull-fledgedministryin1979asMinistryofRuralReconstructionand laterrechristenedasMinistryofRuralDevelopment in1982.TherewasashortperiodwhenruraldevelopmentwasmergedwithagricultureandtheministrywasreconstitutedasMinistryofAgricultureandRuralDevelopment(1985).However,since1991theMinistryofRuralDevelopmenthasbeenaseparateministryatthecentrallevel.
ThirdPhase:EntitlementBasedApproach
TheseedsofentitlementapproachweresownwiththeintroductionofNSAPandEmploymentAssuranceScheme (EAS) during the Ninth Plan period. The former created an eligibility framework thatmadespecific households entitled to benefit under the scheme. EAS, influenced byEmploymentGuaranteeScheme (EGS) of Maharashtra, assured guaranteed employment atminimumwages for 100 days indesignatedareasinthecountry.
TheNinthPlanalsosawintroductionofSwarnJayantiGramSwarozgarYojana(SGSY)programmethatwas further expanded in the Tenth Plan as a major livelihood diversification programme throughpromotionofmicroenterprisesusingtheinstrumentalityofSelfHelpGroups(SHGs).
Thedominantperspectiveforruraldevelopmentduringthisphasewasonstrengtheningtheproductivepotentialofruraleconomyandprovidingmoreopportunitiestotheruralpoorineconomicprocesses.
FourthPhase:EmpowermentApproach
Recognising multiple deprivations faced by the poor, and the socio-economic inequalities faced bydifferent social groups, the Eleventh Plan underwent a paradigm shift to design interventions thatempowerthepoorwhointurnwillcreatedemandandinstitutionstodirectlyaddresspovertyinallitsmanifestations.WageemploymentprogrammesweremergedintoMGNREGS(MahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeScheme)toguarantee100daysofunskilledworkalloverthecountry.Thisbecameademand-basedwageemploymentseekingprogrammethatwasself-targetingthepoor.SGSYprogramme was expanded in scope and further deepened in the Twelfth Plan as National RuralLivelihoodProgramme,whichaimsatcreatinganetworkofinstitutionsofpoorandbecomingthevehiclefordiversificationoflivelihoodsawayfromagriculture.
MovingawayfromtheBelowPovertyLine(BPL)approachtodeprivation-basedapproach,thisphaseusedSECCdatatotargetthepoorwithinclusionastheoperatingprincipleforinterventionforpovertyalleviation.
NationalPriorities
TheIndiaThreeYearActionAgenda4recognisedtheappearanceofanintegratedeconomywithblurringofdistinctionbetweenruralandurbanareasintherurallandscape.Thechallengehasbeentheinabilityof‘jobcreationtokeeppacewiththeshiftfromagriculturetonon-farm-basedsector”.Thus,theprimaryfocus was on increasing efficiencies in implementation, a greater emphasis on boosting skill and
4NITIAayog.(2017).ThreeYearActionAgenda,2017-18to2019-20.GovernmentofIndia.
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employment generation and ensuring basic service to all villages.With strengthening of Panchayats,enablingthemtorespondtolocalneeds,theneedforconvergencebetweenprogrammeswasunderlinedasastrategicconcerntocreatesynergeticimpactattherurallevel.
TheCSSinkeyidentifiedsectorsarebeingtakenupintheNationalDevelopmentAgenda.TheformationofShivrajSinghChouhanCommittee(2015)isatestimonytotheeffortsoftheUnionandStates/UTstoworkasTeamIndia in thespiritofCooperativeFederalismtowardsrealizationof thegoalsofVision20225.Theobjectivesincludetheprovisionofbasicamenitiestoallcitizensequitablyforensuringqualityoflife,withself-respectanddignity.Italsoincludestheprovisionofappropriateopportunitiestocitizenssotheycanrealizetheirpotential.Since,asignificantamountofPlanTransferstoStates/UTsareroutedthroughCSS,andsincemanyCSS interventionsare in thesocialsectors, theCommitteehasprovidedrecommendationsonthedesignofCSStobeeffectiveandoutcome-oriented.Moreover,itsuggestsforadequatefundingandimplementationofCSStobesufficientlyflexibletoenabletheStatestoefficientlyimplementthemaccordingtolocalrequirementsandconditions.
TheStrategyforNewIndia@756disaggregated41sectorsintofoursections-drivers,infrastructure,inclusionandgovernance.Thedrivers,asenginestoboosteconomicperformance,havelaidemphasisoncreation of good quality jobs. The aim is to absorb out-migration of labour from agriculture and toincreasewomen’sparticipation inworkforce. Creationofmodern rural infrastructure and integratedvaluechainisexpectedtobringintransformativeimpactinruralareasaslastmileconnectivitywillbeprovidedtoallvillagesandallGramPanchayatswillbedigitallyconnected.Inclusivitywillbeensuredbyimproving living conditions through housing for all that includes a pucca house with connection todrinkingwater,toilet,twenty-four-hourelectricsupplyandaccess.Recognisingtheregionalimbalance,117aspirationaldistrictshavebeenidentifiedwhichwillbeprovidedwithimprovementinhealthandnutrition,education,agricultureandwater resources, financial inclusion, skilldevelopmentandbasicinfrastructure.
CentrallySponsoredSchemesinRuralDevelopment
DoRDenvisagessocialandinclusivegrowthoftheruralsectorthroughmulti-dimensionalstrategiessuchasusingruralinfrastructureastheengineofdevelopmentandfacilitatingthegrowthofagriculturalandalliedactivitiestoimprovetheoverallqualityoflifeofthemasses.Roadsareoneofthekeydriversofdevelopmentuponwhichalmosteveryotherformofinfrastructuredepends.Theyarethecatalystsinbringingdevelopment to theareasofhealth, education, sanitation, and telecommunication.With thisview,theGovernmentofIndia(GoI)intheyear2000cameupwithanationwideplanunderthePMGSY.Housing is another social infrastructure that affects the ruralmasses. Housing for poor is seen as anecessary,publicentitlementwhichisrequiredtokeepthepoorfrombecomingevenmorevulnerableeither through unemployment, ill-health or political unrest. PMAY-G is the flagship programmecontributingtoDoRD’sfulfilmentofthisvision.
Akeyaspectthatcomestomindwhiletalkingaboutruraldevelopmentishowpeoplecanbepartnersinthisjourneytobringsustainablegrowthinsuchawaythatmeaningfulandsustainablelivelihoodsareprovided.MGNREGSisaflagshipprogrammeofDoRDandhasbecomeafrontrunnerinprovidingjobstothemasses.Thecomponentofdirectemploymenttotheruralpeoplehelpsineradicationofpovertyasthewagesearnedenhancetheincomeofthehouseholdswhiletheword“guaranteed”initselfprovidesassuranceofgivingsocialsecuritytoruralhouseholdsandcoveringthemagainsteconomicaswellasagriculturalshocks.Anotherschemethatcoversthedomainofpovertyeradicationandemploymentis
5ReportoftheSub-groupofchiefMinistersonRationalizationofCSS(October2015)6NITIAayog.(2018)[email protected].
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DAY-NRLM.Thisschemehasitsmandateinreachingouttothepoorestofthepoorfamiliesinruralareasinstead of just BPL households. The programme federates needy individuals into community basedorganisations(CBOs),namelywomenbasedSelfHelpGroups(SHGs)anditsfederations,linkingthemtosustainable livelihoods opportunities and nurturing them until they become self-sustainable. Theprogrammeseekstoempowerthewomenofthehousehold,inculcatemicro-savinghabitsandprovidethemwithfinancialassistanceviabanksfortakingupentrepreneuriallivelihoodactivities.
Whileable-bodiedandwillingpeoplearetakencareofbytheabovementionedschemes,thereremaincertainsectionsofsocietywhoarepredisposedtoriskssuchaspoorhealth,unemploymentandlossofearningmemberofafamily.NationalSocialAssistanceProgrammeprovidessocialassistancetothemostneedy and vulnerable groups – elderly, widows, peoplewith disability and those householdswhoseprimarybreadwinnerhaspassedaway.
Alltheseprogrammeshavesynergiespointingtowardsbetterinclusivityandsustainablegrowthofthesector,asenvisionedbyDoRD.PMAY-GallowsfortheconvergencewithMGNREGStocompensatethebeneficiaryfortheemploymentforegonewhileconstructinghisorherownhouse.Similarly,convergenceof DAY - NRLM and MGNREGS works (Category C works under MGNREGS) promote agriculturalproductivity by creating durable infrastructure required for bio-fertilizers (NADEP and Vermi-compostingpits)andpost-harvestfacilities,includingpuccastoragefacilitiesforagriculturalproduce.Considering the vulnerability of beneficiaries in NSAP, the scheme converges with DAY - NRLM forenrolmentofNSAPwomeninSHGsandcollectionandconvergenceofSHGnetworkdatatoNSAP.
AdetailedschemeanalysisofhoweachCSScontributestoDoRD’sgoalsandvisionsisprovidedbelow.
Figure1:ContributionofUmbrellaSchemestotheSector
Source:Analysisbyevaluators
ThenextsectionprovidesadetailedoverviewofthecontributionoftheCSStothethreethemesidentifiedabove–Infrastructure,LivelihoodsandSocialSafetyNet.
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(A)INFRASTRUCTURE
DoRDiscontributingtodevelopmentofruralinfrastructurethroughCSSschemes–PMGSYforroadways;PMAY-Gforhousing;MGNREGSthroughassetscreation;andSPMRMbyprovidingurbanamenitiesinruralIndia.
PMGSY
Launchedin2000,PMGSYaimstoprovideall-weatherroadstoallunconnectedhabitationsinruralareaswithapopulationof500andaboveinplainareasand250andaboveinhilly,desert,tribalandbackwarddistricts.TheprogrammedrawsonthemodelofdecentralisednetworkplanningforruralroadsthathavebeencarriedoutwithfullinvolvementofPanchayatinstitutions.
PMGSY-IIwaslaunchedin2013toconsolidateexistingruralroadnetworkbyupgradingexistingselectedroadsbasedontheireconomicpotentialandroleinfacilitatinggrowthofruralmarketsandhubs.PMGSY-IIIwaslaunchedin2019asaseparateverticalofroadconnectivityinLWE,initiallyaffecting44districtsofthecountry.
PMAY-G
RestructuringtheerstwhileIAYprogramme,thePMAY-Gwaslaunchedin2016tofulfiltheobjectiveofHousingForallby2022.Theprogrammeaimstoprovideapuccahousewithbasicamenitiestoallruralhouseless households and households living in kutcha and/or dilapidated houses. The programmeprovidesassistanceofRs.1.2lakhsinplainandRs.1.3lakhsinHillyStates,NorthEasternStates,difficultareas and IAP districts for construction of a house of 25 sq.m. The beneficiary is linked to SBM forassistanceofRs12,000forconstructionoftoiletand90/95persondaysofemploymentunderMGNREGSasfinancialsupportforunskilledwages.
MGNREGS
MGNREGShasbearingonrural infrastructurebywayof creationof sustainableassets.Theaspectofnaturalresourcemanagementunder theschemecontributes toenhancing thenationalresourcebase(throughwaterconservation,droughtproofing,renovatingwaterbodies,ruralconnectivityandsoforth)andfurtheringsustainabledevelopment7.
EligibleworksunderMGNREGSarereviewedregularlyandthelistofpermissibleworkshasexpandedfromitsoriginalmenu.Theemphasisisonworksthataimforsoilandwaterconservation;enhancementofassetsforagriculture,livestockandfisheries;infrastructurethatpromotesruraldrinkingwaterandsanitation;droughtproofingand floodcontrolworks;anddevelopmentofstructures thatexpandthescope for irrigation and/or enhance availability of water for agriculture and allied activities. Theguidelines of MGNREGS allow the Panchayats to select particular works from the framework ofpermissibleworksforimplementationaspartofMGNREGS.
SPMRM
Launchedin2016theSPMRMprogrammeisdesignedforeconomiesintransitionfrompredominantlyruralincharactertowardsurbaneconomyinstructureandcontent.Theprogrammeidentifiesarurbanclusterasaclusterofgeographicallycontiguousvillageswithapopulationofabout25,000to50,000inplainandcoastalareasandwithapopulationof5,000to15,000indesert,hillyortribalareas.
Programme entails a project-based approach for intervention that will attract funds from different
7MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2018).AnnualReport.
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schemestoconvergeresourcesandlinkagesforgivingimpetustothematicbasedgrowthofeconomicactivity.Theprogrammeiscomprehensiveasitencompassesprovisioningofurbanserviceintheclustersothatthecluster improves intermsofeaseof livingaswellaseaseofdoingbusiness.ToovercomeshortcominginresourcesthereisprovisionofgapfundinguptoRs30croresbasedontheDPRpreparedfor the cluster. The first phase of the programme targets intervention in 300 rurban clusters at thenationallevel.
(B)RURALLIVELIHOODSANDEMPLOYMENTGENERATIONPERFORMANCE
ThetwomainprogrammeswhichprovidenecessaryconnecttotherurallivelihoodsbuildingblocksareDAY-NRLMandMGNREGS.WhileMGNREGSaimsatenhancingthelivelihoodsecurityofpeoplelivinginruralareasbyguaranteeinghundreddaysofwage-employmentinafinancialyeartoaruralhouseholdwhoseadultmembersvolunteer todounskilledmanualwork,DAY–NRLMaimsat eliminating ruralpoverty throughpromotionofmultiple livelihoods foreachruralpoorhouseholdandenhancingself-employmentandskilled-wageemploymentopportunities.
MGNREGS
Indiahasalonghistoryofimplementingworkfareprogrammestoprovideunskilledworkerswithshort-termemploymentonpublicworksthatbecomesthebasisforincometransfertopoorhouseholdsduringperiodsofabsenceofemploymentopportunities.Theseprogrammeshaveusedthisworkforcetocreatedurableassetsthatareconsequentlyexpectedtogenerateasecondroundofemploymentbenefitstothelabour force.Theexperiencesofwageemploymentprogrammes implementedbyStateGovernmentswithCentral assistance led to the enactmentofMGNREGA in September2005.Apart fromprovidingemploymentguarantee,MGNREGAalsoaimedat creatingdurableassets to strengthen the livelihoodresourcebaseoftheruralpoorsothatinthelongrun,ifsuccessful,theprogrammewillself-eliminateitself.
TheimplementationprocessofMGNREGSutilisesabottom-upapproachbasedondemanddriven,self-selecting, and rights based architecture programme. Restrictions on the use of machines to ensureemploymentoflabour,regulatinglabour,materialratio,mandatingfemalelabourforceparticipationrate(33percent), givingpreference to vulnerable groups forwageemploymentopportunities (women inspecialcircumstances,personsbelongingtoparticularlyvulnerabletribalgroups,etc.),taskbasedwagedetermination,provisionsofunemploymentallowancesareaspectsthatdistinguishitfromtheearliersimilarattemptsatworkfareprogrammes.Directincometransferlaysthefoundationforexpansionofbanklinkagesandbanktransferofwagesforalargesectionoftheruralpopulationthatwashithertofinanciallyexcludedfromtheformalbankinginstitutions.
DAY-NRLM
DAY-NRLMseekstoreachouttoallruralpoorhouseholdsandimpacttheirlivelihoodssignificantlyby2024–25.Thisisenvisagedtobeachievedthroughuniversalsocialmobilisationofruralpoorwomen,their institution and capacity building, financial inclusion, creating an enabling environment forsustainablelivelihoodsandruralself-employment.ItemphasisesconvergencewithotherprogrammesoftheDoRDandotherCentralMinistries,programmesofStategovernments,withNon-GovernmentalOrganisations(NGOs),CivilSocietyOrganisations(CSOs)andtheprivatesector.Conceivedinitiallyfor13 States8, that accounted for almost 85 percent of the poor in India, DAY-NRLM seeks to establishefficientandeffectiveinstitutionalplatformsforruralpoorthatwillenablethemtoincreasehouseholdincome through sustainable livelihood enhancements and improved access to financial and publicservices.Ithasattemptedtoleverageresources(capitalandservicedelivery)forthepoorfromprivate
8Assam,Bihar,Chhattisgarh,Jharkhand,Gujarat,Maharashtra,MadhyaPradesh,Odisha,Rajasthan,UttarPradesh,WestBengal,KarnatakaandTamilNadu.
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commercialbanksandothergovernmentprogrammes.
(C)SOCIALSAFETYNETS
Indiahas started conceptualisingSocial SafetyNets as a crucial and critical tool to fightpoverty andachievedesireddevelopmentinterventionssince1950.Drivenbytherights-basedinitiative,Article41oftheIndianconstitutionhasclearlyemphasizedtheroleofStateinprovidingpublicassistancetoitscitizensincaseofunemployment,oldage,sickness,anddisabilityor“othercasesofundeservedwant”.TheprincipleoffundamentalrightsofthecitizeninensuringsocialsafetynetsisalsoinconformitywiththeglobalmandatesonensuringSocialSafetyNets.“Minimumsocialprotectionfloor”hasbeenwidelyacknowledgedandacceptedbyUnitedNations(partofSustainableDevelopmentGoals)anditsvariousagencies, including the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization(WHO).
ThefivemainprogrammeswhichprovideaplatformtothesocialsecurityarchitectureinIndiaarePublicDistribution System (PDS), Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), Mid-Day Meal Scheme(MDMS),MGNREGS andpensions forwidows, disabled and elderly as part ofNSAP. Theyhave beenconceptualisedtoaddressstructuralrootsofpovertythroughcombiningsafetynets(foodandnon-food)withstructuralreformsandlong-terminterventionswiththeaimofincreasinghumancapabilitiesandaddressingstructuralpovertythroughthem.
TherearefiveschemesunderNSAPthatarepresentlybeingimplementedbyDoRD.TheseschemestargetBPLbeneficiarieswhoalsofallunderthefollowingeligibilitycriteria:
IndiraGandhiOldAgePensionScheme: TheschemeprovidespensiontopersonsbelongingtoBPLfamilieswhoareabove60years-old.AsumofRs.200permonthisprovidedmonthlybytheCentralGovernmenttopersonsintheagegroupof60to79years-oldandRs.500topersonsabove80years.
IndiraGandhiNationalWidowPensionScheme: Targets widows above 40 years-old. MonthlyassistanceisgivenintheamountofRs.300permonthbytheCentralGovernmentandraisedtoRs.500forwidowsabove80years-old.
IndiraGandhiDisabilityPensionScheme:Personswithatleast80percentofdisabilitywhoareabove18years-oldareprovidedmonthlycashassistanceofRs.300permonthbytheCentralGovernment.TheamountisraisedtoRs500aftercompleting80years.
NationalFamilyBenefitScheme:AsumofRs.20,000isprovidedasone-timeassistanceintheeventofdeathofthehousehold’sprimarybreadwinnerbytheCentralGovernment.Thedeceasedneedstobeintheagegroupof18-59years.
AnnapurnaScheme:The scheme targets senior citizenswho, thougheligibleunder IGOAPS, arenotreceivingpension.Theyareentitledtoreceive10kgoffoodgrainpermonthasassistancebytheCentralGovernment.
TheStatesnotonlytopsuptheamountofassistanceprovidedbytheCentralGovernmentbuthavealsoextendedtheschemetootherbeneficiariesforwhichtheyutilisetheirownsourcesoffunds.
TheruraldevelopmentsectorhasalwaysbeenattheforefrontofIndia’sprioritiesintermsofputtinggreateremphasisonincreasingthebeneficiarycoverageandbudgetoutlayontheseCSSsovertheyears.Besides,oldersafetynets’disbursementlikein-kindsubsidymechanism(PDS)havebeensupplementedby cash transfers orDirect Benefits Transfer (DBT) in the formof pensions for elderly,widows anddisabled(NSAP)andMGNREGSpayment.
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RuralDevelopmentand73rdAmendment
The73rdAmendmenttotheConstitutionprovidesconstitutionalstatusandinstitutionalframeworktoPanchayatstostrengthengrass-rootdemocracythroughelectedlocalself-governingbodiesintheruralareasofthecountry.TheAmendmentenvisagesthatthePanchayatsbeendowedwithsuchpowerandauthority thatwill enable them toplanand implement schemes foreconomicdevelopmentand socialjustice(Article243,ConstitutionofIndia).Tofacilitatefunctionaldecentralization,theamendmentlisted29subjectsintheEleventhSchedulethatcanbeentrustedtoPanchayatsinthecountry.
The rural development sector engages with Panchayats at three critical levels: to bring functionalcoherencebetweentheprogrammesofthesectorandthefunctionalroleassignedtoPanchayatsunderthe constitution; to remove dissonance in planning so the Panchayats can fulfil their constitutionalmandate;andtobringaboutconvergencebetweenprogrammesatdistrictandsub-districtlevels.
(a)Functionalcoherence
Among the subjects entrusted to Panchayats, there are specific ones directly related to the ruraldevelopment sector. These subjects include land improvement including soil conservation; minorirrigation, water management and watershed development; social forestry and farm forestry; ruralhousing;povertyalleviationprogrammes;socialwelfare,includingthewelfareofthehandicappedandmentallyretarded;welfareofweakersection,particularlyScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes;andmaintenanceofcommunityassets9.
TheimportanceofthesubjectsdevolvedtoPanchayatswasreinforcedbytheSub-GroupofChiefMinisterforRationalisationofCSS.Theprioritysub-sectorswithinruraldevelopmentidentifiedbytheSub-Groupincluded,amongothers:povertyelimination-livelihood,jobsandskilldevelopment;ruralconnectivity-electricity, access roads and communication; and housing for all- rural and urban10. The Sub-Groupreiterated that the list of RD sector flagship schemes was to include MGNREGS, NSAP, PMGSY, IAY(reformulatedasPMAY-G),andDAY-NRLM.Withintheseschemes,theSub-GroupidentifiedMGNREGSandNSAPas the “Coreof theCore schemes” (alongwithother5other schemes) implying that theseschemeswillhavethefirstchargeonfundsavailableundertheNationalDevelopmentAgenda.
(b)DissonanceinPlanning
Since the enactment of the 73rd amendment, the State governments have been creating enablingprovisionsandenvironmentforthePanchayatssothattheycanfulfiltheirconstitutionalmandatetoplanforeconomicdevelopmentandsocialjustice.TherewereseriousshortcomingsthatwererestrictingtheprocessandscopeofplanningbyPanchayats.ThedevolutionreportoftheMinistryofPanchayatRaj11notedthatthenormativeformula-basedgrantshavebeen“overshadowedbythediscretionarywindowofgrant-in-aidforpublicpurposebyCSSandStateschemeinvolvingparastatalsandparallelstructuresbypassinglocalgovernments”.Thenetresultwasthatthelocalgovernmentfocusedalotoftheirtimeandeffortinperformingtheagencyfunctionratherthanonstrengtheningtheirownsystemsforrevenuecollection,improvinggovernance,anddeliveryoflocalservices.
The Gram Panchayats Development Plan Guidelines 2018 listed institutional challenges andopportunitieswhichhavethepotentialtoenablePanchayatstoplanforsustainabledevelopmentandsocial justice. These challenges included the need to enhance the degree and level of people’sparticipationintheGramSabhas;harnessingsocialcapitalintheformofPRI-SHGconvergence;bringingabout convergence of funds, schemes, and initiatives; creating a robust MIS and e-enablement ofPanchayats;andintegratingspatialandsectoralplanning.
9ThesubjectsmentionedareastheyarelistedinEleventhscheduleoftheConstitutionofIndia10SameasFootnote21.11T.I.S.S.(2016).DevolutionReport-WhereLocalDemocracyandDevolutioninIndiaisheadingtowards?
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(c)Convergence
The14thFinanceCommissionrecommendedthateachGramPanchayathaveoneDevelopmentPlan(DP)thatwillencompassplansforallthe29subjectslistedintheEleventhScheduleoftheConstitution.AsingleDPprovides an opportunity for generating synergies in benefits and impacting the individual,groupandvillagelevel.ThesesynergiesareonlypossibleifaframeworkforconvergenceisusedandimplementedforthedevelopmentofGPDPs(GramPanchayatDevelopmentPlans).
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1.2. Performance of the Sector WindsofChange
Inhistory,ruralIndiastandsatthecuspofgoldeneraofgrowthandprosperity.Theevidenceisallthereto see: rural demographic advantage - education rather than just the age12, propensity of economicmobility13,tele-density14,transitionfromapredominantlyruraltoquasi-urbansociety15,renewedvigourofcopingstrategiesadoptedbytheruralhouseholdsundershocks–internal,externalandpricerelated16,propitious appreciation for circular economy particularly among the youths and the maturing gigecosystem17.
Thedemographicadvantagetransitionoffersopportunitiesandchallenges.Theyincludeanincreasedlaboursupply,increasingsavings,investmentofrelativelymoreresourcespercapitaleadingtobetterhealthandeducationaloutcomes,andincreasingdomesticdemand,withincreaseinconsumptionlevels,leadingtoincreasingGDPpercapita,anddecreasingdependencyratio.Withallitsdiversityandpluralitytherurallandscapesareweavinganewparadigmofaninclusiveruraltransformation that is characterised by: increasing the growth rate of climate adaptive agriculture;increasecommercializationandmarketablesurplusesbyrecognisingstronginterdependenciesbetweenruralandurbansettlements;diversificationinproductionpatternsandlivelihoods;expansionofdecentnon-farmemploymentandentrepreneurialopportunities; improvement in ruralwagesandaccess toservices and infrastructure; and greater access to rights and entitlements through enhanced socialcapital. Thesechangeshavemaderural spacesmulti-layeredwith in-built complexities thatdemandnuancedpublicpoliciesthatareabletocreatesynergeticimpactsto:
1. Deliver improvedwell-being for ruralpopulation (across economic, social andenvironmentaldimensions);
2. Growthdynamicsforruraleconomyacrossvariousregions;3. Deployrangeofpolicyinstruments(infrastructure,investments,addressingmarketfailures,and
supportsustainableinnovations);4. Foster multi-sectoral approach that engages public agencies, the private sector and non-
governmentorganization,andisinclusiveofdifferentpopulationgroupsandgeographies;5. Integratedeliverytoenablesectoralpoliciesthatmatchtheneedsandcircumstancesofdifferent
ruralregions;6. Understand the spectrum of rural regions ranging from those in an urban area to remote
representingdifferentpolicyopportunitiesandchallenges.
Panchayats:Institutionalarchitectureforchange
The73rdAmendmenttotheConstitutionprovidesconstitutionalstatusandinstitutionalframeworktoPanchayats.Itaimstostrengthengrass-rootdemocracythroughasystemofelectedlocalself-governingbodiesintheruralIndia.TheAmendmenthasendowedPanchayatswithpowerandauthoritytoplanandimplementschemesforeconomicdevelopmentandsocialjustice(Article243,ConstitutionofIndia).The
12Lutzet.al.(2019).Educationratherthanagestructurebringsdemographicdividend,PNAS,June25,2019,vol.116,no.26,12803.13Li,Millimet,Roychowdhury(2019).EconomicMobilityinIndia:estimationusingnoisydata.14Governmentof India. (2019).EconomicSurvey. (Vol.2)2018-2019.MinistryofFinance,DepartmentofEconomicAffairs,EconomicDivision.NewDelhi.15I.I.P.S.(2018).IIPSestimates.16Shah,A.(2017).Patterns,processesofreproductionandpolicyimperativesforpovertyinremoteruralareasofIndia,paperpresentedatinternationalworkshop“Understandingandaddressingspatialpovertytraps:aninternationalworkshop”.SpierEstate,Stellenbosch,SouthAfrica;ChronicPovertyResearchCentreandtheOverseasDevelopmentInstitute.17 Bhandari and Dubey. (2018). Let’s think afresh about how to govern India’s gig workforce. Retrieved athttps://www.livemint.com/opinion/columns/let-s-think-afresh-about-how-to-govern-india-s-gig-workforce-11581874414509.html.Accessedon17/02/2020.
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strengtheningofdemocraticgovernancepavedthewayforthecitizenshipparadigm-basedsafetynet,whichgivesthecitizenasenseofentitlement18.
India’s citizenship paradigm-based safety net is founded on principles of rights-based approach anddisplaysapatternthatreducesthelikelihoodofclass-basedconflict19.ForruralIndia,thetransitionhasbeenamovementfromsocialcitizenshipthatentailscivilrights(suchasfreedomofspeech,faithandothers),towardspoliticalrightsandfinallyrestingonsocialrightswhichisthedriverofwelfarestateexpansion20.Regardlessofthedirectionsanddesign,ruralIndiaisacombinationofdemocraticneeds,competitivepolitics,risingeconomicinsecurityandgenuineconcernsforthepoor.Theeffortistobreaknew ground by deploying solutions for rapid, sustainable and resource-efficient growth both at thehouseholdandindividuallevel.
Qualitative interviewshave highlighted the importance of local institutions in the implementation ofRuralDevelopment schemes. GramPanchayatswerementioned as the first important institution forimplementationofschemes.BlockandDistrictlevelofficialsinJharkhand,Rajasthan,HimachalPradesh,UttarPradesh,AndhraPradeshandMeghalayahaveconfirmedthattherolesandresponsibilitiesofGramPanchayatsarekeyinawarenessgeneration,identificationofbeneficiariesandcoordinationwithotherdepartments.
“AllStategovernmentschemesareimplementedviaRuralDevelopmentDepartment,ZillahParishadandPanchayatRaj, departmentwhich is a three-tierPanchayatRaj system. (…)Withproper coordinationwith thePanchayatCommitteeandZillahParishad,weimplementalltheschemesintroducedbytheStateaswellasCentralgovernment.Ourobjectivebehindallthisisthateveryeligiblepersonshouldgetbenefittedfromtheschemes”-DRDA,Rajasthan
“Forpublicparticipation,thereistheGramPanchayats,thePanchayatfunctionaries,thepeoplelivinginthatareaandthedepartmentalfunctionaries,likePanchayatsecretary,ADO,BDOandnodalofficers”-DRDA,UttarPradesh
Infact,J-PALevidenceonruraldevelopmentfromthefinanceandgovernancesectorsshowtherelevantcontribution of awareness generation and information dissemination efforts to social welfareprogrammesacrossthecountry.
Box1:CaseStudyonInformationandApplicationAssistanceinSocialWelfareProgrammes
InformationandApplicationAssistanceinSocialWelfareProgrammes
Simplerenrolmentproceduresandassistancewithbureaucraticmediationcanhelpincreasetakeupofsocial
programmes,especiallyforthemostvulnerable.Eligiblecitizensmaylackinformationregardingtheprogramme
ordemonstrateconfusionabouttheapplicationprocess,leadingthemtoselectoutoftheseprogrammes.
● InarandomizedevaluationinthecontextoftheWidowPensionSchemeinDelhi,groupsofwomenwere
providedwithinformation,basicassistancetofilloutapplicationsandintensiveassistancetomediate
withbureaucrats.
● Providinginformationaloneincreasedapplicationrates,butonlyamongliteratewomen.
● Applicationratesincreasedingroupsofwomenwhoreceivedbasicandintensivemediationassistance
with the impactbeinggreater for vulnerablewomen, including thosewhowere illiterate, politically
disconnectedorlackedautonomyinthehousehold.
18Daigneault,Pierre-Marc(2014).ThreeParadigmsofSocialAssistance.SAGEOpen.ÉcoleNationaleD’administrationPublique(ÉNAP),Québec,Canada.19Pingalietal.(2019).Reimagingsafetynetprograms,transformingfoodsystemsforarisingIndia.Pp.135-164.Retrievedathttps://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007percent2F978-3-030-14409-8_6.pdf.Accessedon15/02/2020.20Kapur,D,Nangia,P.(2015).SocialProtectioninIndia:AWelfareStateSansPublicGoods?IndiaReview,14:1,73-90,DOI:10.1080/14736489.2015.1001275.
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Source:Gupta,S.(2017).PerilsofthePaperwork:TheImpactofInformationandApplicationAssistanceonWelfareProgramTake-UpinIndia.JobMarketPaper.
RuralTransformation
Ruraltransformationreferstothemetamorphosisoftheeconomic,socialandspatialstructureoftheruralIndiathroughmultipleprocesseswhichincludechangesinthestructureoftheproductionsystem,livelihooddiversification,rural–urbanlinkages,infrastructuredevelopment,educationalattainmentandchangesintheaspirationandwayoflifeandmanymore21.Exogenousandendogenousfactorsinfluencetheseprocesses.Itincludeslandreforms,infrastructuredevelopment,innovationsinagriculture,rural-industrialization,accesstowaterforcultivation,methodofcultivation,croppingpattern,patternoflandownership, etc22. The heterogeneous nature of rural transformation shows that in the wake oftransformation of the rural economy, the importance of agriculture is declining, aided by multiple“distress-push”and“demandpull”diversification,therebyleadingtooccupationaldiversificationowingtostructural transformation.Thishasvaried implications forhouseholds inruralareas.Thesituationdemandsastrategyofconsolidationandastrategyofsurvival23.
TheensuingparagraphspresenttheevidenceoftransformationthatruralIndiafacesatpresent.
(a)Decliningshareofagricultureinruralincome
Inthelastfourdecades,Indianruraloutputhasincreasedbyalmostseventimes—Rs.3,199billiontoRs.21,107billionat2004–05prices—buttheshareofagricultureinrural incomehasreducedfrom72.4percentto39.2percent24.Nationallyrepresentativedatasuggeststhat88percentoffarminghouseholdsrely on some form of non-farm income sources to sustain their livelihoods25. Non-farm income isbecominganimportantsourceoffoodsecurityanddietarydiversity26.Asthecentralagrarianquestionin India remains the availability of productive land, non-farm sector helps maintain income for thelandlessandthesmallholder.ItiswellestablishedthatIndianagricultureisdominatedbysmallholders,andfragmentationoflandistherootcauseofpovertyandinequalityinruralareas27.Incomefromthenon-farm sector is potentially amajor poverty-reducing strategy and often picks up the slackwhenagricultureisnotdoingwell28.
(b)Movementtowardsruralnon-farmsector
The transformation of the workforce in India away from low-productivity agricultural sector intomanufacturingandothertertiaryactivitieshasbeenslow.Morethan60percentoftheruralworkforcecontinuestobeemployedinagriculture-basedlivelihoods,despitetheshareofagricultureoutputbeing
21Guin,Debarshi(2018).FromLargeVillagestoSmallTowns:AStudyofRuralTransformationinNewCensusTowns,India.InternationalJournalofRuralManagement,14(2)87–109,InstituteofRuralManagement;SAGEPublications.22Rao,Nair (2003).ChangeandTransformation inRuralSouth India:Findings fromVillageStudies.EconomicandPoliticalWeeklyVol.38,No.32(Aug.9-15,2003),pp.3349-3354.23Nagaraj,Bantilan.(2014);DynamicsofrurallabormarketsinIndia:Implicationsforinclusivedevelopmentstrategy;workingpaperseriesNo.57;ICRISATresearchprogram;Markets,InstitutionsandPolicies;24Chand,Srivastava,Singh(2017);ChangingstructureofRuraleconomyof India: Implications foremploymentandgrowth;Discussionpaper,NITIAayog.25Chandrasekhar,Mehrotra,(2016);Whatwouldittake?DoublingFarmers’incomeby2022;EPWCommentary,vol.51,Issueno;18;30thApril201626Mishra&Rahman(2018);Doesnon-farmincomeaffectfoodsecurity?EvidencefromIndia;IGIDR,MumbaiandTata-CornellInstitute(TCI);DysonSchoolofappliedeconomicsandmanagement,CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NY.27Chakravorty, Chandrasekhar, Naraparaju (2016); Income generation and Inequality in India’s Agriculture sector; theconsequences of land fragmentation, IGIDR, November 2016 http://www.igidr.ac.in/pdf/publication/WP-2016-028.pdfaccessedonFeb10,202028Haggblade,S.,Hazell,P.,&Reardon,T.(2010).Theruralnon-farmeconomy:Prospectsforgrowthandpovertyreduction.WorldDevelopment,38(10),1429–1441.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.06.008
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around17percent.Therehasbeenadecline in the shareof cultivators,but the shareof agriculturallabourhasincreased;thedesiredtransitionfromruraltourbanoccupationhasnottakenplace.
With overall economic growth, better rural infrastructure and declining rural-urban travel timedistances, the composition of the rural non-farm sector in India has changed; construction andmanufacturingsectorshavebecomemajoremploymentsources.AccordingtotheestimatesbasedontheNationalSampleSurvey (NSS), constructionsectoremploys30.1percentof the totalnon-agriculturalemployment29.Manufacturing employment, on theotherhand, stands at22.1percent,while servicesemploy45.1percentofthelabourforce.Unprecedentedgrowthintheconstructionandtheservicesectoroverthelastdecadehasledtoagreaternumberofjobsbutalsoledtogreatercasualizationofthelabourforce.Lackofformalwrittencontractsbetweentheconstructionworkersandtheiremployersraisestheissue of job quality. Even among the formal sector employees in the non-farm economy, such asmanufacturingorservices,only60percenthaveaformalcontract,deprivingamajorityofsocialsecuritybenefits30.
29NationalSampleSurvey30Saha,P.,&Verick,S.(2017).Casualizationandshiftofruralworkerstonon-farmactivities.InRurallabourmobilityintimesofstructuraltransformation(pp.127–150).Singapore:SpringerSingapore.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5628-4_7
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Figure2:EmploymentTransitionTrend(agriculturalshareintotalemployment)
Source:CensusData(1991,2001and2011)
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Theagriculturalshareintotalemploymenthasnearlyhalvedfrom1991to2011,decreasingfrom57percentto28percent(Figure-2above).However,Stateshavebeentransitioningatdifferentpaces.Lessthan20percentofthepopulationremainsengagedinagricultureinGoaandKerala,butinStateslikeMizoram and Andhra Pradesh, slightly more than 40 percent of employment still comes from theagriculturalsector.
Despite urban wages growing faster than rural wages31, census records indicate that rural to ruralmigrationpatternsdominatemigrationstreamsandmanyindividualscontinuetoworkasagriculturallabourers.Also, labourmarketshavenotbeenabletoemployexcessunderemployedlabourfromtheagriculturalsectorandagriculturallabourproductivitycontinuestoremainlowwithvastdifferencesbyregion.
(c)Migration:afactoflife
Regionalcomparativeadvantages(orthe lackof it) inresourceavailabilitybenefitsomeregionsoverothers.Inadditiontothegrowthoflocalandglobaldemandforgoodsandservices,thesecomparativeadvantages in inputs have intensified regional disparities in growth rates. Secondly, various labourmarketresistanceshaveinhibitedasmoothtransitionoflabourfromagriculturaltothenon-agriculturalsectors32.
TheruraltoruralmigrationintheagriculturalsectorislargelyowingtothedifferenceinagriculturalproductivityacrossStates.Lowruraltourbanmigration,morecharacteristicoftheagriculturaltonon-agricultural migration, has been slower due to poor access to appropriate skills, in addition togeographicalchallengesthatmigrationposes.Thephysicalgeographicaldistancehasarobustnegativeassociation with internal migration across Indian districts and States33. The stock of “rural-rural”migrantsisalsonegativelycorrelatedwithpercapitaNetStateDomesticProduct,anditspatternacrossStatesmirrors“intrastate”migrationflows,withUttarPradeshandMadhyaPradeshcharacterizedbyadisproportionatelyhighstockofrural-ruralmigrants34.
ThefindingsoftheGovernmentofIndia’srecentEconomicSurveyreinforcetheimportanceofculturalsimilaritiesthroughastrongcontiguityeffect;controllingfordistance,Statesthatsharecommonbordersseeabout65percentmoremigrationbetweenthemthanStatesthatdonotsharesuchaborder.Also,becauseofthemigrationofproductivemalelabour,anincreaseinthefeminizationofagricultureistakingplace35.Inviewofitstrendsofmigration,Indiacanlooktoborrowsomelearningsfromothercountrieswho have instituted mechanisms to reduce rural to urban migration. Some of these learnings arepresentedbelow:
Box2:CaseStudyonReducingruraltourbanmigration
Reducingruraltourbanmigration
Migrationaffectsthelivesofhundredsofmillionsofpeopleworldwide.Inthenextdecades,demographictrends,
globalization,inequality,andclimatechangearelikelytofurtherincreasemigrationpressuresbothwithinand
acrosscountries.Itisoftenseenthatasaresultofmigration,ruralareasloseavitalandpotentiallydynamic
31Bhagat,R.B. (2017).Migration andurban transition in India: Implications fordevelopment.UnitedNations expert groupmeetingonSustainableCities,HumanMobilityandInternationalMigration.Retrievedfromhttp://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/events/pdf/expert/27/papers/V/paper-Bhagat-final.pdf32Kone,et.al(2016).InternalBordersandMigrationinIndia,Mimeo,TheWorldBank,WashingtonD.C.33SameasFootnote43.34Nayyar&Kim(2018);India’sInternalLaborMigrationParadox:TheStatisticalandtheReal;Policyresearchworkingpaper(8356),WorldBankGroup–Finance,competitivenessandinnovationglobalpractice(February2018)35Pattnaik, I.,Lahiri-Dutt,K.,Lockie,S.,Pritchard,B. (2017):The feminizationofagricultureor the feminizationofagrariandistress? Tracking the trajectory of women in agriculture in India, Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, DOI:10.1080/13547860.2017.1394569
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shareoftheirworkforce.Thisraisesquestionsregardingthefutureofagriculturegiventhat,worldwide,farmers
areageingwhiledeep-seatedchangesinagriculturalpracticesareneededtostepupfoodproductivityandmake
agricultural production sustainable36. FAO, in its information note on rural transformations, highlightedchallengesandopportunitiesforruralareasintermsofmigration.Thisispresentedbelow:
Challenges Opportunities
• Lossofhumancapital,highlyskilledworkersandagriculturallabourmayaffectcropproductionandfoodavailability.
• Migrationofyoungmenmaycauseageingandfeminizationofruralpopulationsandincreasedworkburdensonthoseleftbehind.
• Remittancesmaybeusedtowardsconsumptionratherthanproductiveinvestments.
• Remittancesmayleadtochangesinlanduseandtitling.Conversionofagriculturallandtolandforhousingmayleadtorisinglandpricesandfallingagriculturalproduction,whichmayaffectfoodsecurity.
• Irregularordistressmigrationmaybedangerousforthemigrantsthemselves.Low-skilledmigrantsaremorevulnerabletoprecariousjobs,unsafeworkingconditions,andweakaccesstosocialprotection.
• Migrationcanreducepressuresonlocallabourmarketsandresources,asmigrantsfindemploymentopportunitieselsewhere.
• Femalemigrationandwomen’scontroloverremittancescancontributetoruralwomen’sempowerment.
• Remittancesreduceliquidityconstraints.Theycancoverforbasicneeds,provideinsuranceincaseofcrisisandshocks,orbeinvestedinagriculture.Remittancescanimprovethestabilityofaccesstoqualityfoodandsupportfoodproduction.
• Migrantscanincreaselocalhumancapital,throughskillsandtechnologytransfers,knowhow,andsocialnetworks.
FAOalsoidentifiedsomelearningsfromcountriestoaddressissuesaroundmigration.Someofthemhavebeen
outlinedbelow37:
• ConductingasituationanalysisinGhanaandaddressingdatagapsforpolicyformulation:Ghanaiswitnessingincreasinginternalmigration,emigration,transitmigrationandimmigrationinvolvingregular,
irregular,seasonal,temporaryandvoluntaryandforceddimensionsofmigration.Datagapswereidentifiedasasignificantissueinunderstandingandaddressingthevariablecomponentsofmigrationandresulting
impactsonfoodsecurityandnutrition.Toaddressthis,Ghanafirstundertookasituationanalysisof the
existingdatasourcesandcurrentpracticesamongdatacollectionagenciesandministries,resultinginthe
formulationofthestrategyfortheNationalMigrationDatabaseforGhana.Partofthestrategyalsoincluded
coordinationamonggovernmentministries.GhanahasusedthisinformationtodevelopMigrationProfiles
–orcharacteristicsofvariousmigrants–inordertotargetpoliciestoaddresstheirneeds.
• ZimbabweestablishedadedicatedMigrationandDevelopmentUnit:WithintheMinistryofEconomicPlanningandInvestmentPromotion,thisunitactsasafocalpointforallmigrationanddevelopmentissues,
includingfoodsecurityandnutrition.Theaimistohaveadedicatedunitthatcouldmaptherangeofpolicies
andcoordinatewithalltheentitiesinvolvedwithoutcreatingcompetingprioritiesorresponsibilities.The
unit intends to: (i) formulate/implement/monitor nationalmigration and development policy, legal and
institutional frameworks; (ii) facilitate mainstreaming of migration policy and practice in national and
sectoraldevelopmentplanssuchasnationalbudgets,youthpoliciesandnationalcensusesandsurveys;(iii)
identifyandcommissionresearchonmigrationanddevelopment;(iv)identifyandengagewithdiasporas
for investment and development initiatives; (v) formalize and harness the positive impacts of labour
migrationfornationalsocio-economicdevelopment;(vi)ensureenforcementofmeasurestoprotectand
promotethehumanrightsandwell-beingofmigrants;(vii)identifyandinitiateskillsretentionprogrammes
36FAO,Reducingdistressmigrationthroughdecentruralemployment.RuralTransformations-InformationNote#4,201537FAO,StrengtheningSectorPoliciesforBetterFoodSecurityandNutritionResults,2017
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andmeasurestomitigatebraindrain;and(viii)identifyandinitiateeconomicandcommunitydevelopment
formigrationprogrammestoaddressrootcausesofmigration.
• InVietnam,studieshaveshownthatmigrationisakeystrategyforhouseholdsineconomicdifficultyand
searchingforbetterlivelihoodopportunities;atthesametime,theyfaceconsiderablerisksasaresultofa
lackofadequatesocialprotectioncoverage.Currentschemesareresidence-based,whichreducesmigrants’
abilitytotakebenefitswiththemastheymove.Thepolicyframeworkisnotveryresponsiveto“spontaneous
migration”fromruraltourbanareasortotheincreasingamountofcircularandtemporarymigration.This
hasresultedinatwo-foldproblem:(i)vulnerabilitiesofmigrantworkersasaresultofpoorenforcementof
labourlawsintheformalsector;and(ii)lackofawarenessofmigrantsoftheirrightsoravenuestoexpress
concernsorproblems.Addressingtheseissuescanhelptoensurethatrural-to-urbanmigrantsinVietnam
becomeagentsofdevelopmentanddiminishtheriskstheyfaceintermsoffoodinsecurityandmalnutrition.
Inconclusion,FAOidentifiesspecificobstaclestopolicychangeandpotentialsolutionsasgivenbelow38:
Obstacle Howtoaddress
Competinginterestsamongmigrationand
foodsecurityandnutritionauthoritiesand
lackofinter-sectoralcoordination
Createmulti-ministry/inter-sectoralcoordination
group(s)andincorporatefoodsecurityandnutrition
actorsinmigrationpolicy-makingandviceversa
Lackofunderstandingoffoodsecurityand
nutritionissues
Conducttraining/workshopsonfoodsecurityand
nutritionformigrationauthorities
Lackofunderstandingofmigration,labour,
socialprotectionandyouthissuesamong
agriculturalstakeholders
Conducttraining/workshopsforagricultural
stakeholders
Policiesandprogrammesnotaddressingthe
mostvulnerable/thosewhorequirethemost
assistance
Incorporatethemostvulnerableintopolicydialogue
Lackoffundingforpolicyandprogramme
implementation
Identifypotentialresourceswithinthegovernmentand
externallyamongpartners,aswellasexplore
innovativefinancingmechanisms(e.g.diaspora
support;migrantinvestmentsandcontributions)
Lackofmonitoringandevaluationofpolicy
impacttomakethecasethatchangeisneeded
Createamonitoringandevaluationframework,
includingimpactassessments,withdedicatedrolesand
resources
(d)Emergenceofruralurbancontinuums
Thetrendsofmigrationhaveledtoblurringofurban-ruraldistinction.Itisbecomingincreasinglyhardtodistinguishbetweencensustownsandtownswithurbanadministrativestatus.Villagesproximatetocensustownsarenotverydifferentfromthoseproximatetostatutorytowns39.Hence,insteadofarural-urban binary, we now have a rural-urban continuum which is expanding along with structuraltransformationoftheeconomy.Villageshavebeguntoexhibiturbancharacteristics-peri-urbanization.Peri-urbanregionshavebecomeimportanthubshelpingthediversificationofeconomicactivitythrough
38SameasFootnote54.39Chandrasekhar,S.,&Mukhopadhyay,A.(2017).Thechangingnatureofrurality:Reframingthediscourseonmigrationandcommuting. In Rural labour mobility in times of structural transformation (pp. 183–207). Singapore: Springer Singapore.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5628-4_9
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creatingagglomerationeffects,andaccesstoamenitiesandgenerationofemploymentbeyondfarms.Invillageslocatedclosertotowns,theshareofnon-farmactivitiescouldbeaslargeas70percent40.
(e)Declininglabourforceparticipation
Table1:Sector–WiseGrowthratesduringFY2014-15to2018-19
Sector RealGrowthbetweenFY2016-17toFY2019-20Agriculture,ForestryandFishing 2.8%
Industry 2.5%
Services 6.9%
GrossValueAdded 3.9%
Source:Economicsurvey2019-20,Vol.2GovernmentofIndia,MinistryofFinance41
Thegrowthratesreflectthechangingcontoursofthesectoratlarge.Thegrowthinagriculturesectorhasbeenfluctuating.It increasedfrom-0.2percentinFY2014-15to6.3percentinFY2016-17,andthendeclinedto2.8percentinFY2019-20.Theoverallindustrialsectorgrowthisestimatedtobe2.5percentinFY2019-20ascomparedto6.9percentgrowthinFY2018-19.Theindustrialgrowthwassubdueddueto decrease in domestic demand for key sectors such as automotive and pharmaceuticals andunderperformance of exports and liquidity crunch owing to reduced lending byNBFCs. The servicessectorgrowthratealsohadadecelerationtrendduringFY2019-20.Itisexpectedtogrowat6.9percentin FY 2019-20 as compared to 7.5 percent in FY 2018-19. The gross value added for FY 2019-20(estimates)exhibitsaweakeningmomentumowingtodownwardgrowthrateofthekeysectors.
AsperPeriodiclabourForceSurvey(PLFS)estimates,LabourForceParticipationRate(LFPR)inIndiahasdeclinedto36.9percentin2017-18from39.5percentin2011-12(NSSO)asperusualstatus.Inruralareas,ithasdeclinedby3.6percentagepoints.TheWorkerPopulationRatio(WPR)hasdeclinedto34.7percentin2017-18from38.6percentin2011-12(NSSO).TheWPRhasdeclinedby4.9percentagepointsinruralareas.Theunemploymentrate(UR)inIndiastoodat6.1percentwith5.3percentinruralareasasperusual status.AsperCurrentWeekly StatusApproach (CWS), theURwas8.9percentwith8.5percentinruralareas.Further,asperPFLS2018-19estimates,labourforceparticipationisnotedtobe55.1percentformalesand19.7percentforfemales.
Table2:KeyLabourMarketindicatorsforallAgeGroupsinFY2017-18(inpercent)Indicators Rural
UsualStatus:activitydeterminedonthereferenceperiodof365daysprecedingthedateofthesurvey.LFPR(LabourForceParticipationRate) 37.0
WorkParticipationRate(WPR) 35.0UnemploymentRate(UR) 5.3
CWS:personwhoisunabletogetworkevenforanhourinthelastsevendaysofreferenceweekdespiteavailableandseekingforworkisconsideredasunemployed
LFPR 35.7WPR 32.6UR 8.5
Source:Annualreport,PLFS(2017-18)
(f)Consumptionpickingup
Consumptionhasalwaysbeenastrongandmajordriverofgrowthintheeconomy.Withintotal finalconsumption,itistheprivatefinalconsumptionexpenditurethathasamajorshare(closeto60percent)intheeconomy’sGDP.Theshareoffoodintotalconsumptionhasgonedownbyaround6.5percentage
40Sharma,A.(2016).UrbanproximityandspatialpatternoflanduseanddevelopmentinruralIndia.TheJournalofDevelopmentStudies,52(11),1593–1611. 41Growthratesatbasicpricesfor2016-17to2019-20(estimated).
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points in rural areas.Ruralwages growthwhichwasdeclining seems tohavebottomedout andhasstartedtoincreasesincemid-201842.
(g)Accesstobankingservices
Access to banking services towards enabling financial inclusion to promote economic growth andreducingpovertyand inequality isessential.Thedataonthepenetrationofbanking infrastructure inruralIndiaintermsofpercentageofbankslocatedintheruralregionsshowsthat34.2percentofthetotalbankbranchesarelocatedinruralareasofthecountry.Thecoverageinthecentralregionisthehighest(23.6percent)followedbyeasternandsouthernregions(21.5and21.1percent,respectively)43and lowest being in the north eastern region (4.1 percent). Considering the operational cost pertransaction for the bank to operate in a rural region, a digital channels / platform offers potentialsolutions including creating low-cost service models that offer incentives to multiple industryparticipants(suchastelecomproviders,banks,andpaymentproviders),improvingdigitalliteracy,andexpandingbroadbandanddigitalbankinginfrastructurewithinthecountry.ThePhilippinesexperienceofimprovingfinancialinclusionprovidesvaluablelessonsintheboxbelow:
Box3:CaseStudyonimprovingaccesstobankingservicesinPhilippines
42SameasFootnote31.43Retrievedathttps://m.rbi.org.in/Scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=19374.Accessedon19/02/2020.44ADB.(2019).Cloud-BasedCoreBankinginthePhilippines.
ImprovingaccesstobankingservicesinPhilippines
InPhilippinesCaragaregion, theaverage familypoverty incidence is30.8percent, compared to thenational
averageof 16.5percent.Only around24percent of families in this regionhavebankdeposits. Further, it is
estimatedthat7outof10adultsaverskeeptheirsavingsathome,andborrowerstapinformalsourcesforfunds
suchasfamily,relatives,orfriends(62percent)orinformallenders(10percent).Betterinclusionofthislarge
unbankedorunder-servedpartofthePhilippinepopulationintotheformalfinancialsystemwillhelpreduce
vulnerabilityandriskfortheindividualsandislikelytohaveapositiveeffectoneconomicdevelopment.
Philippines’ National Strategy for Financial Inclusion propagates that the financial system also reaches the
underservedormarginalizedsectorsofthepopulationthroughtheuseoftechnologyandotherinnovationstoreachthefinanciallyexcluded.Withthisbackground,AsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)andCantilanBankInc.(CBI)signedanagreementtoconductapilotstudyoncloud-basedcorebankingtechnology.Undertheproject,CBI
movedfromaconventionalon-sitecorebankingsystemtothecloud-basedSaaSInstafin.InJanuary2019,CBI
turnedoffitslegacysystemleadingtoamoreefficientandflexiblewayofdoingbusinessleadingtocuttingcosts,
improvingclientconvenience,and,inturn,drawingmorepeopleintotheformalfinancialsystem.Theoutlineof
theprojectisgivenbelow44:
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Governmentinterventions
WithruralIndiabeinghometo65.97percent45ofthepopulation,havinganannualgrowthrateof0.4percent, and being endowed with vast majority of the land, water and other natural resources,complementarytocitiesthroughconnectionsrelatedtotheflowofpeople,goodsandservices,diversifiedeconomiesbeyondagricultureandothernaturalresourcebasedsectors,structuralchallengesandaboveall with a huge potential for significant contribution to the national productivity growth, DoRD hasembarkedonavisionofanall-inclusiveandsustainablegrowthmodel46.
Thefocusistodeliveralevelofwell-being,aqualityoflifethathaseconomic,socialandenvironmentaldimensions.Economically,theneedistomakelocalemploymentproductiveandcompetitive.Socially,theneedofhouseholdsistohaveaccesstoabroadsetofservicesandacommunitythatiscohesiveandsupportive.Environmentally,theneedistoprovideapleasantplacetolive.
Thepolicyfocusevolvesawayfromshort-termandsectoralsupporttowardshelpingtobuildconditionsfavourable for the long-term growth of rural economies. It focuses on investing in human capital,infrastructure,innovationwhichareenablingfactorsforgrowth,ratherthanshort-termresponsesthatseektoprotectexistingeconomicactivities.Ineffect,thepresentruralpoliciesinvolve:
45Retrievedathttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL?locations=IN.Accessedon19/02/2020.46Retrievedathttps://rural.nic.in/sites/default/files/Visiion%20and%20Mission%20of%20the%20Ministry.pdf.Accessedon09/10/2020.
Learnings
• Building in timeallowance for “theunknown” into the implementationschedulemay leadtoamorerealistictimeline.
• Workingwithacloud-basedSaaSandaserviceprovider inadifferent timezonecanbechallenging,especiallyduringtechnicallyintenseperiods.
• Thelonger-than-expectedtransitionprocess—operatingoldandnewsysteminparallelformorethanayear.
• Continuoustrainingtoensureeffectiveuseofthesystemisnecessary,buttraditionalforms—bringingbranch level staff to headquarters—is costly and time consuming. Using new communicationstechnologieswouldreducecostsandsavetime.
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i) An engagement of a broad array of actors and multi-level governance mechanisms. Thisnecessitates collaboration and engagement of governments (both Central and the State) atmultiplelevelsandinvolvementoftheprivatesectorandthethirdsector.
ii) Buildingcapacitiesfortheimplementationofalltheruralprograms.Theattemptisforlongtermcapacitybuildingthatmakesruralcommunitiesmoreengagedinprocessesofdevelopmentandmoreresilienttoshocks.
iii) Focusonintegratedinvestmentsanddeliveringservicesthatareadaptedtoandmeettheneedsofruralcommunity/areas.Thereisstronginterconnectednesstomakebetteruseofinvestmentsandmoreefficientlydeliverservices.
iv) Coordinated and mutually reinforcing sectoral policies and the mix between them that arerebalancedtomeetdifferinglocalneeds.Shifthasbeenonframingofpolicyinterventionsthatdonottargetadministrativeboundariesinsilostoharnesssynergiesthatarepresentbetweenruralandurbanareas.
Qualitative evidence described the context of implementation of Rural Development programmes intermsofadministrativecapacitytoachievesuchobjectives.Ontheonehand,officialsfromUttarPradesh,Jharkhand,AndhraPradesh,andRajasthanpointedoutthecurrentshortageandlimitedcapacityofstaffto implement schemes in the Rural Development sector. On the other hand, coordination amongimplementingbodiesatdifferentlevelswasperceivedpositivelybyDistrictandBlockofficials.
“Wehaveaverygoodcoordinationwiththestateaswellaswiththelocalbodies.Weshareagoodcoordinationwithourrurallocalbodiesandalsoagoodcoordinationwiththestateadministration.Wedon'tfaceanykindofproblems at the time of release of the state components or at the time of reporting etc”-DistrictMagistrate,Haryana
“WehavegreatcoordinationwiththeDistrictlevel.ThecoordinationisattheDistrictlevel.TheDCisalsoinvolvedinsomeschemes.Wehavemonthlyreviewmeetingswhereallthecentrallysponsoredschemesarereviewed.WetakeactionandwekeepgettingdirectionsfromtheDistrictlevel”-BDO,HimachalPradesh
“ThemanpowerstructureattheDistrictandBlocklevels facechallenges.TheydonothavesufficientnumberofBDOswhich is required.ThePanchayatSecretaries,whoruntheentire systemonthe field,arenot inadequatenumbers.Theyareless,duetowhichthereisdoubleloadonasinglemanpower”-DRDA,UttarPradesh
“Skilldevelopmentshouldbedoneandstaffshouldbeincreased"–DistrictMagistrate,AndhraPradesh
“Thereisalackofhumanresourcesinsomedepartments”-DistrictMagistrate,Jharkhand
“If 100 posts are there, then only 50 percent is filled. The rest 50 percent is always unfulfilled. Lack of humanresourcesisanissuehere”-ADF,Rajasthan
CSSProgrammesinRuralDevelopment
TheinterventionsundertakenbyDoRDcomprisethree-prongedstrategies,whichincludestrengtheninginstitutions to be drivers of change to bring about transformation in the life and livelihoods ofbeneficiaries;creatinganenablingenvironmentforbuildingsocialcapital;andmakingconvergencebetweenschemesandprogrammesarealitytogeneratesynergiesinimplementationandimpacts.Thisevaluation attempts to answer how rural development as a sector contributes towards (a) bringingtransformationinthewaythingsareplannedandexecutedwithafocusoninfrastructure,livelihoodsandsocialsafetynetasacriticalenablerofgrowthandprosperity inruralareas(b)creatinganenablingenvironmentforthepeopleandsystems,withafocusonmainstreamingthepopulationthroughvariousinstitutionsandensuringinclusivenessand(c)facilitatingconvergenceamongandbetweeninstitutions,
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systems,andcommunities47tocometogetherattheinput,processandoutputlevels.TheseaspectshavebeenelaboratedbelowforthethreethemesofInfrastructure,LivelihoodsandSocialSafetyNet:
1.2.1. Infrastructure Transformation
Developmentofruralinfrastructurepromoteseconomicgrowth,improvesthestandardoflivingofthepopulationandreducesthe incidenceofpovertybygeneratingboth farmandnon-farmemployment.According to a World Bank estimate, a 1 percent increase in the stock of infrastructure leads toproportionateincreaseintheGDPofacountry48.Inspiteoftheimportanceofinfrastructure,significantdeficiencieshavepersistedinruralinfrastructure.Thequantityandqualityofinfrastructurefacilitiesaresubstantiallylowerinruralareasthaninurbanareas.
Forexample,asperthe76thRoundoftheNSS(2018),96percentofthehouseholdsinruralareashaveowndwellingunitandamongthese76.7percenthaveahouseofpuccastructure.However,56.6percenthouseholdsinruralareashadaccesstoabathroom.Outofthese48.4percentusedbathroomattachedtothedwellingunit.
Figure3:Percentageofhouseholdsbytypeofhouseinruralareas
Source:NSS76thRound,2018
TheNSSfurthernotesthatamonghouseholdslivinginhousesinruralareas,93.9percenthadelectricityfordomesticuse.However,48.6percentofhouseholdsinruralareashadexclusiveaccesstoprincipalsourceofdrinkingwater.
TheneedforruralinfrastructureismetthroughvariousschemesoftheDoRD.Roads,HousingandPublicWorks are among some of the key basic infrastructures, which have a direct bearing on livelihoodgeneration,ruraltourbanmigrationandoverallqualityoflife.AllthreeareapartofDoRD’sschemesforassetcreationinruralareasthroughPMGSY,PMAY-GandMGNREGS.
Till2000,around30percentofIndia’spopulationlackedaccesstoall-weatherroadseventhoughIndiahasoneofthelargestanddensestroadnetworksintheworld,withatotalof3.3millionkm.Moreover,a
47EvidencebasedandoutcomefocusedconvergencewithinstitutionssuchasIIT,IRMA,NIRD,NIPFP,IEGetc.andcreationofvariousotheradvisorygroupsforhumanresourcestowardsoutcome-basedstaffing(inPanchayats)informationtechnology(creation of DISHA platform for assessment of all flagship programmes), financial inclusion (flow of bank credit to SHGs),marketsandvaluechain(tocreateaninstitutionalframeworkfortakingruralproductstoscale,nationallyandinternationally)andinternalauditforriskanalysis.48 Ghosh, Madhusudan. (2017). Infrastructure and Development in Rural India. Margin. The Journal of Applied EconomicResearch.
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largepartofruralroadswasinpoorcondition49. Inlate2000,GoIlaunchedtheNationalRuralRoadsProgramme(PMGSY)toimproveruralconnectivityinasystematicmanner.
Alongwithroads,publichousingprogrammeshavebeenpresentforalongtimeinIndia.TheystartedwiththerehabilitationofrefugeesimmediatelyafterIndependenceandsincethen,ithasbeenamajorfocusareaofthegovernmentasaninstrumentofpovertyalleviation.Ruralhousing,asanindependentprogramme, started with Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) in January 1996. Although IAY addressed thehousingneedsintheruralareas,therewerecertaingapsinthescheme,suchaslackoftransparencyinthe selection of beneficiaries, non-assessment of housing shortage andweakmechanism for schememonitoring.ToaddressthesegapsandinviewoftheGovernment’scommitmenttoproviding“HousingforAll’’bytheyear2022,IAYwasre-structuredintoPradhanMantriAwaasYojana–Gramin(PMAY-G)w.e.f.1stApril201650.
Along with a focus on roads and housing, India has engaged in several Public Works programmes,particularly in timesof famine.The largest experimentwas theMaharashtraEmploymentGuaranteeScheme(EGS),whichbeganasadroughtreliefprogrammeinthe1970sandcontinuedasananti-povertyprogramme.TheEGSservedasamodelfortheadvocacyofruralemploymentprogrammesintheearly2000s.Followingthe2000droughtinRajasthan,astrongpeople’smovementemergedwithademandforjobstoproviderelieffromdrought.Inaseparateyetrelateddevelopment,theSupremeCourtofIndiaalsoexpressedanopinioninresponsetoPublicInterestLitigationlinkingtheRighttoFoodwithRighttoWorkandaskedforspeedyimplementationaswellasexpansionofSampoornaGraminRozgarYojana(Total Rural Employment Scheme), the precursor of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural EmploymentGuaranteeAct.Agrowingeconomycombinedwithrisinginequalitymadeitdesirableto implementaprogrammewithbroadappeal,givingrisetoMGNREGS51.
Despitecreatingopportunitiesforemployment,infrastructurefacilitiesavailableinurbanareasremainapullfactorforruraltourbanmigration.Againstthisbackdrop,theRurbanMissionaimstobringurbanamenitiestoruralIndiabybuilding300ruralclustersofgrowthacrossthecountrytobridgetherural–urbandividerelatedtoinfrastructureandservices;actasavehicleofregionaldevelopment;andattractinvestmentinruralareas52.ThecurrentRurbanMissionhasitsgenesisintheideaofformerPresidentDr.APJKalam,whoproposedapolicycalledProvisionofUrbanAmenities inRuralAreas(PURA).Heemphasizedtheneedforgreaterconnectivity—physical,electronicandknowledge-related—inruralareas.Whenintroducedin2004,PURAwascritiquedforchallengesrelatedtoinadequateinstitutionalcapacityand lackof convergenceamongexisting ruraldevelopmentprogrammes53. In its remodelledform as PURA 2.0, water supply, sanitation and physical infrastructure gained prominence overconnectivity as the basic tenets of reducing urban–rural disparity54. In 2016, PURA 2.0 gaveway toSPMRMwithaddedprovisioningofeconomicactivities,developingskillsandlocalentrepreneurship.
Apart from fulfilling national priorities, the rural development CSS schemes are essential to achieveinternationallycommittedSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)55.RuralInfrastructuredevelopmentthrough these schemes is contributing in the achievement of SDG 1 (No Poverty)by providing ruralpopulationwithaccesstoresources;equalopportunitytofulfilbasicneeds(house,water,sanitationand
49WorldBank(2011).IndiaRuralRoads.50Retrievedfromhttps://rural.nic.in/.Accessedon09/12/19.51Desai,S.,Vashishtha,P.,&Joshi,O.(2015).ACatalystforRuralTransformation.52SameasFootnote14.53LikhiA(2014)GrowthCenteredApproachunderPURA:TheWayForward for theWorldBank IndiaCountryPartnershipStrategy2013–2017.WorldBankBlog.54ChatterjeeS(2014)The‘Rurban’SocietyinIndia:NewFacetsofUrbanismanditsChallenges.IOSRJournalofHumanitiesandSocialScience19(8),14–18.55NITIAayog.(2018).SDGIndiaIndex:BaselineReport2018.NewDelhi:NITIAayog.
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energy)andearnalivelihood,bycreatingpublicworksassets.Theyalsocontributeintheachievementof SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation and Resilient Infrastructure), SDG 10 (Reduce Inequality) and SDG 11(SustainableCitiesandCommunities)56.
Fromtherough,mountainousterrainofHimachalPradeshtothedry,ruggedlandscapeofRajasthan,roadsconstructedinruralareasarenowrevitalizinglocaleconomy,raisingincomes,andimprovingthequalityofrurallife57.Withimprovedaccesstorawmaterialsduetoconstructionofroads,smallindustrieslocatedinruralareashavebeenabletoreapthebenefitsofeconomiesofscale.Apartfromtheeconomicimpact, the social impact of improved connectivity in rural areas is alsonoteworthy. ConstructionofPMGSYroadshascontributedtoregularteacherattendanceofschools.Further,thereisimprovementintheaccesstopreventiveandcurativehealthfacilities,whichinturnhasimprovedthequalityoflifeofpeoplelivinginruralareas58.Ontheotherhand,ruralroadsalsofacesignificantchallenges.Ruralroadnetworksconsistpredominantlyofroadsofgravelorearthconstruction.Theproblemwithgravelroadsisthat,duetoerosionandwear,itslifespanisreducedsignificantly.TheroadsconstructedunderPMGSYalso facequality issues, considering thatonly28percentof roads constructedunder the schemearewithin the 5 year maintenance period. The remaining 72 percent have outpaced the timeline ofmaintenance,whichshouldoccuratleastoncewithin5yearsofconstruction59.
AlthoughPMGSYfocusesonprovidingnewfeederroadstolocalitiesthatdidnothavepavedroads,inpractice - many projects upgrade pre-existing roads60. Since the scheme’s objective was to connectgreaternumberoflocationstotheexternalroadnetworkatthelowestpossibleprice,routesterminatinginhabitationswereprioritisedoverroutespassingthroughhabitationsandlinkedtolargerroads.Theprioritisationoriginallyaimedtoconnectallhabitationswithpopulationsgreaterthan1,000peopleby2003, all habitations with population greater than 500 people by 2007, and all habitations withpopulationover250peopleafterthat.Thethresholdswerelowerindesertandtribalareas,aswellashillyStatesanddistrictsaffectedbyleft-wingextremism.Roadsconstructedinruralareashaveabearingonhouseslocatedwithinthehabitations.Thecostofmaterialsusedinhouseconstructionreducesdueto improved connectivity. Further drainage facilities to be provided in the houses improve due toavailabilityofpuccaroadsandpropersewerage.ImpactAssessmentstudyonPMGSYinUttarPradeshsuggeststhatdrainagesystemsincommunitiesmustbeconsideredinthedesigningandconstructionofroads61, as there is a significant correlation between improved road infrastructure and improvedresidentialinfrastructure.
Movingfurther,thediscussionssurroundingtheideaofaffordablehousinginruralIndiahavecomealongway from IAY toPMAY-G.Withahigherunit cost,PMAY-Gallows for the constructionof largerhouses(min25sq.m)usinglocalmaterialsandlocalhousedesigns.Amenitiesincludeacookingarea,toilet,LPGconnection,electricityconnectionandwatersupplythroughconvergence,andbeneficiariescanplantheirhomesaspertheirneed.TheuseofSECCdatafortheselectionofbeneficiariesinPMAY-GinsteadofBPLpopulationasperIAYisalsoarelevantstep.Thisfilterhasensuredthatgenuinelypoorhomelessandthoselivingindilapidatedhouseswereselected.Further,alargenumberofhouseholdsfromvulnerablegroupsandalsowomenhavebeenselectedasbeneficiaries62.
PMAY-Ghasalsoleveragedthebenefitoftechnology.Theuseoftechnologythroughgeo-taggingofassetsandpaymentdirectlyintotheaccountofbeneficiarythroughIT-DBTplatformhaveensuredtransparent,
56Kumar.(2019)DiscussionPaperonRuralRoadsandSDGs:TERI.57SameasFootnote66.58Retrievedfromhttp://pmgsy.nic.in/pmgi112.asp#4.Accessedon9/12/2019.59Retrievedfromhttps://rural.nic.in/sites/default/files/PMAYG_0.pdf.Accessedon12/11/2019.60AsherS,NovosadP,TheEmploymentEffectsofRoadConstructioninRuralIndia,201461Retrievedfromhttp://pmgsy.nic.in/pmgi112.asp#4.Accessedon9/12/2019.62Retrievedfromhttps://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=160647.Accessedon9/12/2019.
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hassle-freeandqualityprogrammeimplementation63. InthefirstphaseofPMAY-G,98.27lakhhousesweresanctioned,ofwhich89.78lakhhavebeenreportedtobecompleted,againstthetargetof1crorehouses in rural areas. However, the scheme is facing the challenge of providing houses to landlessbeneficiariesasitapproachesitstargetcompletion.Inaddition,thefull implementationofAwaasPluswouldpushforarevisionoftheexistinglistofbeneficiaries.
MGNREGShasabearingonruralinfrastructurebywayofcreationofsustainableassets.Theaspectofnaturalresourcemanagementunder theschemecontributes toenhancing thenationalresourcebase(throughwaterconservation,droughtproofing,renovatingwaterbodies,ruralconnectivityandsoforth)and furthering sustainable development64. It has been found that MGNREGS has helped in cropintensification anddiversification andhas also led to an increase inhousehold income. For example,improvedmanagementofnaturalresourceshasincreasedthepotentialofirrigationinagricultureandhasfurtherledtoanincreaseingroundwatertable.Thebenefitofimprovedassetscreation(suchasfarmponds,vermi/Nadeppits,soakpits,wells,ruralhousing,goatsheds,cattlesheds)providesathrustonlivelihoodsecurity.
The Ministry went further from improving different facets of rural infrastructure to develop entireclusterswhose population can leverage urban amenities. Such clusters have 21 desirable amenities,which are all encompassing in nature65. A 'Rurban cluster', is a cluster of geographically contiguousvillageswithapopulationofabout25,000to50,000inplainandcoastalareasandwithapopulationof5,000to15,000indesert,hillyortribalareas.Theamenitiestobeprovidedarefurtherclassifiedintothreeheads:66
BasicAmenities: Sanitation, PipedWater Supply, Solid LiquidWastemanagement, Street lights andelectrification,accesstovillagestreetswithdrains,inter-villageroadsconnectivity,publictransport,LPGgasconnectionandallied.
SocialandDigitalAmenities:Health,Education,DigitalLiteracy,CitizenServicesCentres,EnvironmentConservation,Housing,SportsInfrastructure,SocialInfrastructure,andSocialWelfare.
Economic Amenities: Skill development linked to economic activities of cluster, Agri-Services,processing,andalliedactivities,MSMEsstrengthening&SHGformation,TourismPromotion67.
EnablingEcosystem
Thebenefits generateddue todevelopmentof infrastructure facilities in rural areasenable the ruralpopulation to raise their standards of living. Rural road connectivity is a key component of ruraldevelopmentasitcreatesanecosystemthatenablesaccesstoeconomicandsocialservicesandhencegenerates increased agricultural incomes and productive employment opportunities in India68.Specifically,greatermarketintegrationandtherebyenablingecosystemsresultsfromtheimplicationson prices of goods imported from outside the village, variety in the household consumption basket,technology adoption in agriculture, human capital investments in children and adolescents, andoccupationchoicesofadolescentsaswellasadults,labourforceparticipationrateofprime-agedwomenhavingadirectbearingonprofitability,suchassellingperishablegoods69.
63Retrievedfromhttps://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1510200.Accessedon9/12/2019.64SameasFootnote23.65MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2019).PresentationonSPMRM-MissionBrief.ProgrammeDivision.66Retrievedfromhttp://rurban.gov.in/cluster.html.Accessedon7/12/2019.67Sameasfootnote83.68Retrieved from http://vikaspedia.in/social-welfare/rural-poverty-alleviation-1/schemes/pradhan-mantri-gram-sadak-yojana.Accessedon11/12/201969Agrawal, Shilpa (2018); Do Rural Roads create pathways out of poverty – evidences from India. Journal of DevelopmentEconomics133(2018)375–395
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In a similar manner, affordable housing enables the use of houses as units of consumption andproduction.This isespeciallyrelevant inthecontextofruralareasaspeopleusetheirhouses forthepurposeoflivestockshelter,whichinturncontributesastheiradditionalsourceofincome.
MGNREGS hasmultiple layers of enablement attached to it. The scheme’s planning process starts atvillage levelwithGramSabhas,where individualsandhouseholds register their interest inobtainingwork.ThisstepstrengthensthePanchayatiRajinstitutionsoflocalself-governance.Further,enablementattheimplementationstageofMGNREGSmandatesinvolvescompulsorywage-employmentforwomen.45 percent of womenworkers under the scheme stated that it was their first cash earning activity.Secondary literaturehas identifiedaccesstopaidworkasakeyenablingfactorforarise inwomen’sbargaining power within the household70. The “Support Modules” in MGNREGS - Social Audit, CostEstimation,Grievance,Staffing&Training-captureinformationrequiredforenablingprocessesandthushelpineffectivedecisionmaking71.SPMRMasaschemeisconceptualisedaroundtheideaofprovidinganecosysteminruralareasthatenablestransformationofruralareasintourban.
QualitativeinterviewsacrossthecountryhaveraisedsomeofthepositiveimpactsofRuralDevelopmentinfrastructureinitiativesinthelivesofschemebeneficiaries.OfficialsfromDistrictandBlocklevelsofadministrationhavepointedoutthespillovereffectsofinfrastructureadvancementsinthewell-beingofruralcitizens.
“Therehavebeenmanychangesinruralinfrastructure.Earlier,thevillageswerenothavinganyconnectingroads.Thestreetsinvillageswerealsonotcleanandproper.Theroadshavebeennowimprovedtotheextentof60and70percent. In the villages at present, there are Anganwadi buildings, Panchayati buildings. All these have beenconstructed”-DistrictMagistrate,AndhraPradesh
“At many places, there were no roads. Now, we have constructed the roads and we are joining the last mileconnectivity.Especiallybecausetherearehillyareas,therewasatroubleintransportationandtherearealotofcanalsandriversandallinthisarea.Sowehavemadesmallbridgesalsoonthosewaterbodiessothatthelandmassescanbejoined”-DistrictMagistrate,Jharkhand
“Before 2.5 years, the scenario of Godda was lacking in infrastructure so much in the sense of production,preservation, quality ofwork etc.Thisareawas lacking inall these things. Sincewe started implementationofschemes,weareseeinghugechangeinthesethings.(…)Total328kilometresofroadshavebeenbuilttillnow,201PanchayatBhavanshavebeenbuilt,andelectrificationisdoneinallofthem.Thereare171Panchayatscurrentlywhere SCE establishment is done. We have made drinking water facilities available at all common places insaturation mode. We have achieved 61 percent of our goal in housing” - Aspirational District Fellowship,Jharkhand
“Huge investment isgone intoallkindsof infrastructure. In roadsconnectivity,bridges. (…)There is significantimprovement in harbour facilities and there is recent improvement is agricultural warehouses”- DistrictMagistrate,TamilNadu
“Ifwearetalkingaboutdevelopment,Ihavenoticeditinallthe3levels.Oneisinfrastructureanddevelopment,thelivelihood and their standard living and also social and financial. 80 percent of the constructed roads and theinterlocking roadshavegot connected.And theseare connected tovillagesandcitiesaround.Thereareproperdrains,andbecauseofthesefacilitiesproperhousingfacilityhasdeveloped.Sobecauseofallthese,therehavebeenchangesinthecleanlinessofthevillageandthelivelihoodoftheruralareas.Similarly,therearefacilitiesfortoilets,grocerymarket,communityPanchayatcentreisthere.Sothishasbroughtchangesintheirmindsetofthesocietyalsoandwhenthepeopleacquiresocialandfinancialstability,theirmindsetandtheirlivelihoodandalsointheiractionsyoucannoticeadevelopment.Thisleadstofurtherdevelopmentasawhole”-BDO,UttarPradesh
70SameasFootnote68.71Retrieved from https://nrega.nic.in/Circular_Archive/archive/Operational_guidelines_4thEdition_eng_2013.pdf.Accessed5/12/2019
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“Thebiggestchangesthatcanbeseenareinroadconnectivity.Earlieritwasless,butnowalmosteveryvillagehasroadconnectivity,andtherehavebeenchangesinconstructionofhousesalso.Thequalityofworkisbetterthanbefore”-BDO,Jharkhand
Convergence
ThecurrentconvergenceeffortsoccurringwithinDoRD fordevelopmentof rural infrastructurearepresentedbelow:
• PMAY-GandMGNREGS–ThebeneficiariesofPMAY-Greceive90-95persondaysofwageemploymentfortheconstructionoftheirrespectivehousesthroughMGNREGS.
• MGNREGSandDAY-NRLM–SynergybetweenDAY-NRLMandMGNREGSisutilizedbyfacilitatingthefarmers identified under Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojna (MKSP) and other sustainableagriculture-basedinterventions,takenupunderDAY-NRLMtocreateandaccesstheseassetsunderMGNREGS72.
• PMGSY and MGNREGS - Schedule-I of MGNREGS reads as: “Providing all-weather rural roadconnectivitytounconnectedvillagesandtoconnectidentifiedruralproductioncentres”.TheMinistryhasstandardizeditsspecificationsforallnon-PradhanMantriGramSadakYojana(non-PMGSY)roadstobetakenupunderMGNREGSprogramme73.
• DAY-NRLM and MGNREGS- Category C Works under MGNREGS are classified as ‘CommonInfrastructureforNRLMCompliantSelf-HelpGroups’.Theseincludeworksforpromotingagriculturalproductivitybycreatingdurableinfrastructurerequiredforbio-fertilisersandpost-harvestfacilitiesincludingpucca storage facilities for agricultural produce, and commonwork sheds for livelihoodactivitiesofself-helpgroups.74
• NSAPandDAY-NRLM-TheStateLivelihoodMissionshavebeendirectedtoproactivelyenrolallthewomenbeneficiariesofNSAPintheSHGsofDAY-NRLM.Atthemicro-level,usingtheSHGnetwork,dataontheneedsofeachfamilyshouldbecollectedandconverged75.NSAPguidelinesalsosuggestthe use of DAY-NRLM in the process of identification of beneficiaries and gives priority to NSAPbeneficiariesand/ortheirchildrenintrainingsunderAajeevikaSkillsProgramme.
• NSAPandMGNREGS-MGNREGSguidelinesprovideforproactivelyseekingandprovidingjobcardsand employment to NSAP beneficiaries of rural areas and/or their family members under theprogramme.76
• NSAPandPMAY-G-PMAY-GimplementingagencieshavebeendirectedtoundertakespecialeffortstoprovidehousingundertheprogrammetoeligiblebeneficiariesunderNSAP77.
ApartfromwithinDoRD,theMinistrycreatessynergieswithotherMinistriestobringharmonyinruraldevelopment.For instance, inorder tobuild toiletsandprovideelectricity inAwaashouses,PMAY-GconvergeswithSBM-GofMinistryofJalShakti78andSaubhagyaofMinistryofPower,respectively79.The
72SameasFootnote88.73DepartmentofRuralDevelopment.(2018).MGNREGAMasterCircular-Aguideprogrammeimplementation.74SameasFootnote88.75DepartmentofRuralDevelopment.(2014).NSAP-ProgrammeGuidelines76SameasFootnote92.77SameasFootnote92.78PreviouslypartofMinistryofDrinkingWater&Sanitation.InMay,2019MinistryofJalShaktiwasformedbymergingoftwoministries;Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga RejuvenationandMinistry of Drinking Water andSanitation.79DepartmentofRuralDevelopment.(2018).MGNREGAMasterCircular-Aguideprogrammeimplementation.MinistryofRuralDevelopment.
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aboveconvergencetakesplaceattheleveloffinancialresources,asRs.12,000fromSBM-GisprovidedtoAwaasbeneficiaryforconstructionoftoilets.Further,constructionofAnganwadicentresisattimestaken up under MGNREGS using appropriate labour intensive and cost-effective technologies.ExpenditureuptoRs.5lakhsunderMGNREGSisallowedandthebalancecostaspertheState-specificestimatemaybemobilisedfromtheICDSschemeoftheMinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment80.Convergencewithmultipleministriesisalsowitnessed.Forexample,acomponentofNaturalResourceManagement (hereafter,NRM)withinMGNREGSconvergenceswithPradhanMantriKrishiSinchayeeYojana(PMKSY),IWMPandCommandAreaDevelopmentandWaterManagement81.Here,PMKSYfallsundertheMinistryofAgriculture&Farmer’sWelfare,IWMPfallsundertheDoRDandCAD&WMfallsundertheMinistryofJalShakti.
1.2.2. Livelihoods Transformation
Rurallivelihoodsarethesetofactivitiesinwhichthesocio-economicsystemsconstitutetodeterminetheincomegenerationinruralareas.InacountrylikeIndia,whereagriculturemostlydependsontheadventofthemonsoon,thefarmerisalwaysexposedtothevagariesofweatherandeconomicshocksandvulnerabilities. Inmanypartsofthecountry,thefarmersgettoworkontheirfarmsforonlyoneseason,i.e.kharifwhichprovidesaround80-100daysofemployment,leavingthemunemployedformostofthetimeinayear.Inlinewiththis,theEconomySurvey(2018)notedthatweatherpatternscanimpactfarmincomesintherangeof15percentto18percentonaverage,andupto20percentto25percentforun-irrigatedareas.
Althoughagricultureisstilltheprimaryincome-generatingactivityandfarmersproducefoodcropsfortheirsubsistenceinordertoaddresstheirfoodsecurity,thustheincomegeneratedfromthesaleofthecropsisnottheonlysourceofincometheyrelyon.Apoorhouseholdinruralareasisalsodependentonotherself-employedwork(forinstance,collectionofforestproduce,animalhusbandryetc.)orascasualwagelabour.Infact,inthenon-agriculturalsector,wageemploymentconstitutesaround62percentoftotalemployment82. In2011-12,outof195millionwageemployees,74million(or38percent)wereregular/salariedemployeesand121million(or62percent)werecasualwageworkers.41percentofthemaleswereinregular/salariedemploymentand59percentincasualemploymentandwomenwereevenlessprevalentthanmeninregular/salariedemployment.Theirshareinregular/salariedemploymentandincasualworkwas30percentand70percentrespectively,indicatinghighercasualizationofwagelabouramongstwomen.83
The Government of India took cognizance of the need and importance of uninterrupted access tolivelihood of the poor and the need for ensuring livelihood securitywith aminimumand equal pay.MGNREGSwasthuslaunchedtoprovideemploymentinleanagriculturalseasonandalsotoaddresstheexploitationofcasualworkersintermsofdepressedwagesandtopromoteahighershareofwomeninwagelabour.Theschemeaimsatenhancinglivelihoodsecurityoftheruralpoorbyprovidingatleastonehundred days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adultmembersvolunteertodounskilledmanualwork.
Agriculture and other sources of employment in the farm and non-farm sectors in rural areas areunorganised.DAY-NRLM,withitsnetworkofprimaryandfederatinginstitutions,aimsatcreatinganecosystemthatorganizestheunorganized.Sub-schemeswithintheprogramme,suchasMKSPandthe
80SameasFootnote96.81SameasFootnote96.82InternationalLabourOrganization.(2018).IndiaWageReport,wagepoliciesfordecentwageandinclusivegrowth.83SameasFootnote99.
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concept of Krishi Sakhi and Pashu Sakhi, address various agricultural segments. Non-farm sectorpotentialanddemandiscateredtobyRSETIsestablishedateachoftheLeadDistrictstoconducttrainingforruralunemployedyouthtotakeupself-employmentventures.RSETIsofferaneed-basedexperientialtrainingprogrammefollowedbysystematichandholdingsupportandbanklinkage.Banksareinvolvedin selection, training and post-training follow-up stages. Further, Start-up Village EntrepreneurshipProgramme (SVEP) initiated in 2014, follows a strategic approach of knowledge, incubation andentrepreneur ecosystem, capacity building, directed financial products (community enterprise fund)throughfederatedinstitutions(clusterlevelfederations)andcommunitymonitoring(withperformancetrackingsystembycommunityresourcepersons).
Inthepost-reformera,theruralsectortoohasbeentransforming,keepinginmindtheopenmarketandcompetitivenatureofbusinesses.Thefarmersaretransformingintoentrepreneursandheadingtowardsvaluechaindevelopment.Theyaremorethanagriculturalistswhoworkinthefieldsandgetsmoneyfortheproduce.Theyareusingsubstances,materialsand/orcommoditiestosell inthemarkete.g.,Non-TimberForestProducts(NTFPs)andprocessingofagricultureandhorticultureproduce84.
With creation of infrastructure, the private and public core banking services have penetrated in thedynamicallychangingruralmarketandcustomerneeds.Paymentbanksarefanningoutintotherural,remoteareasof the country, offering limitedbut critical services suchasmoney transfers, loansanddepositcollection85.Otheragencieshaveaddedtheirownprogrammesto furtherconcretise financialinclusionoftheruralpoorwithinitiativeslikeJAMtrinityandMUDRAloansforlivelihoodventuresandentrepreneurship.
Theruralregionsarealreadycoveredbythevasttelecommunicationservicesandwiththeaugmentationofsmartphonetelephony.Peoplearedigitallyconnectedevenintheremotestoftheregions.ThroughitstheDigitalVillageproject,GoIprovidedhigh-speedinternetconnectivityandinstalledWi-Fihotspotsatmorethan1,000GramPanchayatsacrossIndiaandtheCommonServiceCentresarebecominghubsforprovidingbasicdigitalservicesatthedoorstepofthepoor.AccordingtoTRAIestimates,currentlythereare32.24Internetsubscribersinruralareasper100populationin2020asopposedto25.46in2018.Internethasbecomeacost-effectivemeansforthepooraswell,overcominggeographicalbarriersandbroadeningtheirreach.ProjectslikeGovernmente-marketplace(GeM)aretryingtobringtheruralpoorintothee-commercefoldwhereintheyarenowabletoselltheirproductsonline.
Enablingecosystem
Government of India seeks to create an enabling environment for livelihood generation through anemphasisonrights-basedapproachtodevelopmentthroughMGNREGS,andonsocialcapitalforthepoorthroughDAY-NRLMandMGNREGS.This,apart fromgenerating livelihoodopportunities for theruralpopulationtolivewithdignity,alsoindirectlyenableshouseholdstobreakthecycleofdebttrapfromlocal money lenders and its associated miseries. Financial inclusion has been ensured as currentpaymentsundertheschemearemostlydonebywayofdirecttransferintobeneficiaryaccounts.Theseaccountshaveaidedaccesstobankcreditforthehouseholds.
Apart from employment, MGNREGS has taken measures for skill enhancement of workers throughinitiativeslikeBareFootTechniciansandProjectLIFE(LivelihoodinFullEmployment)86.ProjectLIFEtargeted persons who have completed 100 working days under MGNREGS and do not have furthersourcesofemployment.Thestrategyoftheprojectwastocatalyseashiftwithinpoorhouseholds,from
84MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2019).FarmLivelihoodsInterventionsunderDAY-NRLM:Strategy,ConvergenceFramework,Models.85ReserveBankofIndia.(2018).AnnualReport-CreditDeliveryandFinancialInclusion.86Retrievedfromhttps://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=159668.Accessedon10December2019.
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unskilledtoskilledlabour,frompartialemploymenttofullemploymentthroughcapacitybuildingandskilltraining87.Currently,ProjectUnnatiseekstotrainoneadultmember(between18and45years)perhousehousehold,whohascompleted100daysofworkunderMahatmaGandhiNREGAinthepreviousfinancialyear.
DAY-NRLMcontributesbycreatinganecosystemandan institutionalplatform for inclusivepro-poorgrowth and a favourable investment climate in otherwise underserved regions and for poorerhouseholds.Responsibleclientsforfinancialsectorareformedandinformedandawareusersofpublicandprivateservicesaredeveloped.These individualsare trained toassertandensureaccountabilityfromserviceproviders.Theschemeisdesignedtocreateopportunitiesforsmallproducerstoparticipateincommoditymarketsandalsoprovideyouthfrompoorhouseholdaccesstolabourmarketsandjobopportunities.
Both MGNREGS and DAY-NRLM have significantly contributed to the creation of gender centricecosystems by providing them with opportunities for non-domestic work and gain recognition asproductivemembersofthehouseholdbycontributingtowardsincome.Thisincreasestheirautonomousspacewithinthefamilyandaddstotheirself-esteem.Amongthesub-componentsofDAY-NRLM,MKSPaimstoimprovethestatusofwomenfarmersthroughincreasingtheirparticipationandproductivityinsustainable agricultural livelihood opportunities. However, informed literature has pointed out thatgender-responsive livelihoods focus underDAY-NRLM requires a design of livelihood strategies thatrecognises women as economic actors, and ensures their enhanced income security and economicempowerment,ratherthantargetinghouseholdlevelpoverty88.
Convergence
Atthesectorlevel,DoRDadoptsamulti-dimensionalapproachtoenhancerurallivelihoodopportunities.Theintentistocreateaself-sustainingeco-systemoflivelihoods,onesupportedbytheconvergenceofeffortsbyotherschemes,Ministries,developmentpartnersandcommunitybasedorganisations.Withintheruraldevelopmentsector,convergenceisundertakenatthreelevels:betweenandamongschemesofDoRD;institutionallyatinter-Ministerialprogrammaticlevel;andthroughpartnershipsbetweenpublic,privateandcommunityinstitutions.
The generation of employment envisioned through scheme level convergence across the two majorlivelihood enhancement schemes of the DoRD,MGNREGS and DAY-NRLM has beenmade functionalthroughtheirschemeguidelines.Forinstance,thefederationsformedunderDAY-NRLMparticipateinpreparingworkplansand labourbudget forMGNREGS throughan IntegratedParticipatoryPlanningExercise(IPPE).SHGmembersparticipateinGramSabhatofacilitatesuitableworksidentification(forlivelihoodsassetsandwageemployment)andforprovisionofjobcardsandworktotheneedy.Similarly,individualandcollectiveassetsforSHGmemberscanbedevelopedthroughMGNREGS,whichcanfurtherbeusedforlivelihoodgenerationbythegroups.89
OtherDoRDschemeswhoseeffortsconverge in livelihoodcreation includeDDU-GKY,whichseeks todiversify the incomes of rural poor families and advance the careers of rural youth through skilldevelopment, trainingandtheRuralSelfEmploymentTraining Institutes,whichprovidetrainingandskillupgradationtoruralyouthsoastofurthertheentrepreneurshipdevelopmentagenda.
Inter-Ministerial convergence plays a role in securing rural livelihoods holistically. The goal of rurallivelihood creation ismet bymany schemes alignedwith differentMinistries. TheDoRD’s livelihood
87Roy,T.S.(2017).ProjectLife-ANewWayofSustainableLivelihoods.JournalofRuralDevelopmentReview.88Tanka, R. (2014). Engendering Rural Livelihoods: Supporting Gender Responsive Implementation of the National RuralLivelihoodMission.UNWomen.89NationalInstituteofRuralDevelopmentandPanchayatiRaj.(2016).TheHandbookonConvergence.NRLMResourceCell.
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interventionsarecomplementedbythenationalskillingagendaofthePradhanMantriKaushalYojana(implementedby theMinistryofSkillDevelopment&Entrepreneurship).While the former isgearedtowards guaranteed rural employment and creation of people’ institutions, the latter promotes skilldevelopment for the youth throughout the country, thereby creating a well-equipped workforce.Similarly,theschemesandprogrammesofDepartmentofRuralDevelopmentandMinistryofAgriculture(MoA),bothoperateinruralIndiaandprimarilytargetthesamepopulation.Inparticular,theSPMRMensuresinter-Ministerialconvergenceofschemeswithinacluster,therebyensuringmulti-dimensionalbenefits for the beneficiaries. According to the SPMRM Framework of Implementation, some of theschemesthatcanconvergewithinasector includeDDU-GKY(forskilldevelopmenttraining linkedtoeconomicactivities);PradhanMantriKrishiSinchaiYojnaandParamparagatKrishiVikasYojana (foragri-services and farm productivity). The convergence of such schemes, alongside the provision ofinfrastructuresupport,helpscreateavibranteco-systemoflivelihoodopportunitiesunderSPMRM.
ThenewpermissibleworksunderMGNREGS issued inMay2012(which includeNADEPcomposting,Vermi composting, Poultry shelter, Goat Shelter, Fisheries in seasonal water bodies on public land)present ways to strengthen the synergy with agriculture to enhance rural livelihoods90. This inter-sectoralapproachopensupopportunitiesforconvergencewithvariousMoAschemesgearedtowardsagriculturallivelihoodssuchasRashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana(RKVY)andNationalHorticultureMission(NHM).
Convergencepresentsopportunitiestounlockpositiveexternalities.Astudyacross5States-Rajasthan,MadhyaPradesh,AndhraPradesh,Karnataka,andSikkim-showedthat,whereverMGNREGSisbeingimplemented, it isgeneratingmultipleenvironmentalbenefits, leadingtoimprovedwateravailability,soil fertility and increased crop production, thereby creating synergies with agriculture basedlivelihoods91.
DoRD has a sharp focus on developing Public-Public, Public-Private, and Public-Private-CommunityPartnershipstobuildsynergiesinlivelihoodprogramming.Forinstance,DAY-NRLMworkscloselywithRBI,NABARD,BanksandotherFinancialInstitutions,andInsuranceCompanies,tobuildplatformsforPublic-Private-Community Partnerships in key livelihoods sectors, such as agriculture, livestock, andnon-farm sectors. The purpose of these partnerships is to develop selected value chains or productclusters,andmarketlinkages.Theyarealsodirectedtowardsstrengtheningtheaccessoftheruralpoortotheirrightsandentitlements,publicservices,expertiseandotherservices92.
1.2.3. Social Safety Net Transformation
AsarticulatedbyJeanDrezeandAmartyaSen,socialsafetynetsareparamountto‘protectandpromote’the standards of living in a society. Driven by the rights-based initiative, which recognises basicentitlementstowork,foodandeducationasafundamentalrightofthecitizen,safetynetprogrammeshavebeenenshrinedinIndia’sconstitution.93Vulnerabilitiesarepresentinallstagesofhumanlife,butthey are most pronounced for the disabled, the elderly and widows. Debilitated health and theincapabilityofbeingeconomicallyproductiveaugmentthedependencyofthesegroups94.Theproblemis more persistent among the poor as constant deprivation prevents them from making any safety
90MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2013).ConvergenceofMGNREGAandProgrammesofMinistryofAgriculture91IndianInstituteofScience.(2013).EnvironmentalBenefitsandVulnerabilityReductionthroughMahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeScheme.Bangalore.92Retrievedfromhttps://aajeevika.gov.in/content/convergence-partnerships.Accessedon10/12/2019.93Dreze,J.,Hills,J.,&Sen,A.(1991).Socialsecurityindevelopingcountries.E.Ahmad(Ed.).Oxford:Clarendon.94Gupta,A.(2013).Old-agepensionschemeinJharkhandandChhattisgarh.EconomicandPoliticalWeekly,54-59.
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arrangements.Further,eventhehealthypopulationofruralIndiafaceschallengeswithanincreaseinseasonalhungerduringtheleanagriculturalseason95.
Increasing dependency ratio and divyang population highlights the need for comprehensive socialprotectioninIndia,asshowninthefigurebelow:
Figure4:PopulationbyAgeStructure(percentofpopulation)
Source:EconomicSurvey2018-19
InitscommitmenttotheachievementofSDGs,Indiaaimsatreducinginequality,eradicatingextremepovertyby2030forallpeopleeverywhereandreducingatleasthalftheproportionofmen,womenandchildrenofallageslivinginpovertyinallitsdimensions.Further,Article41oftheConstitutionofIndiadirectstheStatestoprovidepublicassistancetoitscitizensincaseofunemployment,oldage,sicknessanddisablementandinothercasesofundeservedwant,withinthelimitof itseconomiccapacityanddevelopment.Byprovidingpublicassistancetoitscitizensincaseofoldage,widowhood,disablementanddeathofthebreadwinner,NSAPissecuringadequatemeansoflivelihoodtocitizensandraisingthestandardoflivingbyalleviatingpoverty.Likewise,MGNREGSguarantees100daysofemploymenttoallhouseholds willing to undertake unskilled manual labour to safeguard against seasonal or periodicdeprivation.TheguidelinesofMGNREGSalsoinstructStatestotakespecialcareofvulnerablegroupssuchasScheduledCastes(SC),ScheduledTribes(ST),women,Divyang,singlewomenandotherminoritygroups96.
GoI has increasingly realised the important role that social policy can play in building a strong andresilienteconomy97.Itrecognisedthatsocialprotectionschemesalsoplayavaluablepromotionalrole,helpingstrengthenhumancapitalinthecountry,improvingproductivity,andreducingdamagingsocialcosts. The 2013 Task Force,which reviews and suggestsmore comprehensive social assistance, hasrecommended further increase ofmonthly pensions and the expansion of coverage, the reduction ofminimumagerequirementforIGNWPSfrom40yearsto18years,additionalfocustodivorced,separatedandabandonedwomeninIGNWPS,provisionofassistanceintheeventofthedeathofanyadultmember(and not just male members) to the bereaved family under NFBS, an index of pension amounts toinflation, and a proactive identification of beneficiaries, without demanding elaborate documentaryproof. The DoRD has revised programme guidelines for NSAP in October 2014, reflecting abovesuggestionsmadebytheTaskForce.
95SameasFootnote36.96UNDP.(2016).SustainableDevelopmentGoalsandGramPanchayats:HandbookforTrainersandGramPanchayats.UNDP.97Dutta,P.,Howes,S.,Murgai,R.(2010).Smallbuteffective:India’stargetedunconditionalcashtransfers
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MGNREGShasbeenshowntonotonlyprovideasafetynetforworkerswhocannotfindworkelsewherebuthasalsobeenshowntohavesignificantimpactsonruralwagesbeyondtheprogramme,aswellasonthepropensityofruralinhabitantstomigratelookingforwork98.NSAPisanequallyimportantcentralgovernmentschemeofIndia’sminimumsocialprotectionfloor,whichhasbeenwidelyacknowledgedandacceptedbyagenciessuchasInternationalLabourOrganisation(ILO)andWorldHealthOrganisation(WHO).UnlikeMGNREGS,whichisastatutorylivelihoodsecurityschememandatedbylaw,NSAPisnotgovernedbylegislation.Instead,itisagovernmentinitiativeaimedatfulfillingIndia’sobligationstoitscitizensundertheIndianConstitution’sDirectivePrinciples.
NSAPextendsitsbenefitsonlytothepopulationwhichfallsbelowpovertylinetosupplementorprovideadditional assistance to the especially vulnerable population. In the Estimates Committee ReportSummaryReport onNSAP, the currentmethod of identification of BPL has been criticised for beinginaccurateandrecommendsthattheselectionofbeneficiariesbedoneusingtheSocio-EconomicCasteCensus(SECC)99.AlthoughbudgetestimatesforNSAPhavebeeninaconstantrisesinceFY2015-16,theactualexpenditurehasbeendecliningsinceFY2016-17.ActualexpenditureunderNSAPdroppedfromRs8,854croreinFY2016-17toRs8,418croreinFY2018-19100.ResourcegapremainshighforalmostallschemesunderNSAPandbudgetaryallocationisinsufficientevenatthecurrentmandatedpensionamounts101.
Socialsafetynetswithintheruraldevelopmentsectorareaimedatpreventingoralleviatingpoverty,vulnerabilityandsocialexclusion.Majorityofolderpersons,particularlyinruralareas,sufferfromlackofaccesstomoneyandpoorfinancialstatusisamajorfactor,responsiblefortheirmiserableconditionin old age102. Financial assistance to the elderly empowers them and improves their social status,independence,self-esteemandoverallqualityoflife103.Itispresumablethatpeoplewithdisabilitiesandwidows–groupswhichareasvulnerableastheelderly-willhavesimilarimpactsto
financialassistance.Itisalsoobservedthat,inspiteofavailabilityofseveralsocialsecurityschemesandsocialprotectionfloorsatdifferentlevels,mostelderlypeople,particularlyolderpeopleabove80,arenotcapableofavailingthebenefitsduetomanyhindrances,includinglackoftransportationfacilities,lackofcaregiversandalso lackofawarenessabout theschemesbeingrun for thewellbeingofolderpersons104.Doorstepbankingandsocialauditmechanismsthroughdigitalfootprinttrackingaresomemechanismswhicharebeingpilotedincertainareas.
ThroughMGNREGS,theruralpopulationgetswagesduringdistresssituationssuchasdroughtstohelpthepeopletideovervulnerabletimesandtherebyreducemigrationtocities.ThesuccessofMGNREGScomesfromitsdemand-sidedesign,whichguaranteeswageincome105.AnemergingchallengeforIndiain viewof vast geographic spread and population is that there is no uniform social protection floor.Instead,therearemanykindsofsocialprotectionfloorsinplaceindifferentstagesandfordifferentsets
98Imbert,C.,Papp,J.(2012).EquilibriumDistributionalImpactsofGovernment.EmploymentProgrammes:EvidencefromIndia'sEmploymentGuarantee.99GhoshJ(2014)EstimatesCommitteeReportSummaryNSAP,PSRIndia100Retrievedfromhttps://rural.nic.in/finance/budget.Accessedon7/12/2019101Vij,S.(2017).ResourceGapAnalysisofNSAP.CentreforBudgetandGovernanceAccountability102AgewellFoundation.(2019).StatusofSocialSecurityandSocialSecurityFloorsinIndia.AgewellResearch&AdvocacyCentre.103Jothi,S.,LakshmiNarayanan,S.,Ramakrishnan,J.,&Selvaraj,R.(2016).BeneficiarysatisfactionregardingoldagepensionschemeanditsutilizationpatterninurbanPuducherry:Amixedmethodsstudy.Journalofclinicalanddiagnosticresearch:JCDR,10(9),LC01104Sameasfootnote120.105Pandey, R. (2017). MGNREGA and its role in rural development.International Journal of Scientific and ResearchPublications,7(11),198-202.
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ofpeople106.Further,manyStategovernmentshavetheirownsocialpensionschemeswithvastvarianceinguidelinescreatingdifferencesinthelevelofsocialassistanceamongdifferentStates/UTs107.
EnablingEcosystem
Safetynetsareapartofthebroaderstrategyofpovertyreduction.Theyinteractwithandworkalongsideprogrammesinareassuchashealth,educationandfinancialservicesandprovisionof infrastructureslikeroadsandvariousotherpolicieswhichaimatreducingpovertyandmanagingrisks.Safetynetsaimatredistributingincometothepoorestwithanimmediateimpactonpovertyandinequalityreduction108.ProgrammessuchasNSAPandMGNREGSprovidebeneficiarieswithaccesstoemploymentanddurableassets, thus creatingdemand for goods and services,which improves the quality of life for the ruralpopulation. The latest edition of theWorld Bank’s annual report creditsMGNREGS for unleashing a“revolutioninruralIndia”aswellasestablishingamodelofinclusivedevelopment.“India’sMGNREGSillustrateshowgoodgovernanceandsocialmobilizationgohand-in-hand,”theBank’sreportstates.
While these social protection programmes under DoRD provide direct benefit transfer to thebeneficiariestoenablethemwiththechoiceoftheirconsumptionbasket,thesuccessofcashtransferscriticallyreliesupontheenablingenvironmentandavailabilityof localmarkets.ThemostvulnerablepopulationsofruralIndialiveinremotepartsandtheirmarketaccessibilityislimited.Cashtransfersrequirefinancialinfrastructures,suchasthepresenceofbanksandpostoffices.Indialackssuchruralinfrastructure,withoutwhichasuddenmovetowardscashcouldincreasedistress,atleastintheshortterm.Also,openmarketpricesexhibitcyclicfluctuations.Ifcashtransfersarenotindexedtoinflation,thebenefitsarelikelytobeeroded109
An example of a step towards creating an enabling environment is the use of Aadhaar universalidentification number scheme, which is a key recent government initiative aimed at improving thetargeted uptake of a wide variety of schemes bymaking eligibility requirements subject to a singleuniversaldatabaseforsocialprotectionschemes.SuchadvanceshintattheincreasinglycomprehensivenatureofsocialprotectionsystemsinIndia,inlinewithinternationalstandardsonwhatconstitutesaminimumsocialprotectionfloor110.
Convergence
Ruraldevelopmentprogrammesaimataddressing the issueofmulti-faceteddeprivation. Inorder toachieve the macro SDG goals of ending poverty, zero hunger, sustainable growth, consumption andproduction,greateremphasisneedstobegiventoaddressingtheissueofconvergence.OnewaythatconvergenceisbeingusedtoachieveholisticruraldevelopmentisconvergingdirectbenefitprogrammeswithAadhaarandJan-DhanYojana,afinancialinclusionprogramme,underwhicheverycitizenwouldhaveabankaccount,andwiththeexpansionofthecoverageofmobilephones–resultingintheJAM(JanDhan-Aadhaar-Mobile)trinity111.
Convergencebetweenschemesserving thesamebeneficiaries isanothersignificantrequirement.Forinstance,forDivyang,monthlyassistancewasextendedtothetuneofRs.300to500permonthunderNationalDisabilityPensionScheme.Also, priority is given forhandicappedpersonsunderMGNREGSwork and they can appoint aworker asmate. Disabledworkers are paidwages equivalent to otherworkers.Otherprioritiessetfordisabledpersonsarespecialdiscountinrates,selectionofsuitablework
106SameasFootnote122.107MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2014).NationalSocialAssistanceProgramme-Guidelines.108Grosh,M.E.,DelNinno,C.,Tesliuc,E.,&Ouerghi,A.(2008).Forprotectionandpromotion:Thedesignandimplementationofeffectivesafetynets.TheWorldBank.109SameasFootnote36.110Srivastava,R.S.(2013).AsocialprotectionfloorforIndia.InternationalLabourOffice,SubregionalOfficeforSouthAsia.111SameasFootnote127.
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forthemandorganizationofgroupsfordisabledpersons.UnderMGNREGSinFY2017-18,around4.7lakh disabled workers were provided employment; thereby generating 1.57 crore person days.112However, furthereffort isneeded to increase convergencebetween sub-schemesofNSAP toaddressmultipledivestituressuchasinthecaseofadisabledelderlywidow.
1.2.4. Global Benchmarking Our planet faces enormous economic, social and environmental challenges and despite importantprogress,fewcountriesareon-tracktoachieveallSDGsby2030.Theneedfortransformationalchangeto achieve truly socially inclusive and sustainable economies and societies requires a system-basedapproach.Achievingthesystemchangeishighlycomplexanditrequiresalargescaleandfundamentaltransformationsofthesocietalsystemsdrivingthecurrentstructuralchanges.Suchtransformationswillrequirechangesincurrentinstitutions,practices,technologies,policiesandapproach.Also,thesedeepandlongchangesrequirearoadmap.Globalbenchmarkingtranslatessocietalexpectationsintomatrices,thusprovidingaclearpathforward.Thebenchmarkprovideswheretheindividualeconomiesstandintheirjourneytherebyequippingfinancialinstitutions,governments,civilsocietyandindividualstoexerttheirfullinfluenceandhelpthecountrymovefromaspirationtoactiontoachievement.
Poverty:RelativePositionofIndia
Thekey linkagesbetween rural growthand the real incomesof ruralpoor takes intoaccount,directreductionsinincomefromlowerproductivitygrowth;changesorfluctuationsinwagerates/earningsofunskilledworkers;changesinkeycommoditypricesforincomes,andchangesinthecostofliving.Onthebasisofsuchestimates,globalpovertyline113of$1.90hasbeenestablishedbytheWorldBankbasedonhouseholdsurveys114from164differentcountries.
Povertyreductionacrossregionshasbeenveryuneven.AsevidentintheTable3below,in2015,morethanhalfoftheglobalpoorresidedinSub-SaharanAfricaandmorethan85percentofthepoorlivedineitherSub-SaharanAfricaorSouthAsia.Theremaining15percentoftheglobalpoor,orabout106millionpoorpeoplelivedintheremainingfourregions.
Table3:PovertyattheInternationalPovertyLineof$1.90/day
Region Headcountratio(percent) No.poor(millions)
2013 2015 2013 2015EastAsiaandPacific 3.6 2.3 73.1 47.2EuropeandCentralAsia 1.6 1.5 7.7 7.1LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean 4.6 4.1 28.0 25.9MiddleEastandNorthAfrica 2.6 5.0 9.5 18.6SouthAsia 16.2 12.4 274.5 216.4Sub-SaharanAfrica 42.5 41.1 405.1 413.3WorldTotal 11.2 10.0 804.2 735.9
Source:PPP,2011In all regions except Sub-Saharan Africa, the regional average rates range from 1.5 percent to 12.4percent,whileinSub-SaharanAfrica,around41percentlivebelowtheinternationalpovertyline.The
112Retrievedfromhttps://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=178358.Accessedon10/12/2019113WorldBank(2017)Povertylinesfrom15poorestcountriesconvertedtocommoncurrencybyusingpurchasingpowerparity(PPP)exchangerates,reflectstheamountofmoneyneededtomeetaperson’sminimumnutritional,clothing,andshelterneeds.114Householdsurveysarecarriedoutindependently,typicallybynationalstatisticalofficesornationalplanningministries.Mostcountriesimplementhouseholdsurveys,whicharecomplexandlengthy,abouteverythreetofiveyears.Inaddition,ittakestimetogather,process,andanalyzethedata.Duetotheinfrequencyandtimelags,2015isthemostrecentyearforwhichthereissufficientdatatoestimatepovertyatagloballevel.Giventhesegapsandthefactthatextremepovertydoesnotgenerallychangemuchfromyeartoyear,theWorldBankGroupproducesglobalpovertyestimateseverytwoyears.
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MiddleEast andNorthAfrica (MENA) region sawan increase in extremepoverty rates, even thoughpovertyiscomparativelymuchlowerintheregion.TheshareofthepopulationinextremepovertyinMENAincreasedto5percentin2015,upfrom2.7percentin2013,whilethenumberofpoorrosefrom9.5millionin2013to18.7millionin2015.Fragilityandconflictintheregion–particularlyinSyriaandYemen–arehurtinglivelihoodsandcausingtherecentspikeinpoverty115.Theextremepovertyrateissignificantly lower inIndiarelativetotheaveragerate inSub-SaharanAfrica,butbecauseof its largepopulation,India’stotalnumberofpoorisstilllarge.TheextremepovertyrateandthenumberofpoorinSouthAsiahavebeensteadilydecliningandareexpectedtocontinuethattrend.TheresultofthistrendisashiftinpovertyfromSouthAsiatoSub-SaharanAfrica116.
Thefigurebelowrepresentsallcountriesbytheshareoftheglobalpoorin2015.Halfofthepeoplelivinginextremepovertyin2015canbefoundinjustfivecountries.Povertyreductionacrossregionshasbeenveryuneven.ThemostpopulouscountriesinSouthAsia(BangladeshandIndia)andSub-SaharanAfrica(DemocraticRepublicofCongo,Ethiopia,andNigeria)arethefivetoppingthelistofcountrieswiththegreatest number of extremepoor. India,with over 170million poor people in 2015, has the highestnumberofpoorpeopleandaccountsfornearlyaquarterofglobalpoverty.IntheSouthAsiaregion,fouroutoffiveextremepoorresideinIndia.Despiteapovertyrateof13.4percent,India’slargepopulationof1.3billionresultsinahighnumberofextremepoor.
Figure5:GlobalDistributionoftheExtremePoorbyRegionandCountry,2015
Source:PovcalNet(onlineanalysistool),http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/.WorldBank,Washington,DC.
115WorldBank(2018)Piecingtogetherthepovertypuzzle-Povertyandsharedprosperityreport,2018
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Analysingthenumberofpeoplelivinginextremepoverty(andasapercentageofthetotalpopulation),wefindthatIndia’sabsolutefiguresofextremepovertyremainalarminglyhighincomparisontoChinaandBangladesh.Whilepercentageofpeople living inextremepoverty in Indiahasdeclinedbetween2016and2020,thedeclineisfarlessthanwhathasbeenexperiencedinBangladeshduringthesamereferenceperiod.
Figure6:PeoplelivinginExtremePoverty
Source:WorldPovertyClock,2020
80percentoftheworld’sextremelypoorpeopleliveinruralareas,and,inmanyregions,ruralareashaveexperiencedfewpositivechangesintheiroverallwellbeing117.Ruralsocietiesareasimportantasever,includinginthedevelopedworld118.
The SustainableDevelopmentGoals (SDGs) are calling for the elimination of extremepoverty for allpeopleeverywhereby2030.Developmenteffortsthattargetsomeofthemostvulnerablepopulations,suchaswomen,indigenouspeoplesandthosewithoutland,whilebalancingtheseeffortswithoveralllocaldevelopmentalsoneeds tobebasedonreducing inequalitiesbetweenruralandurbanareas tostimulateinclusivegrowth.
InSouthAsia,boththepovertyrateandthenumberofpoorpeoplehasbeensteadilydeclining,butgiventhesheersizeofthepopulations,theregion’scontributiontoglobalpovertycontinuestobehigh.ThisisincontrasttoSub-SaharanAfrica,wherethetotalnumberofpoorpeoplehasbeenincreasing,essentiallyshiftingtheconcentrationofpovertyfromSouthAsiatoSub-SaharanAfrica.In2030,forecasts119suggestthatnearly9 in10of theextremepoorwill live inSub-SaharanAfrica.Additionally, theslowdowninpoverty reduction between 2013 and 2015 reflects, in part, the sluggish economic growth and lowcommoditypricesthathinderedmanydevelopingeconomiesoverthatperiod.Also,ofthe164countriesforwhichtheWorldBankmonitorspoverty,morethanhalf–84countries–havealreadyreachedlevelsbelow3percentasof2015120.Therearenowfewercountriesthanbeforewithlargepopulationsofpoorpeople. As extreme poverty becomes increasingly concentrated, significant progress in reducing theglobalpovertycountwillonlyoccurifprogressismadeinthosecountrieswherepovertyisgreatest.
RuralTransformation
Sincethe1950s,thenotionofdevelopmenthasframedourthinkingaboutissuesofhumanwell-beingand happiness. Several developing countries particularly in the Asia/Pacific region have witnessedunprecedenteddevelopment.Somecountriesinthisregionhavemodernizedatasteadypace.Thepercapitaincomesofasignificantpopulation,forexample,inRepublicofKorea,Singapore,Malaysia,and
117FAO(2018)EndingExtremePovertyinRuralAreas118Scoones,I.,M.Edelman,S.M.BorrasJr.,R.Hall,W.Wolford,andB.White.(2017).“EmancipatoryRuralPolitics:ConfrontingAuthoritarianPopulism.”JournalofPeasantStudies45(1):1–20.119WorldBank.(2018).Yearinreview2018in14charts.120Attheextreme,samplesurveysessentiallycannotcrediblymeasureapovertyrateofzero.
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Thailand,nowcomparewithincomesinthedevelopedworld.Inadditiontothepersistenceofpovertyandunfulfilledbasicandelementaryneeds,inequalityacross,between,andwithincountriesappearstobegrowing.Thepercentofpopulationat riskofmultidimensionalpovertyranges fromas lowas0.8percentintheRussianFederationtoashighas23.2percentinKenya,anditsintensityrangesbetween35.3 percent in theUnitedArab Emirates to 57.3 percent in Senegal.121 The share of the poorest 20percent innationalconsumptiondecreaseddramatically inall themajorregionsoftheworldwiththeexceptionoftheArabRegionwhereitremainedconstant.122
Thepopulationof thedevelopingworld is stillmore rural thanurban: some3.1billionpeople,or55percentofthetotalpopulation,liveinruralareas. InLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,andinEastandSoutheast,thenumberofruralpeopleisalreadyindecline.Elsewhere,thegrowthofruralpopulationsisslowing.Numberswillstarttodeclinearound2025intheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaandinSouthandCentralAsiaandaround2045insub-SaharanAfrica123.
Forthesakeofcomparison,theRuralTransformationindex124thatcomprisesofallvariablesthatpresentrelevantstatisticalinformationwhichsupport,illustrate,elaborate,andexplainasmuchaspossiblethekeyissuesandchallengesfacedbytheruralsectorinbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountrieshasbeenconsidered. It should be emphasised that the rural transformation indicators have to be about ruralpeopleandruralareasbutseenwithinanationalperspective.Forabalancedgrowthanddevelopmentthreekindsofgapshavetobenarrowedandeliminated:
• ThegapbetweenpercapitaruralGDPandpercapitanationalGDP
• ThegapbetweenruralHDIandnationalHDI
• The gap between the ratio of agricultural GDP to total GDP and the ratio of agriculturalemploymenttototalemployment
Aproposedmacroindexcalledruraltransformationindex(RTI)mayexamine:
(1) whethertheruraleconomyofagivencountryhasbeentransformedortendingtobetransformedovertime;
(2) thepatternandnatureof such transformation—whethertheimportanceoftheservice-sector-orientedactivitiesareontheriseinruralareasorwhethertheimportanceofnon-serviceand/ornon-agribusinesshasbeenrising;and
(3) whethertheroleoffarmandnonfarmsectorsarecomplementaryorsubstitutableinthecontextofoveralleconomicdevelopment—theinterdependenceofthefarmandnonfarmsector
The variables viz.; Rural Economic Development, Rural Social Development & Rural InfrastructureDevelopmentthatincorporatesagricultureoutput,productivityofrurallabour,ruralconsumptionlevel;GenderRatio,ruralinfrastructuredevelopment,livelihoodindicators,aregeneralandintuitiveindicatorsthatcanbeconsideredcomprehensively.
121WangL,KhanQU,ZhangD(2012)RuralTransformationIndex:MeasuringRural–UrbanDisparities,SpringerPublications122Headcountorincidenceofmultidimensionalpoverty:theproportionofpeoplewhoarepooraccordingtotheMPI(thosewhoaredeprived in at least one thirdof theweighted indicators). Intensityofmultidimensionalpoverty: theweighted averagenumberofdeprivationspoorpeopleexperienceatthesametime.123IFAD.(2016).Ruralpovertyreport2016–Fosteringinclusiveruraltransformation.Rome:InternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment(IFAD).124SameasFootnote138.
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For the sakeof comparison, the countrieswithin theAsiaPacific region (APR)havebeenconsideredduringthepresentstudy.ThelargestgroupofcountriesinthiscategoryisinSub-SaharanAfrica(SSA),althoughseveralareinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(LAC)andAsiaandthePacific(APR).
APR is an extremely diverse region in its demography, economic and social development, naturalresources,physicallandscapes,andculturalandhistoricallegacies.Around3.8billionpeopleinhabitthe29countries,withpopulationsrangingfrom0.1millionto1360million,andnationalpopulationdensitiesfromaslowastwopeoplepersq.kmoflandtoashighas1,200.ChinaandIndiatogetheraccountformorethan60percentoftheregion’spopulation.
Morethanhalftheregion’spopulationliveinruralareas,mostofwhomarestillengagedinagriculture.Urbanizationratesvarywidelywithinthesub-region.Morethan70percentofthePacific’spopulationresidesinurbanareaswhileinSouthandSouth-WestAsiaonly34percentofthepopulationhasbeenurbanisedsofar.
TheAPRregionhaswitnessedremarkablegrowth inGDP inrecentdecades,averaginganannual4.5percentin1980-2000and4.4percentin2000-2013,comparedwith2.6percentand2.0percentintherest ofworldover theseperiods. SuchperformancewasdrivenbyChina and India, the region’s twolargest developing economies, which achieved together annual growth of 7.4 percent in 2011-2015.Although growth rates have variations across countries, its overall pace underpinned a gradualconvergenceof lowermiddle-incomecountriestowardshighermiddle-incomecountries inpercapitaterms.
GrowthinAPRhasgenerallybeenassociatedwithasteepdeclineinpovertyandmalnourishment.Thepovertyrateintheregion’sdevelopingcountriesfellfromabout71percentin1981to15percentin2011,basedonthepurchasingpowerparity(PPP)US$1.25-a-daypovertyyardstick,andfrom91percentin1981to40percentin2011,basedonthePPPUS$1.90-a-dayyardstick.125Aswithgrowthrates,povertyreductionhasprogressedunevenlyacrosstheregion,withChinaandIndiaaccountingformostoftheregion’soverallreduction,inviewoftheirlargepopulations.
LabourProductivity:Duringthelastfewdecades,theprocessesofruraltransformationintheregionhavecoincidedwiththedeepestandfasteststructuraltransformationindevelopingcountries126.APRdisplays theusual patternof structural transformation inwhich labourproductivity in agriculture islowerthanitisinothersectorsoftheeconomy,renderingthedecliningshareofagricultureinGDPlowerthanthelabourshare.Agriculture’sshareinGDPhasfallenfarfaster(about2.5percentayearsincethe1970s,fasterthantheworldaverage),thanitsshareintotalemployment(1.7percentayear,slowerthantheworldaverage). InAPR, therehasbeenagrowingdivergence in labourproductivitybetween theagriculturesectorandtheremainingsectorsoftheeconomy.ThisdivergenceinsuchlabourproductivityisnotedtobewiderinAPRthaninotherpartsoftheworld.Thisdivergenceisanimportantcomponentoftheincreasinginequalityintheregion’sincomedistribution,whichisparticularlyacuteformiddle-incomecountriesfacingdifficulttrade-offbetweenincreasingfarmers’incomesandkeepingfoodpriceslowandstable.
Table4:Agriculturallabourproductivity(AsiaPacificRegion)
Countries
Country
AddedValue(Constant2005US$)
AnnualChange(percent)Baseyear Endyear
Baseyear Endyear National Regionalaverage
Bangladesh 267.0 602.0 3.44 2.21 1990 2014
125IFAD(2014)StructuralandruraltransformationinAsiaandthePacific.126SameasFootnote142.
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China 317.0 754.0 3.83 2.21 1990 2013India 459.0 689.0 1.71 2.21 1990 2014
Indonesia 613.0 1,079.0 2.38 2.21 1990 2014Cambodia 349.0 514.0 1.86 2.21 1993 2014Philippines 826.0 1,152.0 1.39 2.21 1990 2014Vietnam 266.0 489.0 2.57 2.21 1990 2014LaoPDR 345.0 522.0 1.74 2.21 1990 2014Pakistan 857.0 1,083.0 0.98 2.21 1990 2014
Source:Worlddevelopmentindicators(WorldBank2015)
PercapitaIncomeratio:Thepercapitaincomeratio127betweenurbanandruralareashasbeenabout2inIndia,thePhilippinesandVietnamoverthepasttwodecades,witharisingtrendinIndia,andafallingoneinVietnam(from2.3in1999to1.89in2012).ThesameratiohasstayedlargelyunchangedinthePhilippines.Chinahasthewidestgap,despitetherapidgrowthoffarmers’income.Theratioincreasedfromabout2.0intheearlyreformperiodtoapeakof3.33in2009,andthendeclinedto2.92in2014.
Transformationvs.Poverty: Basedon thevariousparameters the speedof rural transformation ininfrastructure,livelihoodandsocialsecurityvariables,aqualitativestatusofcountriesinAPRemergesisas followswhere India at present is positioned as slow in poverty reduction and slow in structuraltransformationandhenceruraltransformation.
Table5:RuraltransformationandInclusioninAsiaandPacificRegion
SpeedofStructuralandRuralTransformation RuralPovertyReduction
Fast Slow
FastStructuralTransformation FastRuralTransformation China,Vietnam
SlowRuralTransformation LaoPDR,Cambodia
SlowStructuralTransformationFastRuraltransformation Indonesia Bangladesh
SlowRuralTransformation Philippines,Pakistan,India
Source:IFAD,2016.(Note:Structuraltransformation(ST)isaprocessofeconomicdevelopmentduringwhichaneconomyreallocateseconomicactivitiesacrossitsagriculture,industryandservicesectors(Herrendorf,Rogerson,&Valentinyi,2013).STischaracterizedby the declining share of the agricultural sector and a declining share of agricultural employment (P. Pingali, 2007a); Ruraltransformation(RT)growthinlifeexpectancy,improvementsineducation,health,waterandsanitation,increasedruralandurbanemploymentopportunities,andempowermentofwomenandminorityanddisadvantagedgroups)
Thedeclines inpovertyandundernutritionwere sharpest inAsia,withChinaalone reducing its ruralpovertyratefrom66.6percentin1990to6.5percentin2012.CasestudiesofChina,India,thePhilippinesand Vietnam confirm that policies, institutions and investments are fundamental to the speed andinclusiveness of rural transformation. The design and implementation of institutions, policies andinvestmentsineachofthesecountrieshaveinfluencedthepathandspeedofruraltransformationandtheiroutcomes for inclusionandpovertyreduction. Inall fourcountries, landreform,rural investmentsandsectoralpolicieshavebeendecisive.
Thereisastrongpositiverelationshipbetweenagricultureandstructuraltransformation.Countrieswithhigheragriculturalproductivityorproductiongrowth(China,VietnamandCambodia)alsohavehigheroveralleconomicgrowthandstructuraltransformationthanthosewithloweragriculturalgrowth(thePhilippines,Bangladeshand India), reflecting the linkagesandmultipliereffectsbetweenagriculturalproductivity,agriculturalgrowthandstructuraltransformation.Theseincludereleasingsurpluslabourforindustry,construction,services,producinglow-costfoodthatallowswagesforworkersinindustrytobekeptdown,producingfibreandothercropsthatcanbeinputstoproductioninotherpartsofthe
127SameasFootnote2.
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economy,supplyingexportablecommoditiesthatcanhelpfinanceimportsofkeytechnologypackagesandcapitalequipment,andraisingruralincomesthatcanincreasedemandforindustrialproducts.
Combining the countries into categories based on their speed of structural transformation, ruraltransformation,andruralpovertyreduction,yieldstheresultsinthetableabove.
Insummary:
• No country has reduced rural poverty slowly in the presence of both fast-structuraltransformationandfastruraltransformation(thetop-rightcornerisempty).
• Countries that have gone through both fast-structural transformation and fast ruraltransformationhavealsoreducedruralpovertyquickly(ChinaandVietnam).
• Countries that have not gone through both fast-structural transformation and ruraltransformationhavenotreducedruralpovertyquickly(Philippines,PakistanandIndia).
• Countries that have gone through either significant structural transformation or ruraltransformation have mixed outcomes, reducing rural poverty either quickly (Indonesia, LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicandCambodia)orslowly(Bangladesh).
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1.2.5. Cross Sectional Analysis (i) AccountabilityandTransparency
Introduction
TransparencyandaccountabilityarecriticalfortheefficientfunctioningofDoRDandforfosteringsocialwell-being.InIndia,Stateaccountabilityisofcrucialimportancetomillionsofcitizens-particularlythosewho aremembers of socially vulnerable groupswith limitedmeans to influence public decisions.128Simplyput,accountabilityrefers toenforceableresponsibility. Itoccurswhere ‘‘someactorshavetheright toholdotheractors toa setof standards, and to imposesanctions if theydetermine that theseresponsibilitieshavenotbeenmet’’129.
Therearevariouselementsthatcometogetherinthenotionofaccountabilityincludinganswerability–theneedforsatisfactoryjustificationofactions,enforcement-thesanctionsthatcouldbeimposediftheactionsorjustificationfortheactionsarefoundtobeunsatisfactory,andresponsiveness-theabilityofthoseheldaccountabletorespondtothedemandsmade.Crucially,accountabilityrequirestransparencysoactionscanbescrutinized,andperformancecanbeassessed.Transparencyensuresthatinformationisavailablethatcanbeusedtomeasuretheauthorities'performanceandtoguardagainstanypossiblemisuseofpowers.Transparencyintargetingmechanisms,beneficiaryselection,fundutilizationetc.isimportantinprovidingassurancetocommunitiesthatthepowerheldbyauthoritiesisnotonlyeffective,butalsonotabused.
Background
Inthelastfewdecades,DoRD’sschemeshaveevolvedintermsoffinancialoutlays,geographicalcoverageandbeneficiaryoutreach. Inaddition, theschemeshaveevolvedintermsofcomplexity indesignandcomponents, with convergence linkages with other schemes, Departments and Ministries. Withimplementation,fundflowandlinesofreportingacrossmultiplelevels,DoRD’sschemesrequireintensecoordination and each implementing official to discharge his/her responsibilities effectively. As theschemeshaveevolvedandexpanded,theneedtomonitorschemeimplementationandtargetcompletionhasalsogrown.Alongwiththis,therehasbeenanevolutionintheactorsandmechanismsinvolvedinensuringaccountabilityandtransparencyinDoRDschemes.
Accountability for DoRD schemes assumes two forms: horizontal and vertical. While verticalaccountability ismaintainedthroughelectoralreformsandawareness initiatives,accountabilityonthehorizontalfrontisenvisionedthrougheffortssuchasreorganizationofauditandaccountmechanisms.In2018,anExpertAdvisoryGroup(EAG)consistingofretiredexpertsfromadministration,accountsandauditwasconstitutedbytheDoRDforrecommendingmeasuresaimedatexpandinganddeepeningtheapplicationoftheinternalauditfunctionacrossprogrammesatalllevelsofimplementation.TheExpertGroupdevelopedaroadmaporestablishingtheinternalauditfunctionasaninstrumentforenhancingefficiencyandeffectivenessofDoRDschemes.Itsuggestedmeasuresforstrengtheninginternalauditasaninstrumentofmanagementcontrolacrossprogrammesuptograssrootslevel.130
Moreover,incaseofthehorizontalaccountability,theroleofPRIsiskey.Overtheyears-keepinginviewlocal aspirations- PRIs have been involved in the programme implementation of CSSs and theseinstitutions constitute the core of decentralized development of planning and its implementation.Panchayatshaveemergedasthethirdstratumofgovernance,vestedwithpowersandauthority.Atone
128Brulé,R.(2015).AccountabilityinruralIndia:Localgovernmentandsocialequality.AsianSurvey,55(5),909-941.129Golden,M.,&Min,B.(2013).Distributivepoliticsaroundtheworld.AnnualReviewofPoliticalScience,16.130 Press Information Bureau, Government of India. (2018). Expert Advisory Group submits report for Improvement andStrengtheningofInternalAuditSystemsandProcessesinRuralDevelopmentSchemes.
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level,PRIsneedtobetransparentintheirfunctioningandbeheldresponsiblefortheiractions.Atanotherlevel,PRIs themselvesassumecrucial roles inground-levelmonitoring, thereby feedingback into thesameself-sustainingmonitoringmechanismsthatmeasuretheirperformance.Both,verticalandhorizontalaccountabilityareofequalimportanceforDoRDschemes.
Further, in recent years, it has been acknowledged in research, policy and practice that traditionalaccountability channels have their own limitations. This has ushered in the era of societal actorsparticipatinginStateactivitiestostrengthenaccountabilityandresponsivenessinservicedelivery.WithsocietalactorsengagingactivelytoimproveStateaccountability,thepracticeof‘socialaccountability’hasreceived a strong impetus. 131 India’s civil society has also emerged as a crucial space for citizens tomobiliseandmakedemandsforaccountabilitywithintheState.ThemappingofaccountabilityeffortsofcivilsocietygroupsinIndiaisgivenbelow.
Table6:MappingofaccountabilityeffortsofcivilsocietygroupsinIndia132
Accountability and oversight of interventions within rural development space takes place throughmultiplemechanisms:one, regularmonitoringofperformancebasedonanaccountability frameworkthroughwebbasedMIS system that also includes geo tagging of assets for physical verification, and
131PosaniB.andAiyarY.(2009),StateofAccountability:Evolution,PracticeandEmergingQuestionsinPublicAccountabilityinIndia132SameasFootnote148.
Stage�of�Service�Delivery
StrategiesandInstrumentsResearch�for�Lobbying�and�
Advocacy
Creating�an�EnablingEnvironment
Direct�Citizen�Engagement
Legislation�and�Policy�Formulation
• Public�Interest�
Litigations�(PILs)
• BudgetAnalysis
• Capacitybuildingforlegislators
• ElectionWatchSMSCampaign
• Participationtoinfluencepoliticalpartymanifestos
Standard�Setting • CitizenCharters• Pro-activedisclosures
throughRTIs
Planning�and�Implementation�
Design
• Communityradio• LocalGovernance
capacitybuilding
• Participatorybudgeting
Program�Implementation�and
Operation
• GramSabhamobilisation
• Watershedmanagement
Process�Monitoring
• Publicexpendituretracking
• CorruptionWatch/CorruptionPerceptionIndex
• CapacitybuildingforusinginstrumentssuchasRTIs
• Socialauditsandpublichearings
• Citizenbasedvigilancecommittees
• E-toolssuchasSMSbasedcomplaintmechanisms
Outcome�Evaluation
• Citizenreportcards• Participatory
researchforevaluatingoutcomes
• Performanceevaluationofelectedrepresentatives
• Communityscorecards
• Politicalpartymanifestowatch
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Sector Report: Rural Development
monitoring by DISHA Committees at district level; two, periodic oversight, which is formed by fieldmonitoring missions and field level monitoring, and includes assessment by NLMs (National LevelMonitors), reportsbyCRMs (CommonReviewMissions), and reports fromNationalLevelEvaluationStudies of schemes; and three, audit mechanism that includes compliance audits and social auditmechanisms.Socialauditsandcommunitymonitoringofferopportunitiestomakecitizensawareoftheentitlementsthattheyhaveaccesstounderspecificgovernmentschemes/interventions,toallowcitizenstoparticipateinitsregularandinstitutionalisedmonitoring,andtoenablecitizenstoplaytheprimaryroleintheidentificationofanomalieswithinitsimplementation.Withitsevolution,DoRD’saccountabilityandtransparencymeasureshaveseensignificantprogressacrossitsthreebroadmechanisms:
(a)Regularmonitoringofperformancebasedonanaccountabilityframework
• AccountabilityFramework:TheDepartmentofRuralDevelopmenthasdevelopedaverystrongandrobustaccountabilityframeworkforallitsprogrammes.Theframeworkbuildsontheprincipleof eligibility through Socio Economic Census 2011, and accountability through themulti-prongedframeworkofSocialAudit,FinancialAudit,Geo-tagginganduseofIT-DBT.133
• Management InformationSystems(MIS):Akey intervention towardsgreater transparencyhasbeenthattheMISofeachoftheschemesimplementedbyDoRDhasbeendevelopedasadashboardandhasbeenplacedinthepublicdomain.TheseMISprovidereal-timeinformationandgeo-taggedphotosinatransparentmanner,forexample-NREGASoftforMGNREGS,AwaasoftforPMAY-GandOMMASforPMGSY,eGovNRLMforDAY-NRLM.TheseMISfunctionasweb-basedMISaswellase-governanceplatforms.Over2.43croreMGNREGSassetsand/allPMAY-Ghomesatdifferentstagesofconstructionareallgeo-taggedandavailableonthepublicwebsite.UnderDAY-NRLMadatabaseofnearly 4.7 crores members of Self Help Groups are placed in the public domain. Further,disaggregatedblocklevelreportsonkeyperformanceindicatorsoftheMissionarealsoavailable.134TheNSAPportalmakesdata available for all theNSAP schemes, therebyprovidingpathways forpublic scrutiny and enhanced accountability. Similarly, RurbanSoft has been developed to trackdifferentcomponentsofSPMRMandhasbeenpopulatedwithdatainpublicdomain.
• Output-OutcomeMonitoringFramework(OOMF):Toachievegreateraccountabilityinbudgetaryexpenditureofpublicinvestment,theruraldevelopmentsectortoohasmovedtowardsdevelopingOutput-OutcomeMonitoringFrameworks(OOMF)foritsschemes.Theframeworkdefinesoutputs,directly measurable product(s) of programmatic activities and outcomes as result/qualitativeimprovementsaftertheservice/benefithasbeendelivered.Thisistoensurethatschemeperformanceismeasuredtangibly,therebymakingthesectoralinterventionpurposefulintotality,andhencemoreaccountable.
• Vigilance & Monitoring Committees (VMCs): The Vigilance & Monitoring Committees (VMCs)constituted by the DoRD at State and District levels are expected to function as an importantinstrument foreffectivemonitoringof implementationof ruraldevelopmentprogrammes.TheVMCmeetingsaretobeheldonceineveryquarter.TheMinisterofRuralDevelopmentoftheconcernedStateistheChairmanofStatelevelVMCandSecretary-in-chargeofRuralDevelopmentschemesintheStateistheMemberSecretary.Thesecommitteesprovidechannelsforchallengestobeaddressedinamorelocalisedmannerandallowforareaspecificaccountabilityandground-levelmonitoring.
133Press InformationBureau,Governmentof India. (2018).MinistryofRuralDevelopmentrollsoutarobustAccountabilityFramework.134SameasFootnote150.
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(b)Occasionaloversightmechanisms• NationalLevelMonitoring: Recognizing the importanceof regular independentmonitoringof its
programmes,DoRDlaunchedacomprehensivesystemofNationalLevelMonitoringintheyear2003-04inordertoachieveunbiasedandobjectivemonitoring.UnderNLM,threetypesofmonitoringisobserved -RegularMonitoring ofmajor Schemes ofDoRDandMinistryofPanchayatiRaj;SpecialMonitoringofIndividualSchemes;andcomplaints/enquiries.TheDepartmentofRuralDevelopmentalreadyhadasystemofNationalLevelMonitoringInstitutionsthatvisit600districtsofthecountryin tworoundseachyearanddoa randomlyselectedsampleverificationof thework in the field.Scheme-wiseobservationsareprovidedintheNLMReports.ThelatestNLMreportavailableonthewebsiteistheRegularMonitoringReportbyNationalLevelMonitors2018-19Phase-I.
• CommonReviewMission: To assess theprogressofprogrammes in States, theDepartmenthasintroduced a system of Common ReviewMission (CRM). Eight States are visited by a total of 32independentprofessionalsaspartoftheCRMeachyear.TheteamvisitstwodistrictsineachStateandgivestheMinistryitsfeedbackonhowtheprogrammesaredoingatthefieldlevel.ThreeCRMshavebeenundertakensofaroverthelastthreeyearsandtheirfindingshaveprovidedaroadmapforfurtherimprovingtheAccountabilityFrameworkofRuralDevelopmentprogrammes.
(c)Auditmechanisms
• InternalAudit:TheDepartmentofRuralDevelopmenthasalsosetupasmallInternalAuditWingwhich undertakes timely field verification of the financial system from time to time and providesinsightsintothequalityoffinancialmanagementsothatcorrectiveactioncanbetakenontime.OneportalnamelyGRIP hasbeendeveloped foronlineprocessingandanalysisof internal audit.ThisportalisbeingusedininternalauditofMGNREGSandPMAY-G.
• SocialAudits:Atpresent,DoRDhasinstitutionalisedsocialauditsinallitsmajorschemes.Initially,social audit guidelines were released for MGNREGS, followed by NSAP and PMAY-G. With theguidanceoftheComptrollerandAuditorGeneralofIndia,theauditingstandardofsocialauditwasnotified, andappropriate certificateprogrammesweredeveloped byNIRD&PR inpartnershipwithTataInstituteofSocialSciences,Mumbai,forDistrict,BlockandVillageLevelResourcePersons.
Earlier, documents and records suchasbills, vouchersof expenditure, utilisationand completioncertificates,mustersof labourattendance,estimatesanddesignofworkswereoutofreachofthebeneficiaries. However, through the social audit mechanism, public access to such documents isstrengthened.Theprocessallowsthepublicatlargetodiscuss,observe,andquestionpublicservantsinapublicforum.Inessence,thetoolofsocialauditempowersthepublictoholdinformationanduseittodemandgreaterdownwardaccountability.
NIRD&PR,in2019,alsopublishedthe‘StatusOfSocialAuditsInIndiaReport’,whichincludeddetailsofMGNREGSsocialauditsandauditsofotherschemes;ananalysisofthestructureandfunctioningofthesocialauditunits(SAUs)thathavebeencreatedintheStates;andsomekeyrecommendationsfor different stakeholders, including the Central Government, DoRD, State Government and theSAUs135.Thesuccessofsocialauditinensuringaccountabilityispresentedinthecasestudybelow:
135 Press Information Bureau, Government of India. (2019).Minister of State for Rural Development Sadhvi Niranjan Jyotiinaugurates‘NationalSeminaronSocialAuditofRDProgrammes.
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Sector Report: Rural Development
Box4:CaseStudyonSuccessofSocialAuditinRanchi
SuccessofSocialAuditinNamkumblockinRanchidistrict136
Background
SocialAuditisaself-operatedauditprocessbythecommonpeopletoassessthedevelopmentalworksentitled
forthepublic.ThroughSocialAudits,thedevelopmentworksissuedinpublicinterestandcarriedoutbyvarious
governmentdepartmentsatdifferent levels(state,district,block,Panchayatetc.)areobserved,analysedand
concludediftheproposedworkintheselectedareaisgoingintheappropriateway.
InSodagPanchayat,NamkumblockinRanchidistrict,SocialAuditwasdonebytheGramSabhaandPanchayat
representativesalongwithaSocialAuditUnit(SAU)appointedbytheStateGovernmentforassessingvarious
developmental works done underMukhiya Fund in the year 2016-17. Villagers, Panchayat representatives,
membersofGramSabha,Blocklevelpersonnelparticipatedintheprocess.
Intervention
TheutilizationofallottedMukhiyafundhadbeenseentobeusedinabiasednature.Theactualrequirementwas
mostly got unnoticed, instead an unknown mechanism which was preferential in nature, was deployed to
embezzle the fundwithout any prior planning. The resultwas particular area-based accumulation of assets
with/withoutproperneed-assessmentoftheareaand/orbeneficiaries.Asapartofcommunityengagementfor
socialaudits,thefollowingwasdone:
• Physicalverificationofeachconstruction(constructionofshallowwaterbodies,well, roadanddrainage
system,repairingofPanchayatbuildingandcommunitycentreetc.)bytheSAUwasdemandedbyERsto
assessthestatusofthesamebothqualitativelyandquantitatively.Theyalsointeractedwiththebeneficiaries
forfurtherconfirmation
• SocialAuditwasdoneincollaborationwiththeGramSabhaandPanchayatrepresentativesforassessing
variousdevelopmentalworksintheyear2016-17.
• AuditingwasdoneseriallyoneachschemeimplementedinthePanchayat,feedbackfromthebeneficiaries
wasnotedandtheirviews,adviceswasalsodocumented.
• Allrecordswerefoundandwereverballyapprovedbythevillagers.AfterapprovalfromtheGramSabha
thiswasforwardedforpublichearing.
Result
Implementationofthisinitiativeworkedasanimportanttoolforinformationdisseminationamongthevillagers.
Theystartedtakingtheresponsibilityofinvigilatortoobservetheworkcarryingonintheirvillages/hamlets.
They promptly come in touch with the Elected Representative (ER) if any malpractices are found and the
concernedERtakesnotimetotakemeasureswinningthetrustofthevillagers.
The close interaction ofMukhiyawith other villagers not only resulted in better implementation of various
governmentschemesforpublicwelfare,butalsobroughtasenseofresponsibilityamongthemtolookafterthe
infrastructuraldevelopmentcarriedoutundergovernmentschemes.Thenewlyelectedmembersdecided to
prioritizeproperutilisationofMukhiyaFundafterplanning,discussionandneed-assessmentofthearea.The
problemofmisplacementofPanchayatofficeassetswasalsoaddressed.Also,thedetailedinformationrelated
toaparticularscheme,likedescribingtotalroadlength,areacovered,amountofrawmaterialsrequired,daily
labourwages,startingandfinishingdateforPMGSYwouldbemadepublicbywritinganddisplayingsignboard
attheworkingplace.FutureplansforSocialAuditsincludethefollowing:
• PanchayatSamitiandGramSabhashouldcarryoutSocialAuditsregularly.
• IrregularitiesfoundduringSocialAuditsshouldbeaddressedinthenextmeetingorpublichearing.
• Duringeachpublichearing,decisionstakeninearliermeetingsshouldbepresentedas‘Actiontakenreport’.
136NIRDPR,ImpactofSocialAuditonVillageDevelopment–acasestudyinRanchidistrict,Jharkhand
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Sector Report: Rural Development
• Ifthefaultsremainunresolved,thenactionmustbetakenagainsttheaccusedpersonnel/agency.
• Beforeimplementinganynewproject(s),athoroughdiscussionshouldbetakenplaceandnetwork/linkages
withrelateddepartmentsshouldbeestablished.
• Allactivitiesshouldproperlybedocumented.
• Broadcastingmedia should bemade available during documentation of all types of activities,wherever
applicable.
Qualitative interviewswithgovernmentofficialssuggestedthatSocialAuditshavebeen implementedwithin DoRD schemes. The impact on accountability and transparency of the RD sector ismanifold.OfficialsfromHaryana,AndhraPradeshandHimachalPradeshhaveagreedonthisregard.
Apartfromthis,DoRD’sschemespecificdesignfeaturessuchastheuseofAadhaarbasedDBTforfundtransfer, citizen centric apps and mechanisms for community monitoring also contribute toaccountabilityandtransparency.
• DirectBenefitTransfer:AadhaarbasedDBThasbeenadoptedasasectoralpolicyforprogrammesthataimatdeliveryofbenefitstotargetedbeneficiaries.DoRDhasimplementedthedistributionofcashtransfersunderNSAP,PMAY-G,MGNREGSandDAY-NRLM.Thedataandtransferofthesectorhas been linked to DBT Bharat Portal, which has been effective in weeding out fake and ghostbeneficiaries, while also avoiding the duplication of benefits to a single beneficiary. Moreover,throughDBT,financialinclusionhasbeengreatlyenhancedwhilerelianceonmiddlemenhasbeenreduced- therebyallowing the assertionof citizen rights andgrassroots accountability. Increasedtransparency as a consequence of digitisation have been highlighted in qualitative interviews bygovernmentofficialsfromDistrictandBlocklevelsofadministration.
“AllpaymentsaremadebytheidentificationprocessofAadhaarbased.AllthemoneyisbeingdepositedonAadhaarbasedway”–Block,Uttarakand
“Themost importantroleofdigitization is thatwegot thetransparencythatwewanted inourconnectedgovernance;itisaverybigpriority.Sincedigitizationhasoccurred,sincewehavelinkedAadhar,(thereis)AadharlinkinginbanksorthereisDBT.ThepeoplehavebenefitedfromAadharlinkingandDBTandourgoodimagethathasbeenformed.Sotransparencyhasbeenproduced”-BDO,Block,Jharkhand
“Manyoftheschemes,likeMGNREGSintheRuralDevelopmentDepartment,arefullydigitalizednow,whichmadethemonitoringandreportingoftheschemesaccuratelyandtimely.WiththehelpofseedingofAadhaarinMIS,ithasstoppedthefakeentriesandmadethedataverymuchreliable.Itisalsoveryhelpfulinfulfillingof entitlement for thebeneficiaries toget theirbenefitamount ina timeboundmanner”-DRDA,District,Haryana
• Citizen–CentricApps:Citizen-centricappssuchasJANMANREGA,MeriSadak,GramSamvaad,AwaasApphavebeendevelopedtofacilitatethetwo-wayflowofinformation.Ononehand,theseappshavebeenmadeavailabletotheruralpopulationwherebytheycandirectlyaccessinformationrelatedtointerventions made and planned in the sector. On the other hand, the apps also allow the ruralpopulationstoregistertheircomplaints,recordtheassetsproducedandputforththeirqueries,therebyallowing implementingofficials toaccessreal-time informationbeneficiariesaswellasassets thathavebeencreated/developedinthesector.
Forinstance,theGramSamvaadAppfacilitatesasinglewindowaccessbycitizenstoinformationatGram Panchayat level on various Rural Development programs, covering inter-alia programmeobjectives, scope and performance. The application presently covers 7 DoRD schemes and alsoprovidesinformationontheGrantstoLocalBodiesrecommendedbythe14thFinanceCommission.Itisenvisaged that this application will help in information dissemination, introduce greater
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transparencyandpromoteaccountabilityatvariouslevels.Further,DoRDistakingtransparencytohigher levels through theAwaasPlus App which caters to the beneficiaries left out of PermanentWaitingListunderPMAY-Gbutareeligibletoreceivebenefitsotherwise.
• Mechanisms for transparency at the community level: India’sRight to Information (RTI) Act,whichbecamelawin2005,entitlescitizenstorequestStateinformationonanytopicnotrelatedtonationalsecurity,ongoingcourtcasesorcabinetdeliberations(Governmentof India[GOI],2005).The Act applies to all levels of government, requiring every public authority to appoint PublicInformation Officers (PIOs) who must respond to RTI queries within 30 days, and providing amultilevelappealsprocesswheneverrequestsarerefused.AlltheDoRDschemesareRTIcomplianttherebyallowingcitizenstoraisequeriesregardingtheschemes,theirbenefitsandimplementationatanylevelwhichpublicauthoritiesaremandatedtorespondto.Thislegislativeprovisionisanotherpathwayforgreaterpublicaccountabilityandtransparencybasedoncitizendemands.Further,otherimprovementslikemandatoryCitizenInformationBoards,adoptionofsimplersevenregistersystemandimprovedrecordkeepingwithphotographs,etc.,physicaldisplayofprogressatGramPanchayatlevelareformsofpublicaccountabilityandcommunityparticipationthatarebeingemphasized137.
J-PALevidenceonruraldevelopmentfromthefinanceandgovernancesectorsshowsrelevantfindingsandresultsofcommunityparticipationinimprovementsofpublicservicesprovided.
Box5:CaseStudyonCommunityDrivenDevelopmentinPublicServiceProvision
CommunityDrivenDevelopment
Communityparticipationandoversightcanbeawaytoimprovepublicserviceprovision,theassumptionbeing
thatcommunitieshavebetterknowledgeoftheirneedsandchooseprojectsthatreflectthoseneeds.Aconcern,
however,isthattheprocessescouldhandovercontroltotheeliteswithinacommunity.Thoughevidencefrom
randomized evaluations of community driven development (CDD) and participation programmes provides
mixedresults,somepolicyimplicationsbegintoemerge.
1. Studies involving four community participation programmes showed that programmes where the
communityhadmoredirectcontroloverserviceprovidersandspecificinstructionshavetendedtobe
moreeffective.Similarly,communitieswhohaveactionplansandoversightofimplementationtendto
bemoreeffectiveatimprovingservicedelivery.However,communityparticipationisnotaone-size-
fits-all approach, and there is still a role for top-down auditing: the oneprogramme that compared
communitymonitoringtocentralizedmonitoringthroughauditsfoundthatauditsweremoreeffective
inreducingcorruption.
2. ACDDprogrammeinSierraLeone,whichprovidedvillageswithsmalldevelopmentgrantsallocatedby
village committees, successfully established village-level organizations and tools to manage
developmentprojects,butdidnotleadtofundamentalchangesinlocalinstitutionsordecision-making.
Alower-costalternativethatsupportsspecifichigh-competencycommunitymembersintakingbetter
advantageofdevelopmentprogrammesiscurrentlybeingevaluated.
3. AllowingcitizenstodirectlyvotetoselectlocalinfrastructureprojectsinIndonesiahadalargeimpact
oncitizensatisfactionwiththeprojectsandtheprocess. It,however,didnotsignificantlyimpactthe
typesofprojectchosensuggestingthatparticipationofwomenandthepooratproposalgeneratingand
fundingstagesisrequirediftheyaretobefullyenfranchised.
4. Communityblockgrants in Indonesia, improvedhealthandeducation inprogrammevillages.Those
villageswhichreceivedincentivizedgrantsbasedonperformancealonglong-termhealthandeducation
outcomessawfasterimprovementsinhealth.Basedontheresultsofthisevaluation,theGovernmentof
137PressInformationBureau,GovernmentofIndia.(2018).MGNREGS–Livelihoodsecuritywithfulltransparency.
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Indonesiamovedexclusivelyto incentivizedgrantsand increasedannual fundingforthecommunity
blockgrantprogramme.
Sources:
Olken,B. (2007).MonitoringCorruption:Evidence fromaFieldExperiment in Indonesia. JournalofPolitical
Economy115(2):200-48.
Casey,K.Glennerster,R.,Miguel,E.(2012).ReshapingInstitutions:EvidenceonAidImpactsUsingaPre-Analysis
Plan.QuarterlyJournalofEconomics127(4):1,755-1,812.
Olken,B. (2010).DirectDemocracyandLocalPublicGoods:Evidence fromaFieldExperiment in Indonesia.
AmericanPoliticalScienceReview104(2):243-67.
Olken,B.,Onishi, J.,Wong,S. (2014).ShouldAidRewardPerformance?Evidence fromaFieldExperimenton
HealthandEducationinIndonesia.AmericanEconomicReview:AppliedEconomics6(4):1-34.
DespiterelevantachievementsmadeinaccountabilityandtransparencyofRuralDevelopmentschemes,challenges related to its implementation remain.This isbecause to implementmonitoring, audit andoversightmechanisms,thegovernmentdependsonofficialsfromalllevelsofadministration.Asaresult,gapsintheirinstitutionalinfrastructureandcapacityaffectsdirectlytheeffectivenessofaccountabilityandtransparencyefforts.Inthisregard,aDistrictMagistratefromJharkhandsuggestedinaqualitativeinterviewthatthereisashortageofstaffinRDschemes.Theyneedtooutsourcetocoversuchplacementsandfixingtheiraccountabilityandresponsibilitiesischallenging.
Takeaways• Using technology based monitoring has ensured greater efficiency in scheme processes:
Technological interventions to disburse cash transfers, track the flow of funds, gain beneficiaryfeedbackandmeasureperformancehavehelpedtoenhancetransparencywithinascheme.Further,throughtheprovisionofschemeinformationonthepublicdomain,schemedatahasbeenmadeprivytoexternalstakeholdersaswell,therebycreatingpathwaysfornon-implementerstogaugeschemeperformance,fundutilisationandassetcreation.
By the technology of MIS, transparency is increased. Earlier most of the problems were related to the timelypaymentsoflabourorsomeoneelsehasworkedinhisplace,orinthemanualrolls,namesarechanged.Allthoseproblemsaresolvedbecausepaymentisdirectlycreditedtolabourer’saccount,namescan’tbechangednowwhenisregisteredintheroll.Heonlyhastoworkfor15days,onlyhisaccountwillbecredited.So,thisiseasedastheproblemsaresolvedattherootlevelitself(BDO,Rajasthan)
• Monitoringmechanismsareinplacebutweakcapacityundercutsmonitoringefforts:ProjectManagementUnitswithinDoRDarefunctionalatState,District&Blocklevels.MechanismssuchasPublicInformationBoards(PIBs),geo-taggingetc.arebeingcompliedwith.However,monitoringattheGramPanchayatlevel isnotedtobeweakwithvariousmonitoringregistersnotbeingupdatedregularly.Furthermore,forFFCgrants-themonitoringandgeo-taggingofassetsisseentohavegaps.
Lackofadequatemonitoringatdecentralisedlevelsofgovernancehasbeenassociatedwithlackofcapacity of staff at the Block and Gram Panchayat levels. Implementers reinforced the need tostrengthentrainingsinthemaintenanceofmonitoringrecords,andintheuseoftechnologydrivenmonitoringsoftwareforthestaffparticularlyatdecentralisedlevelsofimplementation.
Ourstaff isveryold.Peoplehere likeVillageDevelopmentOfficersarenot technology friendly.The facea lotofproblemingeo-taggingandalotofthemdon’tknowaboutmobileoperators(BDO,Rajasthan)
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• Monitoring of PRIs and monitoring at the PRI level are both crucial: The strength ofdecentralization through PRIs lies in the fact that they are the legally grounded representativeinstitution at the grassroots. The user group approach is advantageous because it encourages aninclusivedecision-makingprocess at the local level bydirectly targeting thepoor.However, in theabsenceofeffectivechecksandbalances,theseinstitutionsaresusceptibletoelitecapture,politicalexclusion,andcorruption,thushighlightingtheneedtoensuremonitoringofPRIs
GiventhatPRIsaregroundedintheruraleco-system,monitoringbyPRIrepresentativesiskeyandenhances project effectiveness. However, the problem of weak capacity amongst local PRIrepresentativesiswellrecognized.MostPRIrepresentatives(particularlywomenandSC/STsthatareelectedthroughthereservationpolicy)havelittlepriorexperienceorunderstandingofthegovernancesystemincludingtheaccountabilityandtransparencyprotocols.
• Socialauditmechanismsneedgreaterimpetusforfull-scaleimplementation:WhileDoRDhasbeenkeentorolloutsocialauditacrossalltheruraldevelopmentschemesforsometimenow,thishasnothappenedinpracticefordifferentreasons.ForMGNREGS,eventhoughtheActenactedin2005andRulesenactedin2011clearlysaythatsocialaudithastobeundertaken,itisonlyinthelastfewyearsthatsocialauditunitshavebeenestablishedinmostStates.138Moreover,variationsinthefunctioningandeffectivenessofSocialAuditUnitshavebeenobserved.TheresourcepersonsforSocialAuditneedmoretrainingandtheirmemberswillhavetobeaugmented,ifSocialAuditisextendedtootherSchemes,aswell.
• Standard grievance redress mechanisms vary in effectiveness across States: While theprescribedgrievanceredressmechanismshavebeenobservedacrossvariousStates,therehavebeenvariationsintermsoftheireffectiveness,responsetimeandresolutionrates.ThegrievanceredressmechanismshavebeenobservedtobeparticularlypoorattheGramPanchayatlevels.Withrespecttobestpractices,acallbasedgrievanceredresssystemwasfoundtobeworkingwellinTelangana.
• Communitylevelinformationdisseminationneedsgreaterimpetus:Budgetaryconstraintsarenoted toplace limitson the installationofproper flexboards for informationdisplay inallGramPanchayats. Further, other key pathways of decentralised information flow such as CitizenInformationBoardshavenotbeenimplementeduniformly.
WayForward
• Develop trainings in monitoring protocols for functionaries at decentralised governancelevels:Alongsidethedevelopmentofaccountabilitymechanisms,itiscrucialtoensurethecapacitybuildingoffunctionaries,particularlyatsub-Nationallevels,sothatthesemechanismsareeffectivelyimplemented.Inparticular,DoRDshouldlooktoprovidehand-holdingsupporttofunctionariesatthegrassrootsleveltoundertaketechnologydrivenmonitoringthroughcapacitybuildingandrefreshertrainings.Inorderforcapacitybuildinginitiativestobesuccessfultheyneedtobepartofacarefullysequenceddevolutionprocess thatstrengthenspowerandresourcesavailabletolocalbodiesalongwithstrengtheningtheircapabilitytomanagetheseresources.
• ConsideroperationalizingaunifiedSocialauditforallRD&PRschemes:DoRDshouldlooktoensuretechnical,legislativeandfinancialsupportfortheconductofsocialaudit.DoRDshouldcreatea social audit division/cell and staff it with sufficient personnelwho will work across different
138NIRDPR.(2018).SocialAuditUnitsinIndia
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programmedivisionsandsupporttheSAUsintheStates.TheSAUsshouldfunctionasanindependentbodieswith no participation from scheme implementation officials. Further,DoRD should considertransferringfundsrequiredforfacilitatingsocialauditdirectlytotheSAUsinsteadofaskingtheStatestotransferafractionoftheadministrativefundstotheSAU.ThispracticewasstartedinMGNREGStwoyearsagoandhasbeencriticaltoestablishtheSAUsandmakethemfunctional.Inaddition,amechanismtoreviewthesocialauditfindingsandensureappropriatefollow-upshouldbeseriouslyconsidered.
Tooperationalisesocialauditacrossvariousschemes,DoRDcanalsolooktointroduceparticipatorybudgeting:theprocessofdemocraticdeliberationanddecision-making,inwhichordinaryresidentsdecidedirectlyor indirectly throughspeciallyselectedrepresentativesdiscussonhowtoallocatepartofamunicipalorpublicbudget.
• Developacommongrievanceredressalmechanismforthesector:Goingforward,DoRDshouldlook to develop a single platform for the purpose, with use of IVRS/helpline technologies tostrengthengrievanceredress.Thisisalsoinlinewiththefindingsofresearchstudiesthatshowthat24/7phone-insystemswouldbebeneficialtoholdpoliticalleadersandpublicserviceaccountable.139Further,formorereal-timefeedback,crowdsourcingmethodologiescanbeadopted.
• Strengthen the flow of information at the community level: To ensure greater citizenparticipation and ownership, Initiatives such as Gram Panchayat level programmes, updation ofCommunityInformationBoardsinGramPanchayatoffices,reformstosimplifyRecordRegisters,anduseofICTinfrastructuretoenablecitizen-ledmonitoringshouldbetakenintoconsideration.DoRDcanlooktoborrowlessonsfromUkraine’sexperienceofenhancingaccountabilitythroughalisteningapproachinthisregard(detailsintheboxbelow).
Box6:CaseStudyonIncreasedaccountabilitythroughalisteningapproachinUkraine
IncreasedaccountabilitythroughalisteningapproachinUkraine140
Background
GOAL,aninternationalhumanitarianresponseagencyestablishedinIrelandover40yearsago,provided
multi-purposecashassistancetoover7,500peopleinUkrainefromMay2015toJanuary2017.Thecash
transferwasgivenintheintheDonbassregionofEasternUkrainewhereconflicthadleft3.8millionpeople
inneedofhumanitarianassistance.Thetolloftheconflictwasexacerbatedbyseverehumanitarianaccess
restrictionsinNGCAorNon-GovernmentControlledAreas.GOALalsosupportedover3,000isolatedand/or
homeboundelderlypeoplewithpsychosocialsupport,hotmeals,dryfoodrationsandhygienekits.
Intervention
Accountableandadaptiveprogrammingweretwocoreprogrammingprinciplesintheproject.Thiswasto
ensurerealtimerecognitionofneededadaptionsinordertotargetandrespondtothefluidneedsofthe
mostvulnerablepeople inUkraine’scomplexoperatingenvironments.Asetof integratedaccountability
outcomestheysoughttoachieve,trackandreportweredeveloped.Theseincluded:
• AppropriateandRapidInterventions:Appropriatelytargetingofbeneficiariesforvulnerabilityandrapidresponsetorequestsforassistancethroughfieldandhotlineassistants,trained(andre-trained)
oftenusingappliedpsychosocialmethodologyandlisteningtechniques.
139Blair,H.(2018).CitizenParticipationandPoliticalAccountabilityforPublicServiceDeliveryinIndia:RemappingtheWorldBank’sRoutes.JournalofSouthAsianDevelopment,13(1),54-81.140Source:GOAL,Accountabilityinconflict,CRMandlisteningapproach,2017.
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• Accountabilityintheadaptationofplanning,activitiesandtools:Developingadecisionlogsuchthatallchanges/adaptationsmadetoprogrammetools,activitiesandplanningweredocumentedto
notechange,rationaleforadaptation,decisionmakersandimpactofdecision.• Avoidduplicationand/orcomplementprogramming:Holisticallyaddressvulnerabilitybyreferring
individuals to suitable intervention program or support mechanisms through regular inter-agency
informationsharingandcoordination.Afunctionalandoperatingreferralsystemwasestablishedand
maintained.• Ability to identify, discuss and respond to unintended (negative) consequences of the
intervention:Through a Do No Harm & Feedback Loop Training includingmodules such as CoreHumanitarianStandards,Listeningskills/FundamentalBehaviouralObservation,ComplaintsHotline
protocol, Referral Systems, Psycho-SocialMethodologies, Protection, Gender based violence, Do No
HarmTraining,etc.
Learning
• Capacitybuildingof staff on accountability related topicsmeant itwas embedded inhow the team
worked.• Theregulardebriefingsoffieldandhotlineassistantstogetherandregularriskassessmentssupported
staffwellbeingandeffectiveperformanceoftheirroles.• Participatorymethodologywasusedeffectivelytodevelopand/oradaptsystemizedtoolsincludingthe
hotlineguidelinesandbeneficiaryselectionforms• Coordinationandcasereferralsystemsworkwellbetweenandhandlingcaseswhichwerereferred
fromotherswereefficientlyhandled.
• Accountabilityoutcomesweretrackedsystematicallythroughstructuredtoolsandreporting.
• Maintain risk matrix and risk registers for all RD schemes: Governance and administrativemechanismsinruraldevelopmentspacehavemultiplelayersthatextendfromcentretoStateflowingdowntodistrictandeventuallytothevillageandbeneficiary.Operationsofsuchcomplexmechanismsdemandefficacyoffinancialmanagementsystembackedupwithrobustinternalauditmechanismthathas in-built risk identification andmitigation in programmes. DoRD should look to prepare andmaintain the riskmatrix and risk register for each scheme. Risk assessment and riskmitigationshouldbeinstitutionalisedaskeyprocessesinschememonitoringandinternalaudit.
(ii) GenderMainstreaming
Introduction
In India, rural women are key agents for development. They hold the potential to facilitatetransformational economic, environmental and social changes required for sustainable development.However, gendered barriers to socio-economic development pose significant disadvantages to ruralwomen.Limitedaccess to credit, health careandeducation areamong themanychallenges they face.Women’s economic dependence on their families, and non-recognition of their unpaid work, areinstrumentalinreinforcingstructuresofdiscrimination.
Furthermore, the gender bias in institutions is a key source of vulnerability for rural women.Womenexperienceparticulardiscriminationinownershipofandaccesstoproductiveresources.Further,ruralwomenarefacedwitha‘doubleburden’astheyarenotonlyresponsibleforcareworkandhouseholdwork,butalsoexperienceincreaseddrudgeryduetohighmalemigrationandfeminisationofagriculture.Moreover,mechanisationoffarminghasledtoareductioninruralwomen’swagesandcontinuinggenderinequalityinthelabourmarketensuresthatwomenarepaidlessthanmenforthesametasks.Further,amajorchallengewhichsmallandmarginalfarmersfaceisthelackofaccesstomajoragriculturalservices(suchascredit,inputs,extension,insurance,andmarkets)andthisisevenmoreproblematicforwomen
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farmers because of a pervasivemale bias in provision of such services. In addition, women remainseverelydisadvantagedduringglobalfoodandeconomiccrisesandclimatechangewhereintheyreceivedisproportionatelylowamountsoffoodandresources.
In view of this, it is essential to empower women – in order to create ever widening circles ofempowerment, within the family and the community. Empowering women has been known to havepositiveeffectsonnotonlythewell-beingofindividuals,familiesandruralcommunities,butalsoontheoveralleconomicproductivity,givenwomen’slargepresenceintheagriculturalworkforceworldwide.Furthermore,empowermentcanenablewomentoparticipate,asequalcitizens,intheeconomic,politicalandsocialsustainabledevelopmentoftheruralcommunities,therebyenablingasignificantproportionofthepopulationtocontributetoruraldevelopment.
Background
Since the 1990s, women have been identified as key agents of sustainable community development.Women'sequalityandempowermentareseenascentraltoamoreholisticapproachtowardsestablishingnewpatternsandprocessesofdevelopmentthataresustainable.141ThishasbeenrecognisedbyDoRDaswell,manifestintheintroductionofawomen'scomponentintheprogrammesforpovertyalleviationtoensureflowofadequatefundstothissection.
Attheoutset,thefederalstructureoftheIndianConstitutionprovidespathwaysforwomentoengagewithgovernanceanddecisionmaking.The73rdand74thAmendmentsoftheConstitutionhaverevivedaclearlymandatedandfocussedthirdtierofgovernanceandfollowingthismorethanamillionwomenwere elected to office at grassroots levels of governance. This period has also seen the evolution andrecognitionofwomen’sgroupsasimportantentitiesforwomen’sparticipationandempowerment.142
Further,theruraldevelopmentsectorhasrecognisedthattheintegrationofagendercomponentinallgovernmentprogrammesonlivelihoodsiskeytocreatingaruralworkforceofself-awareandconfidentwomenwho by virtue of their enhanced knowledge about their rights and identitywould be betterpositioned to take leadership roles as farmers andworkers. This is evident from the design of ruraldevelopmentprogrammeswhichcentre-stagewomen’srights,enhancetheiraccesstoandcontroloverresourcesandbuildtheirleadershipskills,therebymainstreamingwomen’sempowermentprinciplesingovernance,
Theruraldevelopmentsectorplaysacriticalroleinmainstreaminggenderandgenderconcernsforruralwomen. At a sectoral level, the interventions to ensure gendermainstreaming aim to strengthen (i)women’sresourcerightsbyenhancingcontrolandownershipofresourcesandassetsbywomen,aswellascreationofwomen-friendlyassets;(ii)capabilitiesandskillsofwomenfarmersbyensuringprovisionsforwomen’saccesstosafewater,healthcare,education,etc.;(iii)freedomfromallformsofdiscriminationandviolenceagainstwomenthroughdevelopmentofsocial,environmentalandphysicalinfrastructurewhich guarantees safety; (iv) women’s voice, choice, agency and leadership through creation andstrengtheningofwomen’s institutions.Theprogrammatic interventionsof thesector thatarealignedwithnationalprioritiesarearticulatedintheensuingparagraphs:
WorkParticipation:Nationalprioritydefinesachievementoffemalelabourforceparticipationrateof30percentby2022-23fromthecurrentlevelof23.7percent.Theindicatorassumessignificancesince
141Handy,F.,&Kassam,M.(2004).Women’sEmpowermentinRuralIndia.PaperpresentedattheISTRConference,TorontoCanada142MinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment,GovernmentofIndia.(2012).ReportoftheWorkingGrouponWomen’sAgencyandEmpowerment.
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thisworkparticipationratehasbeenfoundtobedeclining,withtherateofdeclinebeinghigherinruralareas(from49.7percentin2004-05to26.7percentin2015-16)143.Inresponsetofallingfemalelabourparticipationrates, theruraldevelopmentsectortargetswomenthroughtheverydesignof itsvariousschemeswhichfocusonfemalebeneficiaries.Inparticular,MGNREGSmandatesthatatleast33percentofthebeneficiariesthathaveregisteredanddemandedworkshouldbewomen.DuringtheFY2019-20,out of the total 187.44 crore person days generated, 104.11 crore were women person-days whichaccountfor55.54percentofthetotalperson-daysgeneratedunderthescheme.144
Further, DAY-NRLM targets women for the formation of SHGs which among other activities has themandate to generate self-employment ventures for the members of the group. Universal socialmobilisationisakeyfeatureofDAY-NRLMwhereinatleastonefemaleadultmemberfromeachidentifiedrural poor household (using SECC and PIP process) is brought under the SHGs and its federatedinstitutions ina timeboundmanner.145TheSHGsenableswomen togainaccess to commonpropertyresourceslikeland,waterandforest,therebycreatingopportunitiesfortheireconomicsecurity.Thishasbeencorroboratedbyimplementingofficialsatvariouslevelsofschemeimplementation.
IntermsofinclusionifawomanhasonedeprivationoutoftheeightSECCbaseddeprivations,thenshehasarighttobeincorporatedinanSHG.Ifyouwantwomentogetintolivelihoodactivity,thethriftandcreditwasafirststepinenablingthemtogetempoweredtotakedecisionwithinthefamilyalso,toberecognizedandequalinthefamily(SeniorDoRDofficial)
Further, ruraldevelopmentasa sector recognizeswomen in specialandvulnerable situations:widow,deserted, poor, pregnant and lactating mothers and have created provisions where they are givenpreferenceinnotonlyselectionbutalsoinensuringthattheycomplete100daysunderMGNREGS.Theworkallottedtopregnantandlactatingmothersissuchthatitisamenabletotheirspecialsituation.Inaddition,gendersensitiveinterventionssuchastheprovisionofcrèchefacilitiesatMGNREGSworksitesrecognise and address the gendered barriers women face in leaving their homes and seeking wageemployment,withcompetingchildrearingcommitments.
Enhancingskillsandleveragingcapacity:Whiletheruraldevelopmentsectorcreatesopportunitiesforwomentoenterworkspacesandbenefitfromwageemployment,italsocreatespathwaysforwomenworkerstoupgradetheirskillsandbuildtheircapacities.TheDDU-GKYprogrammemandatescoverageofat least33percentcandidates forwomenunder theskillandplacementprogramme inruralareas. Inaddition,thesectorcreatesmechanismsforleveragingexistingcapacitiesandsocial infrastructure.Inthe FY 2019-20, 1,47,246 candidates have been trained out of which 74,385 (50.5 percent) werewomen.146UnderRSETIs,duringFY2019-20,2,36,470candidatesweretrainedoutofwhich1,66,456(70.3percent)werewomen.147
UnderDAY-NRLM,theSHGshaveemergedasthevehicleforaccessingcreditbyandforwomen.Thishasbeenamajorstrategicandtacticalinterventionthathashadimpactsatmultiplelevels:increasedaccessto financial institutions, ownership over capital, credit and savings, initiator of employment andenterprise,creatorofwealthetc.
143SameasFootnote22.144MinistryofRuralDevelopment.(2020).AnnualReport2019-20.145SameasFootnote161.146SameasFootnote161.147SameasFootnote161.
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In addition to providing economic security, the SHGs have been empowering for women and haveincreasedtheircapacitytonegotiateinsocio-economicaswellasinpoliticaldecision-makingspaces.TheinstitutionofSHGanditsprimaryandsecondaryfederatedstructureshasbeendesigned,trainedandorientedtocreateaplatformthatcanbeusedbywomenforraisingtheirvoicesandcommunicatingtheirconcernstogovernment,Panchayats,financialinstitutionsandinstitutionsoperatinginthemarket.148
Mobility,safetyandsecurityforwomen:Inruralareas,mostwomentravelonfoot.Inaccessibleroadsmaketravelonfootdifficult,time-consuming,unsafe,anduncomfortable.DeficienciesinruralconnectivityadverselyimpactaccesstodevelopmentschemessuchasthePublicDistributionSystemandAnganwadiCentres.Girlstudentscannotoptimallybenefitfromincentive-driveninitiativessuchasfreebicyclesforgirl students enrolling in higher education considering that they cannot ride these to school if roadinfrastructureisinadequate.149
The rural development sector has instituted several mechanisms to ensure the security of women.CreatinganetworkofruralroadsthroughPMGSYhashelpedensurethatwomenareabletotravelsafely,in addition to increasing their access to employment opportunities and market spaces. Further,improvementinruralconnectivitythroughroadsspecificallyincreasessafeinstitutionaldeliveries,reducesmaternalandprenataldeathsandthemortalityofchildren,andincreasesenrolmentofgirlsinschoolsanduniversities.150 A progressive step taken under PMGSY has been engagingwomen from the PRIs andrepresentatives from SHGs along with the Junior Engineer, Panchayat Pradhan, local patwari in thetransectwalkthatdeterminestheconstructionandalignmentofthePMGSYroadstobebuilt,takingintoconsiderationissuesoflandavailability,andadversesocialandenvironmentalimpact.Thus,womennotonlybenefitfromtheruralconnectivityfacilitatedbyPMGSYroadsbutalsoplaykeyrolesinplanningtheruralroadsnetwork.151
Further,thesectorhasinstitutedinterventionstocreateasafeanddecentworkenvironmentforwomeninruralareas.Interventionstothiseffectincludeprovisionofcrèchefacilities(ifmorethan5childrenbelowtheageof6arepresentatworksite),provisionfortravellingallowanceiftheworksiteismorethan5kilometresfromthevillageandequalwagesforequalworkunderMGNREGS.Inlinewiththis,aDistrictlevelfunctionaryinRajasthanconfirmedthewayinwhichgender-basedassessmentsareundertakentoensurethatworksitesaregender-sensitive:
Wehave to do a gender-basedassessment to understand towhat extentwomen canbenefit froma particularscheme.Weunderstandtheworkingconditionstomakesuretheydon’tfaceanydifficultiesinworkingthere.So,foranywork,wecheckiftheworkingconditionsareproperforwomen.Also,agender-basedassessmentofbenefitsisdonetomakesureitisactuallyhelpingwomen(DistrictLevelKII,Rajasthan)
SectoralinterventionsaimedateconomicsecurityofwomenincludetheallocationofhousesunderPMAY-Ginthejointnameofhusbandandwife(Statescanalsoopttoallocatethehousesolelytowife).AsofOctober 2020, a total of 45, 01,060 sanctions (27 percent) have been made in the name of femalebeneficiaries,outofwhichatotalof24,43,108houses(67.5percent)havebeenrecordedtohavebeencompleted.40percentsanctionsweremadejointly inthenameofhusbandandwife152.Furthermore,duringthepreparationofthePermanentWaitingList(PWL),householdsareprioritisedbasedonsocio-
148MinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment,GovernmentofIndia.(2012).ReportoftheWorkingGrouponWomen’sAgencyandEmpowerment.149AsianDevelopmentBank(2019)IndiaGenderEqualityResultsCaseStudy,RuralConnectivityInvestmentProgram150ImpactAssessmentStudiesofPMGSY.(2018).WorldBank.151SameasFootnote161.152SameasFootnote161.
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economicdeprivationparameters.Thecriterionincludesfemaleheadedhouseholdswithnoadultmalememberbetweentheagegroupof16-59years.
Furthermore,socialsafetynetsunderNSAPcoverselderlywomen,womenwithdisabilities,andwidowwomen toprovide themwithdirectcashbenefits (withothervaluesaddedbyrespectiveStates)asadirectmeasuretoprovidethemwithsecurityandaccordthemopportunityforadignifiedlife.
Enabling conditions forwomen in agriculture:Whilewomen form a significant proportion of theagricultural workforce, conditions within the agricultural sector are seldom conducive for womenfarmerstoaccessagriculturalinputs,creditandlabour.Inresponsetothis,theruraldevelopmentsectorhas introducedaparadigmshiftbyrecognisinganddirectly targetingwomenengaged inagriculture.MKSP,asubschemeofDAY-NRLM,recognizesthecentralityofwomeninagricultureandprovidesthemsupporttofurtherdeepentheirroleinpromotingsustainableagricultureproductivepractices.
ConvergencewithMWCD:ConvergencelinkageswiththeMWCDhavebeenestablishedacrossvariousschemes,toensurethedevelopmentaloutcomesofwomenandgirls inruralareas inaholisticmanner.MGNREGSconvergeswiththeAnganwadiServicesschemeofMWCD,bywayofAnganwadiCentresbeingconstructedbyMGNREGSworkers.Asper the revisedguidelinesdated17February2016,2 lakhnewAnganwadibuildingsaretobeconstructedunderconvergencewithMGNREGSattherateofonelakhAnganwadibuildingsperyear.153Further,DAY-NRLMhaspartneredwithwomen’scollectivestopromotenutrition, thereby contributing to the objectives of the POSHAN Abhiyaan which seeks to achieveimprovement in nutritional status of Children from 0-6 years, Adolescent Girls, PregnantWomen &LactatingMothers(PW&LM)inatimeboundmannerduringthethreeyears.
GenderBudgeting:GenderBudgetCells(GBC)havebeenconstitutedineachMinistrytoensurethatpublic resources are allocated in an equitableway to tackle gender imbalances and promote genderequality by identifying the pressing gender needs and concerns. DoRD constituted its GBC inMarch2013.154
Takeaways
• TheRDsectorisenhancingwomen’saccesstoandcontroloverresources:TheRDschemeshaveprovidedpathwaysforwomentoaccessresourcessuchasland,naturalresources,credit,technologyetc.therebydeepeningtheirroleinagricultureandproductionprocesses.Throughtheguaranteeofwage employment at equal wages, the sector ensures access to income generation activities andeconomic independence. Further, through the provision of skill building and training, the sectorendowswomenwithnewcapacitiesandempowersthemtoventureintoentrepreneurialactivities.Inaddition,thesector’ssocialsafetynetsfacilitateaccesstobasicentitlements,therebymakingsomelevelofincomeorresourcesthepreserveoffemalebeneficiariesonly.
However,moreeffort isneeded inmakingavailablesex-disaggregateddatatorecognizewomen’srights to resources and their rights as workers. Such data is also needed to promote women’semploymentinskilled,non-traditionalandnon-genderstereotypicaltrades.Further,specificeffortsforensuring thesocio-economic inclusionanddevelopmentoutcomesofsinglewomenshouldbeundertaken.
153MinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment.(2020).AnnualReport2019-20154SameasFootnote161.
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• Female labour force participation is encouraged through the sector’s gender sensitiveinterventions: Under MGNREGS, the practice of setting quotas for minimum female workerparticipationhasproventohavepositiveimpactalthoughtheactualwomen’sparticipationratevariesbyState.InSouthIndianStateswomenparticipationratesreachashighas89percentinKerala,whileinNorthIndianStatesthenumberislowerthanthenationalaverage:notably,35percentinUttarPradesh,and30percentinJammuandKashmir.Anotherimportantgender-sensitivecomponentistheprovision forwages’ equality,which is of particular importance in the agricultural sector. ThismakestheMGNREGSmoreappealingtowomenbecausetheiraveragemarketwageislowerthanthedailyminimumwageforagriculturallabourersinmoststates.Further,componentslikeaccessibleworksite(within5kilometresofworkers’residence)andcrèchesforwomenwithchildrenbelowsixyearsaddressthesocio-culturalchallengestowomen’sengagementinthelabourmarket.155
• Themajorityofruralwomen’sworkremains invisible innationalsamplesurveys:Nationallevelsurveysoftendonotadequatelyreflectwomen’sfarmandnon-farmwork.Thisresultsinunder-reportingoftheirlabourforceparticipationaswellasadenialoftheirrightsandentitlements.156Forexample,womenworking inagricultureandalliedactivitiesarerarelyrecognisedas farmersandpositioned as household workers instead. This results in women not availing any benefits andentitlementsdesignedforfarmers.Thiscallsforregularsex-disaggregateddatacollectiontopreventthe masking of gendered disadvantages faced by women, and their contribution to the ruraldevelopmentsector.
• The sector’s women collectives have helped women scale new socio-political frontiers:Women’scollectivesholdaspecialplaceinwomen'sempowermentprocesses.Overtheyears,thenumberofSHGsunderDAY-NRLMhavegrownandover60percentofthesearewomen’sSHGs.Theseunitsarekeycomponentsofinclusive,grassrootsdemocracy.Further,theypresentopportunitiesforfinancial inclusion and undertaking prudent financial practices such as thrift and credit. Economicdecision making is seen to be closely connected to improving the status of women within thehousehold,aswasputforwardbyaseniorDoRDofficialduringoneinterview:
“DAY-NRLMisrelevanttothepoorandwomenparticularly,ithelpswomengetavoice,ithelpstogettreatedasan equal. If not equal, at least ashavinga voicewithin the familyand indecisionmakingon livelihoodactivities.Soherdecisionmakingcomesonlywhenshegetsmoneyinherhandsandthathappensbecauseofthriftandcreditonly.”–DoRDOfficial
Atthesametime,someaspectsatthesectorallevelneedtobeimprovedtoensurefurthergendermainstreaming.Theseincludeenhancingwomen’saccesstotechnologyandinfrastructure,establishingprocessingunitstoensurevalue-additionandstoragespacesforproduce(e.g.chilligrindingunit,oil-extraction unit), and ensuring women’s participation at all stages of the livelihoods value chain(particularly, post-production and marketing activities and transactions). Introducing gender-responsivelivelihoodindicatorsintheDAY-NRLMMISisalsorequired.
• There are barriers to the political participation of ruralwomen in PRIs: The 73rd and 74thAmendmentsoftheConstitutionmandateaminimum33percentrepresentationofwomenleadersinPRIs.Further,someStateshaveproactivelyincreasedtheone-thirdreservationinPanchayatsto
155Dasgupta,S.andSudarshan,R.M.(2011).Issuesinlabourmarketinequalityandwomen'sparticipationinIndia'sNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeProgramme.156FAO.(2018).Alternativedatasourcesforwomen'sworkinagriculture.
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50 percent further bolstering the presence ofwomen in decisionmaking roles. In spite of theseinterventions, the participation ofwomen in these institutions remains low.157Women’s politicalpower has not been fully harnessed as their presence has not always translated intomeaningfulpoliticalparticipationandinvolvement.
Ruralwomencontinuetofacesocial,economicandotherformsof institutionalbarriers toenteringPRIs and similar limitationswhileperformingas elected representatives. Institutionalbarriers topoliticalparticipationofwomenincludetheinadequatedevolutionoffunctions,lackoffinancialandplanningautonomy,bureaucratic influence, thepolicyof rotationof seats etc.Amongst the socialbarrierstotheirfullandeffectiveparticipationarelackofeducation,oppressivepatriarchalandcastestructures;lackofrespectofwomeninPRIs;physicalviolenceinpublicanddomesticspheres;localpoliticsspawnedbycaste/class/religiousdynamicsetc.158
Further, at the community level, there is provision for women’s participation in monitoringcommitteesandthesocialauditprocess.However,insufficientattentionhasbeengiventotheneedtoovercomeprevailingnormswhichpreventwomen’sparticipationandvoiceincommunityforums,intheirabilitytoaccessandutilisegrievanceprocedures,andinmechanismswhichaimtopromotecommunitydiscussionontheselectionandprioritisationofassetscreated.
Apartfromthebarrierstomeaningfulpoliticalparticipation,womenleadersatthelocallevelarealsonotadequatelytrainedfortherolestheyaremeanttoperform.WomenMembersandChairpersonsofPanchayats,whoareoftennewentrantsinPanchayats,needtoacquiretherequiredskillsandbegiven appropriate orientation to assume their rightful roles as leaders and decision makers.Imparting training toelected representativesofPRIs forprogrammesunder theDoRD (includingextending financial assistance to the States/UTs with a view to improve the quality of trainingprogrammesandtocatalysecapacitybuildinginitiativesfortheelectedmembersandfunctionariesofPRIs)shouldbefurtherimproved.
• Capacitybuildingforprogrammespecificandlocallevelgendermainstreamingneedsmoreattention: Ithasbeenfoundthatgender-responsivenessofaprogramme’sdeliverymechanismiscrucialtoensuringgenderoutcomes.Inthisregard,gendertrainingsattheBlock,DistrictandStatelevel for coreprogramme functionaries andProject ImplementationAgency (PIA) staff shouldbeorganized. Dedicated budgets for gender trainings could be earmarked from Capacity Buildingbudgets,andamoduleongendershouldbeaccommodated.
Inordertoenablewomentoleavetheirhomesandventureintowageemployment,entrepreneurshipand skills training, behaviour change at the local level is crucial. However, gender-sensitisationcomponentsatthevillageleveltoencouragesuchbehaviourchangearecurrentlymissing.Specialattention need to be paid to the need to overcome prevailing norms which prevent women’sparticipationandvoiceincommunityforums.
• ICT shouldbe leveraged further toensure information flow towomen: The advancementofInformation and Communication Technologies (ICTs) has brought new opportunities for bothknowledgesharingandknowledgegatheringforbothwomenandmen.ICTcanprovideunlimitedopportunities foreconomicdevelopmentandsocialengagement throughnew innovative thinking
157PrillamanS.(2019).ThepersistentgendergapinpoliticalparticipationinIndia,IdeasforIndia.158MinistryofWomenandChildDevelopment.(2011).XIIFiveYearPlan.ReportoftheWorkingGrouponWomen’sAgencyandEmpowerment.GovernmentofIndia.
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and tools. With the growth of media and ICT, it is important that women are brought into themainstreamagendaforensuringthatthebenefitsoftechnologyalsoflowtothem.TheGovernmentisalreadytakingvariousstepstopromoteICTthroughtheITforMassesschemewhichhaswomenasaspecifictargetgroup;SancharShaktiSchemeofUniversalServiceObligationFundetc.However,furtherinitiativesneedtobeundertakeninthisdirection.
UnderMGNREGSinparticular,whiletherehasbeenafocusonraisingawarenessabouttherightto100daysof employment, thishasbeenunevenacross the country.159 Importantly, therehasbeenlimitedattention to the implicationsofwomen’s lower literacyrates, especiallywithregards to thedemand driven nature ofMGNREGSwhich relies on amulti-layeredwritten application process.Againstthisbackdrop,ICTsshouldbeleveragedtoenhancewomen’saccesstoschemeinformation,andtoencouragetheassertionoftheirrightstowork.
WayForward
• Thesectorshouldenhanceitsfocusongendermainstreamingfromapolicyperspective:Itisimperative to mainstream gender through a top-down approach wherein gender equality andwomen’s rights are included as explicit goals in the vision statement and objectives of all ruraldevelopmentprogrammes.
• Itisimportanttoreviewthegender-sensitivenessofemploymentopportunitiesforwomenworkers:An analysis of the work provided should be undertaken to assess whether it suits thecapacities of women who participate in MGNREGS. The list of permissible work should then beexpandedtoallowforgreaterdiversityofgender-sensitiveactivities.SuchactivitiescanincludetheuseofMGNREGSwagescomponent toprovidehumanresources toruncrèchesunderMGNREGS,providingopportunitiestosetupvermi-culturecompostingunitsthatregeneratethelandetc.Otherworkssuchascommonfacilitycentres,SHGmeetingandchildcarecentreswhichwomencanthenmaintainshouldalsobeconsidered.
Atpresent,thewagesunderMGNREGSiscalculatedonapiece-ratebasis.However,suchasystemfetcheswomenverylittlemoneygiventhatwomenworkersareengagedintaskssuchasliftingandcarryingloadsontheirheads,whereasmenperformtaskslikediggingwhichisbetterremunerated.Thescheduleofratesshould,therefore,beimprovedashasbeendoneinsomestateslikeAndhraPradesh,TamilNadu,Rajasthan,etc.
• Mechanismstomeasureandrecognizewomen’sworkneedtobeinstituted:Itisimportanttoreviewthelanguageandterminologiesusedforwomenandwomen’swork.Forinstance,whensomewomenarecalled‘home-basedworkers’theyarecategorizedaswageearnersintheinformalsector.However, if they are thought of and addressed as ‘producers’ or ‘entrepreneurs’, the wholeperspectivewouldchange.Insteadofdemandingbetterwagesforsuchwomenthefocuswouldshifttotheirrightsandentitlementsasproducerswhichincludeslowinterestcredit,betterskilltrainingandmarketaccess.RDschemesshouldcreateopportunitiesforfemaleemploymentinnon-genderstereotypicalandskilledrolesandimplementtargetsforequalemploymentofwomenatalllevelswithinaprogramme.
Further,DoRDshouldmaketimeboundplansforensuringcollectionofsex-disaggregateddataacrossall socio-economic categories, including religiousminorities,marital status etc. Sex-disaggregated
159Carswell,G.andDeNeve,G.(2014).MGNREGAinTamilNadu:astoryofsuccessandtransformation.
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datashouldbecollectedtorecognizewomen’swork,enhancetheiraccesstorightsandentitlementsaswellashelpassesstheeffectivenessofaprogramme.Collectionofdatadisaggregatedbysocio-economic categories would also be helpful for developing specific programmatic responses forvulnerablegroupssuchassinglewomen,SCandSTwomen.
• Thesectorshouldtargetspecificvulnerablegroupsthroughfocusedinterventions:Whileruralwomen face gendered disadvantages that lower their access to resources and assets, certainvulnerable women face additional challenges due to their marital or socio-economic status.Vulnerablewomenlikesinglewomen,headsoffemaleheadedhouseholds,womenbelongingtoSCand ST populations have been observed to experience socio-economic vulnerabilities of higherdegrees. This necessitates targeted interventions for their benefit. At the outset, data collectiondisaggregated by socio-economic categories and marital status would be the first step towardsenvisioning focused interventions for thesegroups(asmentioned in thepreviouspoint).Suggestedpolicyactionsaredetailedbelow:
o Singlewomen:Toencouragemoresinglewomentoengageinwageemployment,itisimperativetodefineanuclearfamilyasahouseholdunderMGNREGS.Inordertoensuretheiraccesstoequalwages,special jobcards forsinglewomenmaybeconsidered.Further, toencourageeconomicindependence among single women, separate federations of single women at the Block andDistrictlevelshouldbepromoted.Singlewomenshouldalsobegivenpreferenceingrantofcreditwithflexiblepaymentmodalitiesandlowerinterest,soastofueltheirparticipationinleadershiproles and entrepreneurship. Alongside, constant awareness creation activities should beundertakenwithinboththematernalandmatrimonialhomes,tomakesinglewomenawareoftheirrightsandentitlements.
o SCWomen: For SCwomen, a rights-basedapproach shouldbe adopted rather than awelfare-oriented one in education; health services; ownership of land and its development throughirrigationandothermeans;employment;andinprovisionsforhousingandlivingconditions.SCwomenshouldbeprovidedgoodandadequatehouse-sites inthejointnamesofthemselvesandtheir spouses and their living conditions improved through provision of satisfactory drainage,sanitationroads,electricityandwatersources
o ST Women: Focus should be laid on awareness building among ST women about policies,programmes,schemesandlegislationsmeantforthem.ToexpandtheaccesstocreditandbankingfacilitiestoSTwomen,itshouldbeensuredthatthebankingcorrespondentmodelunderDAY-NRLM targets STwomen as correspondents and as beneficiaries.Convergence among varioussubsidyandloanschemesofCentralandStategovernmentsshouldalsobeensured,sothatbothsubsidyandlowinterestloansareavailabletoSTwomen.Furthermore,effectiveimplementationofMGNREGSinTribalBlocksshouldbeensuredtopreventdistressmigrationandtrafficking.
• Mechanisms to enhance meaningful political participation of women leaders should beimplemented: It is imperative thatDoRDaccelerate thedevolutionof responsibilities, powersandresourcestoensurewomen’sleadershipfordeliveryofservicesandsocialchange.Alongwiththis,itisrecommendedthatDoRDincreasetheresourceallocationforcapacitybuildingandintensivetrainingofallelectedPanchayatwomenrepresentatives.
Inaddition,pre-electionpreparationofwomencandidatesandvoterswillalsohelpwomenleaderstonavigatesocialandculturalbarrierstofemalepoliticalparticipation.Cost-effectiveelectionsshouldbefacilitatedsothatwomenfrompoorandmarginalisedsectionscanaspiretoenterPanchayatsandtakeleadershiproleinthecommunity.Further,DoRDshouldlooktopromotealliances,federations,
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acrossPanchayatsandacrosswomeninPRIsandSHGs,therebycreatinganempoweringeco-systemforfemaleleadershipandgendermainstreaminginterventions.
• Womenworkersshouldbegivenmoredecisiveroles intheexecutionofworks: Inorder toensuregreaterfemaleleadershipandownershipoftheRDschemes,itisimportantforwomenandwomen’sgroupstoplaykeyrolesintheschemeimplementation.TheGramSabhaisakeyplatformfordiscussion,planninganddecisionmakingonthedevelopmentalworkstobeundertakeninavillage.Mandatingaminimum33percentparticipationofwomenatGramSabhaswouldbeonewaytoensurethat the voice ofwomen is heard and actedupon in the context of the village’s development. Bymakingwomeninstrumentalintheselectionofworks,therewouldalsobechecksandbalancesontheselectionofworksthatareunsuitableforthehealthofwomenworkers.Further, includingWomen’sGroupsasimplementingagenciesofMGNREGSworkswouldalsoendowwomenwithimportantrolesintheexecutionofRDschemes.
• Focus on credit access and financial inclusion of women should bemaintained: While themicrofinancemovementhasmadegreat inroads into the financial sector, there is aneed tomovebeyond aswomennowneed largeramountsof credit forentrepreneurshipactivities,exposure totraining on running a business including pricing and budgeting, and also access to pension andinsuranceproducts.SHGsshouldalsobeclassifiedunderprioritysectorsandshouldbegivenloanatconcessionalrates.TheDoRDshouldlooktoextendfinancialsupportandseedcapitaltofederationsofwomenSHGsuptotheBlockorDistrictlevels,andProducerCompaniesofwomenfarmersandagricultureworkers.Thesegroupsshouldbedevelopedasmodelsofeconomicempowermentandalsobecomeprimemoversinlocalgovernance.
• Buildinggender-relatedcapacitiesofallRDfunctionariesshouldbeemphasized:Capacitiesofallgovernmentofficers, frontline functionariesand implementingagenciesshouldbeenhancedtoenable them todesignand implementpolicieswhich centre-stagewomen’s rights and entitlements.Officialsshouldbeequippedthroughregulartrainingsandworkshops,withcapacitiesandtoolstoadoptagenderlensintheirwork.Intensivetrainingandcapacitybuildingmechanismsshouldalsobeinstitutedtohelpofficialsundertakegenderbudgetandgenderauditinrurallocalbodies.
• Pathwaysforruralwomentobecomeawareandaccessinformationshouldbestrengthened:Itisimportanttoinstitutehumanresourcesandinfrastructuretoletwomendisseminateandaccessinformation on their rights and entitlements. DoRD should explore setting up Gender ResourceCentresinallDistrictstohelpwomengaincriticalinformationandknowledge.Further,thecreationofacadreofwomenworkersineachvillage(suchasGenderCommunityResourcePersons(CRPs)/womenleadersorganizedunderruraldevelopmentprogrammesorbyNGOs)shouldbeconsidered.These women workers would be responsible for enhancing capacities of rural women to accessinformation,entitlementsand institutions, technicalknowledge;andsupportingvictimsofviolence.TheGender CRPs thuswould not only address livelihood issues, but also focus on the social andpoliticalempowermentofruralwomen.
In addition, the existing community radio policymay be reviewed, if necessary, to enablewomen’sfederations to undertake community radio initiatives. DoRD should look to provide support towomen’s federations forundertakingcommunityradioprogrammes tospread informationonRDschemesforwomen,thebenefitsandentitlements,therebyenhancingawarenesslevelsandmitigatingknowledgegapsstemmingfromfemaleilliteracytosomeextent.
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(iii) DirectandIndirectEmploymentGeneration
Introduction
“Unemploymenthasmanyfar-reachingeffectsotherthanlossofincome,includingpsychologicalharm,lossofworkmotivation,skillsandself-confidence,increaseinailments,disruptionoffamilyrelationsandsociallife, hardening of social exclusion and accentuation of gender inequalities”160. In India, the problem ofunemploymenttakesmanyforms,particularlyinruralIndia.Theseincludeconcealedunemployment,pre-dominanceofinformalsector,urbanareasbeingfulcrumofjobcreation,lowparticipationofwomenintheworkforce.ThesearesomeaspectswhichDoRDislookingtotacklethroughitsschemes.
Background
Employment generation in any economy depends on how fully and productively society utilizes thematerial,technological,organizationalandhumanresourcesatitsdisposal.Higherproductivityresultsingreaterefficiencyandwithwhichitproducesgoodsaswellasbetterquality,whichinturnleadstogreater the demand for those goods and services in the marketplace. This augments employmentopportunitiesandpurchasingpowercreated.Despiteincreasingurbanization,alargefractionofIndia’spoor remain in rural areas. Majority of the population works in casual labour markets in both theagricultural and non-agricultural sectors in which there are few returns to skill and labour marketexperience, andwhere earning potential is limited. The return to this labour often does not generatehouseholdearningsthataresufficientforahouseholdthatincludesnonworkingdependentstoriseabovethepovertyline.Thus,thegovernmenthasakeyroletoplayinemploymentgenerationinthecountry.
Moreover, as people move out of agriculture, householdincome and access to non-farm economicopportunities—ratherthan just farm-level production diversity or farm incomes—become equallyimportantpredictorsofhouseholdfoodandnutritionsecurity.Thisisdrivenbythefactthat,asagriculturalsystemsmodernizeandmarketsdevelop,thereisanincreasingseparationbetweentheproductionandconsumptiondecisionsofhouseholds.161
AsperPeriodicLabourForceSurvey(PLFS)estimates,theshareofregularwage/salariedemployeeshasincreasedby5percentagepoints from18percent in2011-12 to23percent in2017-18asperusualstatus162.Inabsoluteterms,therewasasignificantjumpofaround2.62crorenewjobsinthiscategorywith 1.21 crore in rural areas. Theproportion ofwomenworkers in regularwage/salaried employeescategoryhasincreasedby8percentagepoints(from13percentin2011-12to21percentin2017-18).Among the self-employed category (consists of employers, own account workers and unpaid familylabour),whiletheproportionofownaccountworkersandemployershasincreased,theproportionofunpaid family labour (helper)hasdeclined, especially for femalesbetween2011-12and2017-18.Theproportion of total self-employed workers however remained unchanged at 52 percent during thisperiod.163
For direct employment in rural India, the biggest programme is theMahatmaGandhiNational RuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct(MGNREGA),whichwaspassedin2005.MGNREGSseekstoprovide100daysofguaranteedwageemploymenttoruralhouseholdswillingtoperformunskilledmanualwork.Itmakesspecialprovisionsforwomenandforthedistancewithinwhichthejobmustbeavailabletojob-seekersforconvenience.OthereffortstoprovidedirectemploymentopportunitieshavebeenthroughSHGsin
160Sen,A.,DevelopmentasFreedom,Page94.OxfordUniversityPress.161PingaliP.,andSunderN.(2017)TransitioningTowardNutrition-SensitiveFoodSystemsinDevelopingCountries162Usualstatusgivesanideaaboutaverageworkingconditionofanindividualforentirereferenceyear163SameasFootnote31.
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DAY-NRLMandproviding employment in government departments and offices at various positions andlevels.DoRDhasalsoattemptedtoprovideindirectemploymentopportunitiesthroughtheinfrastructureprogrammesconstructinghousingandroads.Theseassetsalsoaidtheabilityoftheprivatesectortoinvitemorejobapplicantsandcreatelivelihoodopportunities.
IthoweverneedstoberealisedthatpeopleinruralIndiaoftendependonmorethanoneresourceandmorethanoneactivityforearningtheirlivelihoods.Raisingfoodsecurityenhancingcropsonasmallpieceofland,rearinglivestock,andmigratingtocitiesasunskilledlabourarealltheactivitiesafamilymayundertaketoearnenoughmoneyforsustenance.‘SecurityofLivelihoods’issomethingeveryoneaspiresforandisakeyaspectofDoRDprogrammes.
MGNREGS is amilestone in the history of rural development in India and is the largest governmentintervention of this kind globally. Providing employment to unskilledworkers directly and ensuringlivelihood security for the poor is one of the most important goals of MGNREGS. However,implementationhasthrownnewchallenges,especiallythechallengeofmakingthebestuseoflargesumsofmoneyfrompublicexchequerwhilealsopluggingtheleakagesinthesupplypipelinebeforeitreachesthewagelabourerinthevillage.GovernmentofIndiaandStateGovernmentshavemadehugeeffortstowardmeetingthischallenge.
Apart from the aspect of direct employment to households for 100 days, creation of durable andproductiveassets includingimprovedwatersecurity,soilconservationandhigherlandproductivitytoimprovelivelihoodopportunitiesarebeingundertaken.TherevisedOperationalGuidelinesofMGNREGSincluded30newpermissibleworksunderSchedule11includingWatershedRelatedWorks,WatershedRelatedWorks in Mountain Regions, Agriculture RelatedWorks, Livestock RelatedWorks, FisheriesRelatedWorksandIrrigationCommandRelatedWorks.ThishashelpedstrengthenthepositivesynergybetweenMGNREGSandagricultureandalliedrurallivelihoods,torespondtothedemandsoftheStatesforgreaterlocationspecificflexibilityinpermissibleworksandtohelpimprovetheecologicalbalanceinruralIndiaandtoprovideacleaner,healthierenvironmentfortheruralpopulation.164
DAY-NRLMseekstoreachoutto8-9croreruralpoorhouseholdsandorganizeone-womanmemberfromeachhouseholdintospecificwomenSHGsbasedoninterestsandfederationsatvillageandathigherlevels.Support isprovidedtothewomenforemploymentandself-employmentventuresundertheschemetoenhancetheirfarmlivelihoodsandnon-farmlivelihoodthroughvariouscomponentsofschemessuchasorganic farming,Krishi Sakhi, PashuSakhi, dairy value chain interventions,AajeevikaGrameenExpressYojana,Start-upVillageEntrepreneurshipProgrammeetc.DAY-NRLMprovidesRevolvingFunds(RF)attherateofRs.10,000-15,000perSHGandCommunityInvestmentSupportFund(CISF)totheextentofRs.2.5lakhperSHGtosupporttheirincomegeneratingandlivelihoodactivities.
Further, the government’s effort to formalise the economy with measures like introduction of GST,digitisation of payment, DBT and opening of Jan Dhan accounts have led to an increase in formalemploymentinruralIndia.165
Thenon-farmsectorplaysaveryimportantroleforjobcreationinruralareas,especiallyalongtherural-urban continuum for structural transformation to take place. There is a blurring of rural-urbandistinction,whichprovidesanopportunitytodiversifytheportfolioofeconomicopportunitiesavailabletorural households, thereby enabling greater rural income and improved access to food and nutrition
164Circular,GuidelinesfortheNew/AdditionalWorksPermittedUnderMGNREGA.165SameasFootnote31.
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providedthatthisisadequatelyleveraged.166SPMRMiscertainlyplayinganimportantroleinthisregard.Asvillagesfaceashortageofemploymentopportunitiesduetodiminishingreturnstoagricultureandmore attractive avenues becoming in urban areas, the quantum of relocation to urban areas can betremendous.SPMRMpreventsthisisbyinducingan‘inversemovement’asbasicinfrastructureandutilitiesare provided, and industrialization is promoted. This leads to a steady increase in the employmentopportunitiesinRurbanareas.
FurthereffortstoprovideaccesstoemploymentthroughRuralDevelopmentschemeswashighlightedbygovernmentofficialsduringthecourseofthisstudy.ThepositiveimpactsoftheseprogrammesonthemostvulnerablesocialsgroupsinIndiawerealsoraisedinqualitativeinterviews:
Renovationoflakes,damn,canalshasbroughtanimprovementinirrigationfacilities,thuspromotingemploymentinagriculture.(…)Alongwiththis,weareworkingonskilldevelopmentofwomenunderskilldevelopmentmission.We have provided opportunities to 3,000 women in our District directly through stitching work. Creation ofemployment opportunities in small scale industries has also been done” - Aspirational District Fellowship,Jharkhand
“Notjustthebackwardclasspeople,allthosewhoneedworkarecomingtous.Eventheforwardclasspeople,OBC,SC,ST,womenallarecoming.Onebenefitof this is that theyarecomingtoworkearly in themorningandarecompletingtheworktheyhavebeenassignedandearning”-BDO,AndhraPradesh
Takeaways
• Improvingnon-farmemploymentneedsafocusonagriculture:Avibrantagriculturalsectorisessentialforthegrowthofnon-farmsectorbecauseofthelargedependenceonitforfoodsecurityandemployment.Mostoftheruralhouseholdsdoearnacertainpartoftheirincomefromagriculturewhile diversifying their income portfolio in India.167 Throughproduction linkages, agricultureconnects to non-farm suppliers of raw materials and farm inputs. There areconsumptionlinkageswhen the gains from agricultural income are spent on locally produced non-farm goods.Throughthesupplyoflabourtonon-agriculturalactivitiesduringtheleanseason,andinvestmentinnon-agriculturalactivities, agriculture is connected to theeconomy throughfactormarkets.Thereareproductivitylinkages through reduced food prices. The reverse takes place too when newerindustriescouldignitethedemandforagriculturalproducts.Thechallengeforamorevibrantfoodsystemistoensurethatmovementtowardsnon-farmemploymentisnotastep-down.
• Increasing rural productivity has amultiplier effect: It needs to be realized that rising ruralincomesconsequenttohigherproductivitywillunleashamultipliereffect, increasingdemandforfarm and non-farm products and services, thereby stimulating rapid growth of employmentopportunities inothersectors.Theessentialrequirementof livelihoodsecurity iseveryonehavingadequateaccesstoresourcesandincomeearningactivitiesonasustainedbasis,i.e.,thisaccessshouldbelongterm,anditshouldgivebenefitinthelongrun.
• Qualityof employmentaffectsproductivity: Thequality of jobs being created in thenon-farmsector can be dubbed as ordinary—informal and casual—regarding their potential for ruraltransformation and lowering structural poverty. The poor quality of rural non-farm sector jobsespeciallyforwomenleadstogreaterwithdrawalfromthelabourmarket168.Poverty,vulnerabilityto
166SameasFootnote36.167SameasFootnote42.168 Chatterjee U., Murgai R., RamaM. (2015) Job Opportunities along the Rural-Urban Gradation and Female Labor ForceParticipationinIndia,WorldBank
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poverty,andinformalemploymentstatusarehighlyassociated.Around79percentofworkerswhowork in the informal sector canbe classified aspoorwithout any jobor social security169. Theseworkersnotonlyworkatlowwages,buttheirworkingconditionsarealsomiserable.
• MGNREGS has helped promote livelihoods yet is a last resort: Introduction of the publicemploymentprograms,suchasMGNREGS,havealsofacilitatedafastermovetowardstheruralnon-farm sector. There are three distinct features of MGNREGS, which have been utilized very well,namely: (a)guaranteedemployment foreveryadultpersonwho iswillingtodomanualwork, (b)empowermentoftheGramPanchayatandGramSabha(GS)todecideonworksthatcanbetakenupforprovidingemploymentondemand,and(c)prioritizationofworksthatresultincreationofassetsforstrengtheningoflivelihoodsofpoor.Yettheselivelihoodavenuesarealastresortmeansforthoseinthelowerincomequintiles,castingdoubtsonthelong-runwelfareofthistransition170.Further,implementationoftheschemeisbeingadverselyaffectedduetolackofawarenessabouttheschemeatdifferentlevels.AlongwithawarenessaboutMGNREGS,athoroughknowledgeandunderstandingoflivelihoodspromotionisalsoneeded.171
• Gram Panchayats play a significant role: When GPs and villagers together decide that theythemselveswanttobringaboutintermsofapositivechangeintheirsituation–thebestsolutionsarefound.Ithelpsinundertakingresponsibilityfortheirowndevelopmentandrealisingthattheyareinthebestpositiontounderstandwhattheyneedandwhattheyhave.Theyalsorealizethattheyhavetherighttoutilizethecommonpropertyresourcesaswellastheresponsibilitytonurturethemandutilizetheminasustainablemanner.Inclusiveprocessandassuranceofbenefitstoeveryfamilyisalsoimportant.172
• SecurityofLivelihoodsrequiresfocus:Intheabsenceofvisionandparticipationinthecommunity,worksareplannedinanadhocmanner.Invariably,planslackreflectionofthepeople’saspirationsandneedsinit.Itissignificantthatpeopledonotjustdemandemployment,butproactivelysuggestmeansofcreatingemployment.173Analysisoflivelihoodsituationsenablesidentificationofspecificgapsandconsequentsolutionstoensuresustainedsecurelivelihoods.
• Diversification of livelihoods through SHGs can significantly contribute to employmentopportunities:DAY-NRLMsupportstheruralpoorinbuildingtheirskillsandcapabilitiesforself-employment,enablingthemtograduatefromdependenceonsafetynetstobuildingproductiveassetsof theirown. Producergroups inagriculture,dairying, and thenon-farmsectorarebetterable toupgrade technologies to improve the productivity and quality of their products, access marketinformation,developvaluechains,attracttheprivateandcooperativesectortodobusinesswiththem,andnegotiatefairertermsoftradefortheirproductsandservices.Additionally,DAY-NRLMcoversruralyouthwhowillbeempoweredwiththeskillsneededinIndia’srapidlychanginglabourmarket.Thiswillenablethemtoaccessnewjobopportunitiesintheservicessector,connectingthehithertolaggingruralregionstothemainstreameconomy,andhelpingIndiatocapitalizeonitsdemographicdividend.
169NationalCommissionforEnterprisesintheUnorganizedSector.(2008).ReportonDefinitionalandStatisticalIssuesRelatingtoinformalEconomy.170NationalSampleSurvey.171PingaliP.,AiyarA.,AbrahamM.,RahmanA(2019),RuralLivelihoodChallenges:MovingoutofAgriculture..172AbdulAzeez,N.(2020).ModelforPerformanceofMGNREGSinRuralAssetCreation.173MinistryofRuralDevelopment,BuildingSustainableLivelihoodofthePoorthroughMGNREGA.
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• Greaterinteractionalongrural-urbanspacescanbeexpected:Indiaisexpectedtobe60percenturbanby2050.174Further,withbetterinfrastructureandcommunicationnetworks,reducedphysicaldistanceandculturalbarriersbetweenruralandurbanresidentsare likely.Agriculture, therefore,maynolongercontinuetobethedefiningfeatureoftheeconomicandculturallifeinruralareas.Thisrural transformation—an essential part of structural transformation—entails greater interactionalong the rural-urban spaces, therebypromotingagricultural productivity andgreatermarketablesurpluses.Thiscouldthenfacilitateoverallproductiondiversification,newformsoflivelihoodandbetterinfrastructureprovisioninruralareas.Spatialboundariesacrosstherural-urbandichotomiesareincreasinglygettingblurredaswithlargerruralareasbecomingindistinguishablefromthesmallurbanareas,especiallyregardingtheoccupationalpatternsandbuilt-upareacharacterizations175.Therightsetofpublicpolicies,however,areessentialtoensurethatsmooth,inclusiveandsustainableurbanizationforstructuraltransformationtakesplace.
• Infrastructurecreationhasbothdirectandindirectimpactonlivelihoods:Roadinfrastructurecontributessignificantly—throughgreaterdietarydiversityandhigheragriculturalinputusage—tothefoodsystem.Further,accessbypavedorunpavedroadsandfrequentbusservicesincreasetheoddsofnon-agriculturalemploymentamongmenandwomen.Theeffectofroadaccessonnon-farmemploymentisstrongeramongwomenthanamongmen.Improvedtransportationinfrastructurehasastrongerpositiveeffectonwomen'snon-farmemploymentincommunitieswithmoreegalitariangendernorms.176
WayForward
• InvestmentinruralInfrastructureshouldbeincreased:Itisoftenthepoorestwhoarelockedoutof this market because of marginalized social groups or small land holding. Investment in ruralinfrastructure goes a longway in reducing the economic distance between rural and urban areas.Reduction in this distance abets rural transformation, integrates markets and thereby facilitatesgreateraccesstonon-farmemploymentopportunities,especiallyforwomen.NewpavedroadsunderthePMGSY improveavailable transportation services facilitating the reallocationof labourout ofagriculture.
• Renewedfocusonfoodsystemsisrequired:Foodsystemsextendfarbeyondagriculturallandandproductionandprovidefood,energyandnutritiontothepopulation.Atthesametime,theyalsoservean economic and social role through enhancing householdaccess to food. Access comes throughincomeandbetterjobs.Asthefoodsystemscutacrossagriculture,healthandnutrition,povertyandtheenvironment,itcanalsobeleveragedtocreatejobs.Mostnewjobsintheruralareaswouldbecreated in the non-farm sector. As the agricultural value chains develop, therewould begreaterdemandforthosewhocanworkinrelatedlogistics,fromaggregationtostorageandprocessing.Withtherightsetofskillstoyouth,thesesectorscouldbecomeamajorsourceofjobcreation.
• SHGsshouldbefurtherleveragedtoprovideskillsandincreasetheworkforceparticipationofruralwomenandyouth:Mostruralwomen in Indiaworkontheirhousehold farmasunpaidlabour.AccordingtothelatestCensusfigures,workforceparticipationrateofruralwomenisonly30percentcomparedto53percentforruralmales.AnotherfundamentalfeatureofwomeninruralIndiaistheirlowhumancapital.On58percentoftheruralwomenareliteratecomparedto77percentof
174MinisterofstateforurbandevelopmentRaoInderjitSinghinLokSabha,July2016175SameasFootnote185.176LeiL,DesaiS.,&VannemanR(2019)TheImpactofTransportationInfrastructureonWomen'sEmploymentinIndia
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ruralmen.Thisimpliesthatalmostone-fourthofruralnon-farmworkersinIndiaareilliterate.Lackof education and the required skills inhibit a smooth and timely transition into the non-farmsector.Sinceconstructionsectordoesnotrequiremuchskills,thissectorprovidesthegreatestshareof non-farmwork. The formal service sectorwhichprovides a better quality of employment andwrittencontracts,however,requiresmoreskilledandeducatedworkers.
• Community awareness regarding entitlements needs to be improved: There is anunprecedentedemphasisonarights-basedapproachtodevelopmentthroughaseriesoflandmarklegislationslikeRighttoInformationAct,MGNREGA,ForestRightsAct,andRighttoEducationActetc.WhiletheseActs,backedbyhugefinancialoutlays,aretransferringmuchgreaterresourcestotherural areas, full benefits of these legislations and schemes can only be harnessed when thecommunitiesareorganized,whentheycandemandtheirrightsandentitlements,andwhenthereisabackupsupporttothecommunitiestomeaningfullyutilizetheentitlementsforlong-termgains.
• RuralDevelopmentmustalso focusonan increase in theservicesector: ServicessectorhasplayedamajorroleinstructuraltransformationofIndianeconomybutitsachievementsduringtherecent yearsweremainly concentrated towardsurbanareas. This sector in rural areaswitnesseddecelerationinoutputaswellasemploymentafter2004-05.Animportantreasonforthisisincreasedrelianceofruralconsumersonserviceproviderslocatedinurbanareas.Ruralareashavecomparativeadvantageinserviceslikepost-harvestvalueaddition,onfarmstorage,primaryprocessing,gradingetc.177
(iv) Climatechange&sustainabilityincludingadoptionofclimate-changeresilientpractices&diversifications
Introduction
India is a large emerging economy with a variety of geographical regions, biodiversity and naturalresources. Itis also a country severely affectedbyclimate change, especially in areaswherepeople'slivelihoodsdependonnaturalresources.MorethanhalfofIndia’spopulationofover1billionpeoplelivesinruralareasanddependsonclimate-sensitivesectorslikeagriculture,fisheriesandforestryfortheirlivelihoods. Undertaking climateadaptation measures have a renewed significance forsafeguardingrurallivelihoodsandensuringsustainabledevelopment.Climatechange inruralareas ismakinganimpactonbothrurallivelihoodsandruralinfrastructure.Theseimpactsvaryindegreeandcontent across different agricultural climatic regions in the country. The sectoral approach to ruraldevelopment so far has adopted conservation and development of natural resource base as part ofimprovingthefastdepletingnaturalresourcesinthecountryside.
Natural resourcesand theenvironmentarealreadyunderpressureasa resultof rapidurbanisation,industrializationandeconomicdevelopment.Climatechangeisprojectedtoexacerbatethesepressures.Aconsiderablethreatisposedtopoorfarmersandruralcommunitiesasevenasmallincreaseinlocaltemperaturescouldleadtoreducedcropyieldsforthoselivingatlowerlatitudes,especiallyinseasonallydryandtropicalregions.Morefrequentandextremeweatherevents,suchasdroughtsandfloods,areexpectedtomakelocalcropproductionevenmoredifficult
Background
177SameasFootnote41.
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Rural Development through its schemes can contribute to improved natural resource conservation,increased efficiency of resource use, reduced negative environmental impacts, strengthened climateresilienceofcommunitiesandcontributiontoclimatechangemitigationthrough178:
• Investinginregeneratingnaturalresources;• Mobilizinganddevelopingthecapacitiesofcommunityinstitutionstoutilizenaturalresourcesin
asustainablemanner;and• Aggregating‘smallinitiatives’inseverallocationstoimprovenaturalcapitalonamacroscale.
Amajorrolethatpublicinvestmentplaysintheruraleconomyistostimulategrowthbyencouragingand“crowdingin”moreprivateinvestment.RuraldevelopmentschemeshavethepotentialtoplaythisroleinIndia.Greeningruraldevelopmentcanstimulatelocalgrowthbyprovidingopportunitiesforprivateinvestmentingreenbusinessessuchasrenewableenergygeneration,organicinputchainsandadvisoryservices,greenproduct supplychainsandproductionofenvironment-friendlyconstructionmaterials(fly-ash and rice husk ash cement, fly-ash and limestone bricks, filler slabs for roofs etc.). Ruraldevelopment schemes can help widely disseminate information on green technologies and give animpetustoenvironmentfriendlyinnovationsinagriculture,processing,housingandconstructionofruralroads.RuraldevelopmentschemessuchastheNRLMcouldinclude‘newstyle’interventionstoimprovetheproductivityandcompetitivenessofselected‘green’enterprises.179
There is currently a lack of climate vulnerability assessment of the rural sector in terms of how theincreased frequency of extreme weather events (floods, cyclones, hailstorms, extended periods ofdroughts)are likely toaffect rural infrastructureand livelihoods.These factorsarenotbuilt into thedesignandassessmentofDoRD’sprogrammaticinterventionseventhoughprogrammeslikeMGNREGShavein-builtdesignthatcanbeusedtodevelopclimateresilientplansforspecificgeographies(waterandsoilconservationworks, reforestation,waterharvestingetc.).Theseworkshavenotbeenwoventogether as climate adaptive plans or strategies based on local climate vulnerabilities. The need forincludingclimatechangeadaptationsinprogrammedesignstemfromtheneedforsustainableusageofnaturalresourcessuchaswater,soilandland;climateresilienceofproductionsystems,livelihoodsandhabitats;andstrengtheninglivelihoodssecurityandmakingpublicexpendituremoreeffective.
TheGovernmentofIndiaissuedtheNationalActionPlanonClimateChange(NAPCC)onJune30,2008.TheNAPCC is the framework for Union and State governments to address the challenges of climatechange.OneimportantunderlyingprincipleofNAPCCistoharnessdevelopmentagainstclimatechangethus protecting the poor and vulnerable sections of society through an inclusive and sustainabledevelopmentstrategy.TheNAPCCdefineseightcriticalareascalled“NationalMissions”:Solar,EnhancedEnergy Efficiency, Sustainable Habitat, Water, Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, 'Green India'(reforestation),SustainableAgriculture,andStrategicKnowledgeforClimateChange.In2009,thePrimeMinister's Council on Climate Change called upon the Indian states to prepare StateAction Plans onClimateChange(SAPCCs)consistentwiththestrategyoutlinedintheNationalActionPlanonClimateChange.
Somekeyfocusareasinclimatechangeadaptation,whichDoRDcanfocusonincludes:
• Vulnerabilityandriskassessments:Astructuredapproachtoclimatechangevulnerabilityandriskassessmentsprovidesascientificbasisfordecision-makingtoreducetheadverseimpactsofclimatechange.Theseassessmentsuseexpertcontributionsfromallrelevantstakeholdersandthusprovideasolidbasisfordecision-makingatpolicylevel.Furthermore,theyhelptobridge
178UNDP(2012),GreeningRuralDevelopmentinIndia.179RodrickD.(2004),IndustrialPolicyfortheTwentyFirstCentury.
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theexistinggapbetweenglobalclimatechangescenariosandlocalriskanalyses.Thisstructured,yetsimpleapproachtovulnerabilityandriskassessmentcanalsobeusedbyotherfederalstates.
• Adaptation measures: Carrying out adaptation measures helps increase the resilience ofcommunities to dealwith climate change. Evaluating and communicating the results of thesemeasuresenrichesoveralladaptationknowledge,whichleadstoreplicationatalargerscale.
• Climateproofingpublicprogrammes:Climateproofingpublicprogrammesensuresthattheirobjectives are achieved despite changing climate conditions. It also helps to identify newopportunities and further increase resilience at local level. Policyplannersneed to gauge thesustainabilityofpublicsectorprogrammesinthefaceofclimatechange.
• Financial instruments for adaptation: Financial instruments provide security and help tosafeguardlivelihoodsintimesofadverseconditionsexacerbatedthroughclimatechange.Ruralcommunitiesoftenhavelimitedawarenessofandaccesstofinancialproductsthatcouldhelptoreducetheimpactsclimatechangehasontheirlivelihoods.
• Informationandknowledgemanagement:Exchangeofinformationandknowledgerelatedtoadaptation increases awareness and enhances adaptive capacities at different levels. ThedisseminationofexistinginformationonandexperiencesinclimatechangeadaptationiskeyforpreparingforthefutureimpactsofclimatechangeandconvergewithotherMinistriessuchasMoEFCC.
• Humancapacitydevelopment:Buildingthecapacityoflocalmultipliersspreadsawarenessandknowledgeonadaptation.Thetrainingofgovernmentofficialsatmultiplelevelsenhancestheircapacities to integrate climate change adaptation into planning processes. Decision-makers,developmentplannersandpractitionersinIndiaareconfrontedwiththequestionofhowtodealproactively with the effects of climate change. Integrating climate change adaptation intoplanningandidentifyingappropriatemeasuresisnotaneasytask.
Takeaways
• Theimpactsofclimatechangearelikelytobedistributedunevenlyacrosstherural-urbangradient:Majorimpactsofclimatechangeinruralareaswillbefeltthroughchangesinthewatersupply,foodsecurityandagriculture.Thehumancostsinruralareaswillbehighbecauseofruralresidents’heavydependencefortheirlivelihoodsonnaturalresources,highruralpovertyratesandthelowconnectivityofruralareas.180
• Availabilityofcompleteinformationanddataisakeyforclimateadaptation:Adaptationshould build on the best available information about impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptationoptions. Improvingdataavailability, translating it intouser-friendly informationandchoosinginterventionsonthebasisofwhatcanbeknownarekeyactivities.Targetedinterventionsarepossible when fairly clear-cut information about impacts is available. Otherwise, theprecautionaryprinciple(e.g.avoidingbuildinginflood-proneareas,diversifyingincomesources)shouldapplyandno-regretoptions(e.g.combatingsoilerosion)shouldbethefocus.181Specifictechniqueslikeefficientirrigationorwatershedmanagementalreadycontributegreatlytotheadaptive capacity of regions. Building on an understanding of key climate change risks, suchtechniques can be improved, targeted or transferred to regions where they have not been
180ReportonTheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,2014181MinistryofEnvironmentandForests,GovernmentofIndia,andGiZ(2011),AdaptationtoClimateChangewithaFocusonRuralAreasandIndia
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previouslyemployed.Improvedknowledgeandtechnologies,suchasnewcropvarieties,maybefurtherspreadtopromoteadaptationtoclimatechange.
• Continuousstakeholderengagementandcommunicationisneeded:Adaptationmayrequirecomplexgovernanceprocesses.Newstakeholdershave tobe involved, as climate changewillrequire action by people who have not explicitly considered climate change in their pastdecisions.Communicationamongthedifferentthematiccommunitieswillhavetoimproveandstrategies in the various areas need to be efficiently coordinated and managed. Capacitydevelopmentiskeyinsuchacomplexanddynamicenvironment.
• Adaptive investments in all sectors can also reduce the climate-relatedpush factors ofmigration: Climate change and environmental factors are known to affect overall migrationpatternsinmyriadways.TheWorldBankhasprojectedthattheslow-onsetimpactsofclimatechange(throughwarminganddrought,risingsealevels,theincreasingintensityandfrequencyofnaturaldisastersandcompetitionovernaturalresources)couldactaspushfactorsofinternalmigrationforover143millionpeopleinSSA,SouthAsia,andLatinAmericaby2050.182
• MGNREGShasalotofpotentialforclimateadaptation:AvastmajorityoftheworksunderMGNREGS are linked to water, soil and land. The list of ‘permissible’ works provideenvironmental services such as conservation of water, groundwater recharge, reduced soilerosion,increasedsoilfertility,conservationofbiodiversity,reclamationofdegradedcropandgrazing lands, enhanced leafmanure, fuelwoodandnon-wood forestproducts supplyamongothers. A green focuswill enableMGNREGS to effectively deliver on its objective of creatingdurableassetsandstrengtheningthelivelihoodresourcebaseoftheruralpoor.Bythusensuringlivelihoods security, MGNREGS will increase labour absorption in natural resource-basedlivelihoodsanddecreasedemandfortheemploymentinpublicworks.LivelihoodssecurityfortheruralpoorwillbeensuredevenwhilethedemandforworkunderMGNREGSdeclines.ThiswilllimitoutlayunderMGNREGSinthefuture.
• NRLMandPMAY-Ghaveclimateadaptivecomponentswhichcanbeleveraged:UnderDAY-NRLM the guidelines for non-timber forest produce-based livelihoods under MKSP, identifyregenerationandsustainableharvestingofNTFPspeciesaskeyobjectives;similarly,promotionof organic and low-chemical agriculture and increased soil health and fertility to sustainagriculture-based livelihoods is an objective under the sustainable agriculture component ofMKSP.UnderPMAY-G,greenresultsincludeefficientuseofresources, includingwater,energyand construction material. Further, IAY can encourage greater use of renewable and locallyavailableconstructionmaterial,andreduceduseofwaterandenergy.
Wayforward
• Identify a key set of green outcomes that are feasible and have high impact; prepare GreenGuidelineswhichwill detail how to achieve these desired results. The hallmark of the GreenGuidelineswillbe(i)asetofnon-negotiableprinciplesandgoalsand(ii)flexibilitybeyondthenon-negotiablesothatpeopleandinstitutionsareencouragedtoadoptcreativeandinnovativeactivities.
• Form a network of support organizations by designating select civil society organizations,technical institutions and academic centres to facilitate the implementation of the GreenGuidelines.
182“Rigaud,Ketall(2018),Groundswell:PreparingforInternalClimateMigration,WorldBank.
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• Establish an Innovations Portal for greening rural development. This portal will encourageinnovative ideas, activities, technologies and processes adopted to promote and expand thegreeningactivities.
• SetupaGreenInnovationsFundtopromoteandincentivizethedevelopmentandextensionoftechnologiesandsocialprocessestoachievegreenoutcomes
• SetupadedicatedGreenCellwithintheMinistry forguidingthegreeningagendaand for theimplementationofGreenGuidelines inthecountry.TheGreenCellwilldevelopprocedurestoconvergeactionsandfundingforgreeningactivitiesthatcutacrossruraldevelopmentschemes.
• PrepareanannualGreenReportfortheDoRDsummarizingthemajorgreenachievementsandtheiroutcomesduringtheyear.Thisreportshoulddrawuponindependentevaluationofschemesforgreenoutcomes.
• ForMGNREGS,preparePerspectivePlan foreveryGramPanchayaton thebasisof landscape,watershedoraquiferbasedplanningandstrengthencapacitiesofGramPanchayatstodevelopgreen proposals and monitor green results: develop and utilize appropriate toolkits for thispurpose. Also, strengthen block level capacities to support implementing agencies to delivergreen results. IncentivizeGramPanchayats to achieve and surpass the threshold level on theMGNREGS green index; this incentive may be drawn from the budgetary provision foradministrativeexpenses.
• UnderNRLM, include as ‘essential’ outcome inMKSP guidelines, a result each on sustainablyharvested produce and sustainable agricultural practices (in addition to current one on soilhealth)forallinitiatives.Developprotocolsforsustainableharvestofnon-timberforestproduceand sustainable agriculture and livestockmanagement and facilitate their adoption by SHGs.Provideback-loaded‘laboursubsidy’toSHGsforadoptionofsustainablepracticestocompensateforlowerlabourproductivity.
• PMAY-Grequirespreparingregion-specificHandbooksofGreenBuildingDesignsincludinggreenconstructionmaterialsthatcoverthelifecycleofanIAYhouse.DistrictlevelBuildingResourceCentresshouldbesupportedtopromotegreentechnologiesanddesigns;linkfinancialsupporttoquantityandeffectivenessofgreenservicesprovided.Additionalsubsidytofamiliesbuildinghousingunitsthatusegreeninitiatives.
(v) RoleofTribal Sub-Plan (TSP)&ScheduledCasteSub-Plan componentof the scheme inmainstreamingofTribalandScheduledCastepopulation
Introduction
ScheduledCastes(SCs)andScheduledTribes(STs)accountforsignificantproportionsofourpopulation.As per the Census 2011, SCs account for18.5 percent of our population (having increased from17.9percentin2001).Likewise,CensusSTsaccountedfor11.3percentofourpopulationaspertheCensus2011(havingincreasedfrom10.4percentin2001).However,SCsandSTshavebeenamongthemostdisadvantagedsectionsofoursocietyduetotheirsocio-economicexploitationandisolationoveralongperiodoftime.Thesepopulationgroupshavebeenobservedtolagbehindtherestofthepopulationintermsofbothhumandevelopmentaswellaseconomicindicators.
Analysis of the prevalence of poverty in rural areas shows that poverty rates among SC and STpopulationshavefallenbetween1983-94and2011-12.However,ratesofpovertyamongthesevulnerablepopulationshaveremainedconsistentlyhigherthanthepovertyestimatesamongthegeneralpopulation,asshowninthefigurebelow.
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Figure7:PovertyamongSCs,STsandgeneralpopulationinruralareas(inpercent)183
Source:GovernmentofIndia
State-widevariationsinSCandSTpopulationbelowthepovertylinearepresentedinthefiguresbelow.
Figure8:State-wisePercentageofSCPopulationbelowPovertyLine,2004-2005
183 Panagariya, A., &More, V. (2014). Poverty by social, religious and economic groups in India and its largest states.Indian Growth andDevelopmentReview.
58.1
48.1
36.2
52.7
43.5
31.5
63.8
52.2
45.9
61.9
47.145.345.6
37.1
27.1
41.833.8
25.4
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1983-84 1993-94 1999-2000 2004-05(Revised
Estimates)
2009-10 2011-12
SC ST Total
5.214.615.4
19.621.621.8
26.827.728.729.5
31.231.832.7
36.842.8
44.844.8
50.254.2
57.964
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Jammu & KasmirPunjab
Andhra PradeshHimachal Pradesh
KeralaGujarat
HaryanaAssam
RajasthanWest BengalTamil NaduKarnataka
ChhattisgarhAll India
Madhya PradeshMaharashtra
Uttar PradeshOrissa
UttarakhandJharkhand
Bihar
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Source:MinistryofSocialJusticeandEmpowerment
Figure9:PercentageofSTPopulationbelowPovertyLineduring2011-12(TendulkarMethodology)
Source:MinistryofTribalAffairs
Aroundthe1970s,itwasobservedthatdespitededicatedeffortsfortheupliftofSCsandSTsovertheyears,theycontinuedtofacemultipledevelopmentaldeficits,whichcouldclearlynotbeaddressedthroughthegeneralwelfareschemesandprogrammesthathadbeeninplace.ThebenefitsfromthesegeneralschemeswerereportedtonotpercolatetotheSCsandSTs,andhardlyimprovedthesocio-economicstatusofthesevulnerablegroups.Inordertoensuredirectpolicy-drivenbenefitsforSCsandSTsthroughspecificinterventions,thePlanningCommissionduringthe1970sintroducedplanstrategies.
ThestrategyofTribalSubPlan(TSP)wasputinforcesince1974,toensureadequateflowofplanresourcesforthedevelopmentofScheduledTribes,whilethestrategyofScheduledCastesSubPlan(SCSP)(earlierknownastheSpecialComponentPlanforScheduledCastes)hasbeeninforcesince1979-80,toensureproportionateflowofplanresourcesforthedevelopmentofScheduledCastes.
Theallocationunderthesecomponentsisprovidedforthepurposeofcreatingproductiveassets,humanresourcedevelopmentof theScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes throughadequateeducationandhealth services, and to provide physical and financial security against all types of exploitation andoppression.184Inessence,theSCSPandTSPareintendedtobridgethegapbetweentheSCsandSTsandthegeneralpopulationwithrespecttoallsocio-economicdevelopmentindicatorsinatime-boundmanner.
AsapartoftheBudgetCircular2020-21-SCSPwastobedepictedasScheduledCastesComponent(SCC);TSPwas to bedepicted as ScheduledTribeComponent (STC.); The lump sumgrant under thename'ScheduledCastesSubPlan'underSocialJusticeandEmpowermentDemandwasrenamedas"Scheduled
184GovernmentofIndia.(2016).ExpenditureBudgetVol.I,2015-2016.
9.511.9
16.324.1
2730.8
33.436.536.8
4141.4
45.350.1
51.652.6
55.359.3
61.663.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Himachal PradeshUttarakhand
Jammu & KasmirAndhra Pradesh
Uttar PradeshKarnataka
AssamGujarat
Tamil NaduKerala
Rajasthan* All India
West Bengal Jharkhand
ChhattisgarhMadhya Pradesh
BiharMaharashtra
Orissa
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CastesSub-Scheme";andthelumpsumgrantunderthename'SpecialCentralassistancetoTribalSubPlan'underTribalAffairswasrenamedas"SpecialCentralassistancetoTribalSub-Scheme".
Background
InthecontextofTSPandSCSP,therearethreetypesofprogrammesthatareoperationalwithintheruraldevelopmentspace:
• First,aretheschemeswhichareself-targetingastheyarebasedondemand,liketheMGNREGS,oronspecificeligibilitycriteriathatdoesnotincludesocialgroupasoneoftheparameter,liketheNSAP,andhencedonothaveallocatedfundsunderTSPofSCSP.
• Second,aretheschemesthatarenotbeneficiaryoriented(suchasPMGSY)andthereforedonothaveseparateallocationfromeitherofthetwosourcesoffunds.
• Third, are the schemes that are beneficiary oriented and have specific provisions for coverage ofbeneficiariesbelongingtotheSCsandSTs.ItisthiscategoryofschemesthatensuremainstreamingofSTandSCpopulationwithintheruraldevelopmentsector.Broadly,undertheseschemesfundscanbe utilized by the State Government/UTs Administration for the following activities: incomegeneration,skilldevelopment,infrastructuredevelopmentandmonitoringandevaluation.
• TheseschemesincludePMAY-G(60percentbeneficiariesaremandatedtobeSC/ST)andDAY-NRLM(50 percent of women beneficiary are mandated to be SC/ST). These programmes have fundsallocatedundertheTSPandSCSP.States/UTsarerequiredtoformulateandimplementtheseplansaspartoftheirAnnualPlansbyearmarkingresources.
TheprogressmadewithrespecttoSCSPandTSPunderDoRDisdetailedintheensuingparagraphs:
• TrendsinSCSPallocations:SCSPallocationsrosebetweenFY2015-16toFY2017-18buthavefallenthereafter.AnalysisofDoRD’sallocations for theSCSP reveals thehighestallocationofRs.8518.7crore(RE)wasmadeinFY2017-18.Sincethen,whiletheallocationshavedeclined,theystillremainhigherthantheamountsearmarkedinFY2015-16andFY2016-17asshowninthetablebelow.185
• TrendsinTSPallocations:TSPallocationshaverisensteadilyfromFY2015-16andFY2019-20.ItisobservedthatTSPallocationshaverisensharplybetweenFY2015-16andFY2016-17.Further,theTSPallocationsinFY2017-18,2018-19andFY2019-20aremorethandoubletheallocationsinFY2015-16.186
Table7:DoRD'sallocationsunderSCSPandTSP187
ScheduledCasteSub-Plan(SCSP)inRs.croresYear BE RE
2015-16 3865.36 6719.06
2016-17 5431.68 5431.68
2017-18 8501.01 8518.7
2018-19 7637.8 7241.8
2019-20 6525.01 5921.49
TribalSub-Plan(TSP)inRs.crores
185MinistryofFinance,GovernmentofIndia.ExpenditureBudgets.Retrievedfromwww.indiabudget.gov.in.Accessedon23May2020.186SameasFootnote202.187SameasFootnote202.
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ScheduledCasteSub-Plan(SCSP)inRs.croresYear BE RE
2015-16 2714.37 2786.18
2016-17 4269.49 4269.49
2017-18 5931.69 5937.83
2018-19 5741.93 5443.79
2019-20 5984.12 5882.27
• ProvisionsunderDAY-NRLM:DoRDhasbeenear-markingfundsunderSCSPandTSPunderDAY-NRLMfromFY2011-12onwards.Underthescheme,theStateMissionshavebeenadvisedtoprioritizeIntegratedActionPlans(IAP)Districts(whichalsohaveahighSTpopulation)forDAY-NRLMintensiveactivities.TheSocialManagementFramework(SMF)forDAY-NRLMhasbeenpreparedanddisclosed.Every State has beendirected to prepare a social inclusionplan to guide their efforts tomobilisevulnerable groups including theSCs andSTs into SHGsandpromote their financial andeconomicinclusiontoensurebetterlivelihoods.188
Under DDU-GKY, the guidelinesmandate ear-marking of 50 percent fund allocation for SC and STpopulationsatthenationallevels.IntheFY2019-20,atotalof42,590SCcandidatesand28,354STcandidateshavebeentrainedunderDDU-GKYprojects.
• ProvisionsunderPMAY-G:UnderPMAY-G,60percent of the target allocated to each State/UT isearmarkedforSC/STssubjecttoavailabilityofeligiblePMAY-GbeneficiariesinthePWL.Withintheearmarked funds, the proportion of SC/ST is to be decided from time to time by the respectiveStates/UTs.AsofNovember2020,outofthetotal1,73,96,310housessanctioned,37,79,090houses(22percent)weresanctionedforSCsand40,24,294houses(23percent)weresanctionedforSTs189.
Thereareparticularaspectsof implementationof schemesunderDoRDregardingSCandSTgroups.Officials across the country have largelymentioned some of theways inwhich they prioritise thesegroupsinawarenessgenerationeffortsandidentificationofbeneficiaries:
“Wetargetthembecausetheyaretheweakersectionandthevulnerablegroups,andtheyarenotthataware.Soourmainobjectiveisthattheadministrationgoestothesepeopledirectlyandmakethemawareandgivethemthebenefits,sowearedoingagoodjobinthisfieldalso”–DistrictMagistrate,Jharkhand
“The schemes inwhichwe includedonothave individualbenefits.Oursareall communityassets. So inharijangroups,SCandSTcolonies,inOBCcoloniesallofusareworking”-DistrictMagistrate,AndhraPradesh
“Therewasapushtowardsbuildinginfrastructureforthemarginalisedsectionsofthesociety.WehavesomethingcalledSC/STHabitationDevelopmentScheme.AndevenwithinMGNREGS,wegiveapushtowardspredominantlySChabitationswhereinfrastructureisimproved.SCCroadsusedtobelaidorapaverblockroadusedtobelaid.Wegivepreferencetothebackwardareas"-DRDA,TamilNadu
Takeaways
• TrendsinbudgetallocationrevealagrowingprioritizationofSCandSTpopulations:BudgetaryallocationsforTSPhaveshownasteadyupwardtrendfromFY2015-16toFY2019-20.Likewise,SCSPallocationshavealsoshownanincreasingtrendtillFY2017-18whichrecordedthehighestallocation.Intheyearsafterthat,whiletheallocationshavefallen,theamountsarestillatahigherlevelthan
188SameasFootnote161.189PMAY-GDashboard,https://rhreporting.nic.in/netiay/SocialProgressReport/Categorywisehousescompletedreport.aspx
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betweenFY2015-16andFY2016-17190.Further,therehavenotbeenverysubstantialreductionsfromtheRE toBE stage. This implies agrowing and focused prioritization of the interests of SC and STpopulations.Thegrowingproportionof ear-marked fundsat the sectoral level revealsacontinuedrecognition of the specific vulnerabilities of SC and ST populations, and a concerted policy focus toaddressthesame.
• Funds underDoRD’s SCSP and TSP have recorded fairly high rates of utilization:While theutilizationofSCSP fundsunderDoRDstoodat54percent inFY2015-16,utilization in subsequentfinancialyearswasnearcomplete.Infact,utilizationinFY2016-17stoodat104percent,asshowninthefigurebelow.Likewise,utilizationofDoRD’sTSPfundsstoodat100,100,101,99percentinFY2015-16,2016-17,2017-18and2018-19respectively.191
Figure10:UtilisationofDoRD'sSCSPfunds192
• ThesectoralinterventionstargetingSCandSTcommunitiesensurespecificdesignfeaturestoensuretheirinclusion:UnderDAY-NRLM,theSMFfocussesonsocialinclusion,socialaccountabilityandsocialsafeguardsparticularlyfocusingonmarginalandvulnerablegroupsincludingtheSCs,STsandParticularlyVulnerableTribalgroups(PVTGs).193Further,asperthesocialinclusionprotocol,theStateMissionsneedtoinitiatesocialmobilizationworkwithinahamletdominatedbySC/STandothervulnerablehouseholdsonpriority.Further,theStateMissionsneedtoprioritizepositioningSCandSTintheSHG,VOandCLFleadershiproles.Thisstrategyhassuccessfullyprovidedanedgetothesecommunitiesinacquiringleadershiprolesinthefunctioningofcommunityinstitutions.194
• However,implementationofsectoralinterventionsthattargetSC/STpopulationsshowmixedresults: The DDU-GKY guidelines prescribe that 50 percent of the fund allocation for SC and STpopulations at thenational levels. In linewith this, asofDecember2019,48percentof candidatestrainedunderDDU-GKYbelongedtoSCandSTcommunities(29percentwereSCsand19percentwereSTs).
190SameasFootnote202.191SameasFootnote202.192SameasFootnote202.193SameasFootnote161.194SameasFootnote161.
54%
104%99% 98%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19
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AnalysisofthePMAY-GhousesrevealedthatasofDecember2019,24percenthouseswereassignedtoSChouseholdswhile25percentwereassignedtoSThouseholds.Thus,approximately49percenthouseswereassignedtoSCandSThouseholds,whichfallsbelowthemandateof60percentallocationtoSCandSThouseholds. Thisrevealssignificantgapsintheeffectivenessofthescheme’spolicytoensureinclusionforthesevulnerablegroups.
• Pathways for community level decision-making andmonitoring of SCSP and TSP outcomesshouldbeexplored:TheDoRDAnnualReportsprovideinformationonthewaysinSCSPandTSPfundsarebeingallocatedandused.However,apartfromthis-thefundutilizationandsocio-economiccategory specific outcomes are not reported at more frequent intervals. Further, the role ofcommunities-inparticularSCandSThouseholds–inmakingdecisionsinfundusageandmonitoringitsgroundlevelutilizationremainsunexplored.
WayForward
• ThesectorshouldcontinueitstrendofbudgetallocationsundertheSCSPandTSP:Theyear-on-yearincreaseinSCSPandTSPallocationsarepromising.ItissuggestedthatallocationsunderSCSPandTSPatasectorallevelcontinuetobeinlinewithpasttrends,withexpansionsinbudgetallocationandhighutilizationrates.Further,thesectorshouldlooktoconstantlyreviewthestatusofSCsandSTsinruralareas,andreviseallocations,accordingly,therebyensuringthatthefinancialsupportareindexedtopresentlevelsofvulnerabilities.Further,thesectorcanalsolooktopromoteinnovativeprojectsthatdrawuponinstitutionalfinancetosupplementplanallocationsmaybedrawnup.
• Concerted efforts are required to ensure greater coverage of SC and ST populations: ThecoverageofSCandSThouseholdsremainslowerthanthemandatedproportionsunderskilltraininginDAY-NRLM and house allotment in DDU-GKY. Concerted efforts at various levels of schemeimplementationarerequiredtoensurethatthereisadequaterepresentationofSCandSThouseholdsintheRDschemes.
Atonelevel,pathwaysfortheflowofschemeinformation–benefitsandentitlements–tovulnerablehouseholdsshouldbestrengthened.Ground-levelawarenesscampaignstargetingSCandSTgroupsshould be prioritized to encourage greater participation in RD schemes. At another level, it isnecessarytofacilitateanenablingeco-systemforSCandSThouseholds,toempowerthemtobenefitfrom RD schemes. To this end, the sensitization of ground-level implementers to the specificvulnerabilitiesofSCandSThouseholdsisneeded.
• Community-ledmonitoringof fundutilizationand implementationshouldbeexplored: It isimportanttoensurethatcommunityvoiceisreflected intheuseofSCSPandTSPfundsintheruraldevelopmentsector.ExpandingthemandateofsocialauditstoincludethetrackingtheutilizationofTSPandSCSPfundscanbeconsidered.Further,theplanningprocessforthesefundswouldbenefitfromthe involvementof thecommunity in tribaldominantblocks.It isrecommendedthat inputs/suggestions of the local ST/SC community should be sought before finalising the plan forimplementationofanyprogrammeunderthesefunds.
(vi) UseofIT/Technologyindrivingefficiency
Introduction
Technologyhasplayedakeyroleinthedevelopmentofruralareas.Technology'smajorfunctioninruraldevelopmenthasbeenthree-fold,firstly,toprovideindividualswithinformationofanykind;secondly,toprovideonlineservicessuchasDBT;andthirdlytosupportmoresustainableinfrastructuredevelopment.
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Combining Information Technology in Rural Development can not only speed up the developmentprocess,butitcanalsofillthegapsbetweentheeducationallyandtechnologicallybackwardandforwardsectionsofthesociety.InthecontextofIndia’sexperienceof‘rurbanisation’,technologyholdsthepotentialtobridgethedevelopmentaldifferencesbetweenruralandurbanspaces.Further,ruraleconomiesareripeforinnovationsthatcandeliverbetterresultsforbothpeopleandtheenvironment.Scienceandtechnologyarethetoolstofuelsuchinnovationsandacceleratetransformationalchangeinruralareas.
The use of IT is closely linked to enhancing efficiency in sectoral interventions in the RD sector. Suchefficiency is derived by economizing on resource use in programme operations as well as inmarkettransactions. Further, IT providespathways for the speedy delivery of information across the country.Informationthatwouldotherwisebeconveyedthroughface-to-facecontact,post,courier,printdelivery,telegraphor telephonemay insteadbecommunicated indigitalelectronic formvia the Internet,thusaidingsmoothdecisionmakingandstreamlinedschemeimplementation.
Background
SinceIndependence,Indiahasbeenwitnessingarevolutionintechnologyandovertheyears,technologyhasplayedanintegralrole inthedevelopmentalprocess.GovernmentshaveincorporatedtechnologybeginningwiththeuseoftheradiothroughRadioforRuralDevelopment,popularlyknownas“RadioFarmForum”.TheexperimentwascarriedoutfromFebruarytoApril1956infivedistrictsofMaharashtrabyAllIndiaRadio(AIR).Rurallistenergroupswereorganized,whowouldlistentoradiobroadcaststwiceaweekforhalfanhour.Thegroupthenstayedtogetherfordiscussionofwhattheyhadheard.Impressiveknowledgegainsasaresultofradiolisteningwerereportedacrossilliteratesandliterates,agriculturistsandnon-agriculturists,villageleadersandothers195.
SatelliteInstructionalTelevisionExperiment(SITE)wasanothertechno-socialcommunicationexperimentineducationandruraldevelopment.Theone-yearexperiment(August1975-July1976)aimedtoprovidedirectbroadcastingof instructionalandeducational television in2400villages in the statesofAndhraPradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan. Rural adults viewed televisionprogrammesonimprovedagriculturalpractices,healthandfamilyplanning.
Theafore-mentionedinterventionsfocussedongeneratingawarenessandaugmentingknowledgegainsthrough the use of technology. However, in recent decades, technology has beenused intensively forgovernance, citizen-government interface, datamanagement andmonitoring.Computerization of landrecordshavebeenagreatsuccessintheapplicationofICTinruraldevelopment.Landrecordsareofgreat importance tocontemporarysocio-economic imperativesand theirrevisionandupdationarenecessaryforcapturingthechangesinruralsocialdynamics.Keepingthisinmind,theGovernmentofIndiainitiatedtheCentrallySponsoredScheme:ComputerizationofLandRecords(CoLR)in1988-89withmain objective of creating a land management information system. Further, in January 2004, theDepartmentof InformationTechnology (DoIT)wasestablished togivean impetus to theexpansionoftechnologyforthepurposeofthenation’sgrowth.
DoRDismakingcontinuedeffortstoprovideequitablegrowthopportunitiestoruralcommunitiesbythewaysofempowermentandupgradingtheinformationinfrastructureinruralandremoteareas.Overthelast decade, DoRD hasmade significant strides in honing its ICT infrastructure, encompassing robusttechnology-driveninterventionsandmodernmethodsininformationtransferanddecisionmaking.
195UKEssays.(November2018).ExaminingTheChangingMediaSceneInIndiaMediaEssay.Retrievedfromhttps://www.ukessays.com/essays/media/examining-the-changing-media-scene-in-india-media-essay.php?vref=1
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TheensuingparagraphsdetailthevariousstagesofICTdevelopmentundertakenbyDoRD:
• Introduction of ICT: With the advent of government websites in the late 1990s the term e-governancecameintoexistence.Thesewebsitesprovidedbothorganizationsandcitizenswithmoreconvenientaccesstothegovernment’svariousservicesandinformation.TodayvariousinitiativeshavebeentakenbyDoRDinIndiatostrengthentheICTinfrastructureandreadilyprovideinformationaswellaseasyaccessofvariousruraldevelopmentschemestoallthecitizensinruralIndia.
- Mobilephoneservice:Theadventofmobilephoneshasbroughtaboutatremendouschangeinagriculturesectorresultingintodramaticimprovementintheefficiencyandprofitabilityofthe agriculture industry. The spread of mobile phone service allow farmer to land theirproduct timelyanddirectly to themarketwherewholesalersare ready topurchase themwithoutthepresenceofmiddlemen.
- Radioandtelevision:WhileIndiahasalonghistoryofusingradiocommunicationtospreadawareness on key developmental issues, the television has been another input incommunicationtechnology.Radioandtelevisionhavebeenusedtodisseminateinformationonvariousinnovationsinagriculturaltechnology,acrossfarmers,entrepreneurs,extensionworkersandotherstakeholders.
- Internet:TheInternetisalsoanemergingtoolwiththepotentialtocontributeinagriculturesectorandinruraldevelopment.TheInternetenablesruralcommunitiesstayuptodateandtoreceiveinformationaboutthemarketandothernecessaryinformationintheindustry.TheInternetalsofacilitatesdialogueamongcommunitiesandhelptoshareinformationbetweengovernmentplanners,developmentagencies,researchers,andtechnicalexperts.
• Developmentofwebapplications:WebapplicationsandportalshavecometobedevelopedforvariousschemesandDepartmentsoftheMinistry.Theprimarymotiveguidingthisstagehasbeentheneedtocaptureinformationandmonitorprogress.Presently,MISportalshavebeendevelopedfor each of the schemes in the RD sector. The dashboards of these portals provide real-timeinformation,geo-taggedphotographsanddetailsonassets,createdinthepublicdomain.
Box7:SchemespecificwebapplicationsdevelopedunderDoRD
SchemespecificwebapplicationsdevelopedunderDoRD196
• NREGAsoftisalocallanguageenabledworkflowbasede-Governancesystemtocapturealltheactivitiesunder MGNREGS at Center/State/District/Block and Panchayat level. It is a transaction based system
integratedwith thePFMS,withunique identification of family,workers andwork. Further,NREGASoft
providesgeo-taggedshelfoftheworks/projectswithcostestimationthroughSECUREsoftware.
• Awaassoft is awebbased application forCentral and State housing schemes such asPMAYGand IAY.AwaassoftensuresSECCbasedcreationandverificationofPWL.ThethrustofAwaassoftisonevidence
basedmonitoringandconstructionlinkedDBTpayments.Thewebapplicationhasprovisionsforrecording
geo-taggedhouseswithphotosanddetailsontheuniqueidentificationofbeneficiaryandhouse.
• TheNSAPapplicationismeantforpensiondisbursementandbeneficiarymanagementforWidow,OldAgeandDisabilitypension.TheNSAPapplicationhasenabledAadharbasedpaymentsand facilitates claim
settlement under NFBS. The web application essentially provides a platform for disbursement for
Centre/Statepensionschemes.
196InformationprovidedbyITDivision,DoRD.
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• TheDAY-NRLMapplicationisawebbasedapplicationformanagingactivitiesrelatedtoSelfHelpGroups
inruralareas.TheNRLMe-GovapplicationisanendtoendworkflowfromSHGregistrationtotrackingfunddisbursementstoCommunitybasedorganisations.
• Under PMGSY, anOnline Management, Monitoring and Accounting System(OMMAS) has beendeveloped to identify targets and monitor progress of PMGSY Rural Roads. It has one of the biggest
databasesinIndia.Thesystemmanagesandmonitorsallthephasesofroaddevelopmentrightfromits
proposalmodetoroadcompletion.
• TheservicedeliveryplatformforRURBAN(RurbanSoft) iscreatedtomonitortheprogressforvariousactionplans.TheapplicationallowsonetocaptureandtrackapprovalofIntegratedClusterActionPlan
(ICAP),digitizeanduploadDetailedProjectReport(DPR),digitizepaymentsandfundmanagementunder
thescheme,ensureprogressreportingforworksandgeotaggingofworks/subworks.
TheseMIS portals createdatabases of basic records, facilitate the issue of copies, reduceworkload byeliminatingthedrudgeryofpaperworkandminimizepossibilitiesofdatamanipulation.Further,thelocallanguageenabledworkflowbasede-governancesystemscaptureallactivitiesatCentre/State/District/BlockandPanchayatlevel.
• Developmentofmobileapplications:VariouscitizencentricmobileappssuchasGramSamvaad,Meri Sadak, Awaas App, GeoMGNREGA and JANMANREGA (an asset tracking and feedbackapplicationforMGNREGSassets)havebeendeveloped,withtheaimtoprovidecitizenswithdirectaccesstoinformation,therebyenhancingaccountability.RuralICTapplicationsattempttooffertheservicesofgovernmentagencies(likeDistrictadministration,cooperativeunion,andStateandCentralDepartments)tothecitizensattheirvillagedoorsteps.TheseapplicationsutilizetheICTinofferingimprovedandaffordableconnectivityandprocessingsolutions.
DoRD’sexperienceofimplementingtheGramSamvaadapplicationprovestobeabestpracticeandprovidesvitallessonsinleveragingtechnologyincitizenengagement.
Box8:CaseStudyonGramSamvaadApp
“TherealessenceofdemocracyisJanBhagidari197”
PrimeMinisterofIndia,ShriNarendraModi
Development journey of a villagemust proceedwith public participation, andhence it is important to have
dialogue between the government and people. Like the guidelines on policy formulationmove from top to
bottom,correctinformationonpolicyimplementationandleakagesthereinshouldmovefrombottomtotop.If
thechannelofcommunicationisrightinplacethenplans,policiesandbudgetallocationcanbetargetedatright
place.Inlinewiththesethoughts,theGovernmentofIndiaisundertakingtheenormoustaskofmakingpublic
aware and interactingwith them to understand their needs. One popular route of for achieving this task is
throughuseofmobileapplicationtechnology.
“GramSamvaad”isacitizen-centricmobileapplicationdevelopedbyDoRDtoprovideasingle-windowaccessto
Gram Panchayat-wise information on objectives of the scheme, key features, resources available, physical
progress,beneficiarylistsandothercitizen-relevantinformationunderallruraldevelopmentschemesandthe
grantsunder14thFinanceCommission.Theclaimsoflocalgovernmentscanbeverifiedduring‘GramSabhas’
throughthispubliclyavailableinformation.Thisway,thedisseminationofinformationthroughthisapplication
servesasatoolforempowermentofruralmassesbyintroducinggreatertransparencyandaccountabilityatall
levelsofGovernment.
197TranslatedinEnglishlanguageasPeople’sparticipation.
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UserInterfaceofGramSamvadApp
TheprogrammesforwhichdataiscurrentlyavailableincludeMGNREGS,PMAY-G,DAY-NRLM,PMGSY,NSAP,
DDUGKY,SPMRMand14thFinanceCommission.Thisdataprovidescrucialinputsforthe‘SituationAnalysis’
phaseofpreparationofGPDP,andthushelpsinamoreinformeddecisionmakingatGramPanchayatlevel.The
tentative‘resourceenvelope’foraGPcanalsobedeterminedbasistheinformationavailablein‘GramSamvaad’.
Besidesbeingcitizen-centric,theapplicationisalsohelpfultoseeprogressundertheschemes,asitgivesthem
aquickviewasandwhenneeded,thusenablingquickandeffectivemonitoring.
The application is currently available in English, Hindi and Telugu. Other regional languages are also being
includedinaphasedmanner.Theapplicationmakesuseofamobilephone’sGPStofetchthecurrentcoordinates
andautomaticallyprovideinformationofthatlocation.Toovercomethechallengeofpoorinternetconnectivity
invillages,italsoworksinofflinemode.Withover5,00,000plusinstallationsonGoogleplaystoretheapplication
isgainingpopularityamongstpeoplelivinginruralIndia198.
Likewise,schemespecificapplicationshavealsobeendeveloped.Forinstance,theKaushalPanjee(underDDU-GKY)isabilingualapplicationtofacilitateself-registrationforDDUGKY/RSETItraining.Similarly,Janmanrega (underMGNREGS) andMeri Sadak (under PMGSY) aremulti-lingual applicationswhichensurecitizenfeedbackandviewingofinfrastructuredeveloped.
Figure11:Schemespecificcitizencentricapps
Source:ITDivision,DoRD
Inparticular, theMeri Sadakapplicationprovideskey insightson technologydriven interventions togarnercitizenfeedbackandmonitoringofruralinfrastructure.
198Retrievedfromhttps://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.nic.gramsamvaad&hl=en_IN.Accessedon26/5/2020.
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Box9:CaseStudyonMeriSadakApp
Infrastructurefacilitiesinruralareashasbeenoneofthepushfactorsformigratingfromruralareas.DoRDhas
undertaken consolidated steps through its schemes to ensure availability of infrastructure facilities within
villages.ProvidingroadstohabitationlivinginruralareasisonesuchinitiativeandisfulfilledthroughPMGSY.
Understanding that initiating a schemewithout feedback system creates loopholes in implementation,Meri
SadakAppwaslaunchedbyDoRD.Introductionofthiscitizenfeedbackmobilebasedapplicationhaspavedthe
wayforpromotingself-sustainableruralroadsassetmanagementandbettercontractmanagementandthefive
yeardefectliabilityperiod.
Ensuringeffectivecontractmanagementofruralassetsbyinvolvingandempoweringcommunityisthemost
significantlessonfromPMGSYexperience.Citizenengagementinmonitoringoftheseroadshasledtoamore
systematicmaintenanceof roadsaswell asqualityassuranceduring constructionandmaintenanceof these
roads. The five-year Defect Liability Period (DLP) under the contract makes the contractor responsible for
maintainingtheconstructedroadinaserviceableconditionfor5yearspostconstruction.
Theapplicationhasfollowinginnovativefeatures:
REPORTINGCHANNEL:Takepictures,tagitsGPSlocationandpostdetailsofPMGSYprojectsabout
whichcitizenisaggrieved.
TRACKSTATUS:Postsubmission,onecantracktheprogressofcomplaintthroughtheredressal
mechanism.
INTERIMRESPONSE:StateQualityCoordinators(SQCs)provideinterimfeedbackpending
resolution.
Withinayearofitslaunchtheapplicationreceivedmorethan1lakhdownloadsfromGoogleplaystoreandhas
hadmorethan5,00,000downloadsin3years199.
Otherserviceenhancementappsarepresentedinthefigurebelow:
Figure12:ServiceenhancementappsunderDoRD
Source:ITDivision,DoRD
199WorldBank.(2019).CitizenMonitoringofRuralRoadsunderPMGSY.
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Goingforward,learningsshouldalsobeincorporatedfromotherprogrammessuchasDeenDayalUpadhyayGramJyotiYojana.
Box10:CaseStudyonGarvApp
• DirectBenefitTransfer(DBT):Totransferbenefitstotargetedbeneficiaries,AadhaarbasedDBThasbeenadoptedasasectoralpolicy.TheJAMtrinity(JanDhan-Aadhaar-Mobile)hasbeenusedtotransfercashdirectly totheAadhaar linkedbankaccountsofbeneficiariesunderNSAP,PMAY-G,MGNREGSandDAY-NRLM.Further,theprocesshasbeenstreamlinedbylinkingthedataandtransferofthesectortotheDBTBharatPortal.Notably,thefigurebelowshowstheDBTprogressunderNSAP(throughCentralandStatedisbursement).Asisevident,themajorityofStatesandUTsinIndiaareemployingDBTforNSAPdisbursement.
Figure13:DBTdisbursementstatusunderNSAP-Statewise
The Garv App is a complete project monitoring mechanism for Government of India’s flagship program “Deen Dayal Upadhyay Gram Jyoti Yojana”. It is unique example of e-Governance as it enables participation of general public in monitoring a government program and makes the administration transparent and accountable to accomplish the target in given timeframe. With such a focused approach, the UE mission has achieved electrification of 7,108 villages during year 2015-16 against the set target electrification of 5,686 villages. The transparency provided by the application has increased public participation through social media which in turn has increased accountability. One example is of village Khajuan of Bihar. A resident of village, Sh. Sachidanand took up a task to expedite electrification in his village and facilitated resolution of issue of Right of Way being faced by the executing agency.
Source: National Conference on e-governance, e-Governance Division, Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG). (n.d.). GARV application- initiative under UE Mission- A Project Monitoring mechanism to monitor milestone based progress. https://nceg.gov.in/sites/default/files/GARV.pdf
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Source:ITDivision,DoRD
Byutilizing technology, transfersareefficientlymade therebyreducing the timeandcosts incurred inphysicaldistribution.Thiswasalsocorroboratedbyschemeimplementers.
Withthehelpoftechnology,thebeneficiary’smoneyisgoingdirectlytotheiraccount;alsothereislessnumberofcasesofmiddleman.Thebeneficiarygetstheirmoneydirectlyandtheyinvestinhousingaccordingly.SoAwaasSoftisbestintechnology(DistrictLevelKII,Jharkhand)
Further the real-time updation of data helps to improve the pace of interventions, while ensuringtransparency in sectoral interventions. J-PAL evidence on rural development from the finance andgovernancesectorsshowedrelevantimpactsoftheuseoftechnologyingovernmentpayments.
Box11:CaseStudyonUsingTechnologytoImproveGovernmentPayments
UsingTechnologytoImproveGovernmentPayments
Biometrically authenticated payment systems can reduce corruption and substantially improve the delivery
governmentpayments.However,itisimportanttohavevisibilityoverbeneficiaryexperienceanddesignreforms
keepinginmindlastmiledeliverychallenges.
● InarandomizedevaluationofabiometricpaymentssysteminAndhraPradesh,thetechnologyreform
oflinkingpaymentstobiometricsmartcardsincreasedthepaymentsthatbeneficiariesreceivedwithout
decreasingprogrammeexpenditure,showingareductioninleakage.
● An organizational reformwhere payment logistics were contracted to private banks and customer
serviceproviders(CSP)ineachvillagereduceddelaysandunpredictabilityinpayments.Thepresence
ofCSPsensuredeaseofaccesstopayments.
● Further,theGovernmentofAndhraPradeshdidnotmakethebiometrictechnologymandatory,sothat
beneficiarieswhocouldnotenrollcouldstillreceivepayments.Gradualimplementationandincentives
for implementerscanalignkeystakeholder interestsandmitigatethechallengesofpaymentsystem
reforms.
Providingmonitoring information inanaccessible andactionable format togovernmentofficials can reduce
paymentdelaysandimproveimplementationofsocialprogrammes.
● InastudyinthecontextofMGNREGS,governmentofficialsweretrainedtousePayDash,amobile-based
monitoringplatform,whichgeneratedreal time informationonpaymentdelays linkedtoemployees
responsibleforeachadministrativestep.Thestudyfoundthatprovidingeasilyaccessiblemonitoring
datatoofficialswhoareinapositiontoactonitsignificantlyreducedwagepaymentdelaysinareas
withworsebaselineperformance.
● InastudyinthecontextoftheRythuBandhuSchemeinTelangana,officialsresponsiblefordistribution
ofcheckswereinformedofaphone-basedmonitoringsystemwhichsurveyedbeneficiariesviaphone
and generated report cards on the officials’ performance. The knowledge of a monitoring system
improvedcheckencashmentratesandon-timedeliveryofchecks.
Sources:
Muralidharan, K, Niehaus, P., Sukhtankar, S. (2019). General Equilibrium Effects of (Improving) Public
EmploymentPrograms:ExperimentalEvidencefromIndia.WorkingPaper.
Muralidharan,K,Niehaus,P.,Sukhtankar,S.(2019).BuildingStateCapacity:EvidencefromBiometricSmartcards
inIndia.AmericanEconomicReview106(10):2895–2929.
Dodge, E., Neggers, Y., Pande, R., Moore, C. (2018). Having it at Hand: How Small Search Frictions Impact
BureaucraticEfficiency.WorkingPaper.
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Muralidharan, K, Niehaus, P., Sukhtankar, S., Weaver, J. (2019). Improving Last-Mile Service Delivery using
Phone-BasedMonitoring”WorkingPaper.
• Useoftechnologyinassetcreation:DoRDalsoencouragestheuseofinnovativetechnologyfortheconstructionofruralinfrastructuresuchasroadsandhouses.Theuseoflocallyavailablematerialsandgreentechnologyisreinforcedtoensurethesustainabilityofroads,andavoidtimeandresourcecostsincurredinfuturere-construction.UnderPMGSY,theguidelinesissuedbytheDoRDmandatetheStateGovernmentstoproposeminimum15percentoftotallengthofannualproposalsundernewtechnologies suchasCement stabilization, Lime stabilization,Coldmix,Wasteplastics, Cell filledconcrete, Panelled cement concrete pavement, Fly ash etc. Further, under PMAY-G, DoRDspecificationshavealsobeenrelaxedinrespectofgradingofmaterialsforgranularsub-baselayerinordertoencouragetheusageoflocallyavailable/naturallyoccurringmaterial/marginalmaterials.
• Use of technology in asset monitoring and maintenance: Once created, themonitoring andmaintenanceofassetsisequallyimportant.Trackingtheirprogressisamassivetask,giventhehighnumberofdevelopmentprojectsunderway in thecountryand thenumberofpeople involved inbuilding them. To make this process simpler and to remotely track the progress, DoRD hasundertakeninitiativesleveragingtechnologyandcutting-edgeinnovation.
UnderMGNREGS,DoRDhasgeo-tagged15millionassetsonNREGASoftMISsofar.NREGAsoftisacustom-madeapplicationthat,besidesallowingthegovernmenttotagandtrackprogress,providesinformationtocitizensincompliancewiththeRighttoInformation(RTI)Actandmakesavailablevariousdocuments—likemusterrolls,registrationapplicationsandjobcards,amongothers—whichareunavailabletothepublicotherwise.
AllthefundingpatternsarebasedondigitalmethodonlylikeAadhaarandPanCardunder“Geo-tagging.”Noweverythingisdoneonlineonly.AlltheschemesandprogramsofthevillagesliketheMISwhichareputontheportalanditismonitoredfromthereonly.Nowweareintothegenerationofdigitalizationandthissystemofinternetandprojectorhasinfluenceditalot(ClusterLevelKII,Uttarakhand)
Further,GeoMGNREGAusesspacetechnologytodevelopadatabaseofassetscreatedusingtechnologicalinterventionslikemobilebasedphotogeo-taggingandaGISbasedinformationsystemforonlinerecordingandmonitoring.Ason10thJune2019,ithasbeenimplementedin31StatesandUTs.Atotalof3.58croreprojectsoutof4.44crorecompletedprojectsarealreadygeo-tagged.200
Geo-tagging has also been performed of the houses constructed under PMAY-G, thereby avoidingduplicationinaddressesandfuellingoutput-basedstreamlinedfundtransfers,ashasbeenconfirmedbyschemeimplementers.
Withthehelpofgeo-taggingwecanmakesurethatthehouseismadeattheperfectlocationornot(DistrictLevelKII,Uttarakhand)
The tagging does not only document the delivery of entitlements but also captures the progressofconstructionworkofthehousewithphotosatregularstagesofconstruction.However,allPMAY-Gworksare exempt from geo-tagging under GeoMGNREGAPhase-I and Phase-II, since the geotag alongwithpicturesin5StagesoftheassetcreatedisalreadybeingcapturedunderPMAY-Gscheme.
200SameasFootnote23.
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• ManagementofPRIs:Intheruraldevelopmentsector,PRIsplayasignificantroleinground-levelimplementation.InordertoensurethatthefunctioningofPRIsfunctionssmoothly,themanagementof PRIs is devised through various e-governance applications which covers aspects like accounts,finances,procurementofrawmaterials,maintainingoflandrecords,agriculturemarketing,etc.
• Integration: A key aspect ofDoRD’s IT/technologydriven interventionshasbeen integrationofdifferent web/mobile applications to facilitate data exchange and benefit from other systemsdeveloped such as PFMS, LGDdirectory. For example, under PMAY-G, the databases of differentDepartments/Ministries/schemes converging to provide amenities to the beneficiaries areintegratedwiththeAwaassoftportal,asshowninthefigurebelow.
Figure14:IntegrationofportalsunderDoRD
Source:ITDivision,DoRD
• Goingforward:InteractionswiththeITDivisionrevealedthatgoingforwardthefocusisgoingtobeonleveragingdataanalytics,artificialintelligence,citizencentricgraphicaluserinterface(GUI)andstateofarttechnologies.
TheroleofgovernmentalorganisationshasbeencrucialforleveragingtechnologyintheRDsector.Manyorganizations of the government like Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC), Council forAdvancementofPeople’sActionandRuralTechnology(CAPART),NationalInstituteofRuralDevelopment(NIRD),DepartmentofScienceandTechnology(DST),NationalResearchDevelopmentCorporation(NRDC),Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)supportthegenerationandpromotionofappropriatetechnologiesundervariousschemes.Inaddition,engineering based educational institutions, state government organizations, non-governmentorganizations,voluntaryagenciesandprivateestablishmentsaugmenttheseefforts.
Inthecontextofruraldevelopment,CAPARTisparticularlyimportant.CAPARTisanautonomousbodysetupbyDoRDtointerfacebetweenthegovernmentandNGOsthatseektoimprovethequalityoflifeinIndia’sruralareas.CAPART’smissionistoextendthereachofthegovernmentprogramstoremoteareasandtheirmarginalizedpeoplethroughtheseNGOs,byleveragingtechnologyanddigitisationwhereverpossible.
Takeaways
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• DoRDhasmadeexcellent strides inutilising IT/technology in implementingprogrammes:DoRDhasdevelopedarobustandwell-integratedICTandtechnologybasedeco-system,cateringtobeneficiaryneeds andgrievances, aswell as administrative considerations.The sectorhasmadepositivestridesinthedirectionofutilisingtechnologytoimproveoperationalefficiency.TheDoRDICTeco-systemissummarisedbelow:
Figure15:DoRD’sICTeco-system
Source:ITDivision,DoRD
• Theinternetuserbaseinruralareascanbeleveragedfurther:Therehasbeenacontinuousincreaseintheinternetuserbaseinruralareas,whichcanbeutilisedfurther201.Ascitizensofruralareas become educated and get to know the conveniencewhich they can derive from access tointernet, they will definitely be able to exploremore and also stay well connected in line withgrowing trends. In linewith this,DoRD should look todigitise processes even further tousher ingreater efficiency in scheme operations. The sector should look to ensure deeper penetration oftechnologicalinnovationssothatthebenefitsofdigitalinitiativespercolatetograssrootslevels.
• Barriers to the adoption of ICT platforms continue to remain: While implementing ICTprogrammes,thefirstbarrierislanguage.TheinformationavailableoninternetisinEnglishasitisaworld-wideacceptedInternationallanguagewhichmaynotbeunderstoodbyallusersintheruralcontext.ThishighlightstheneedtolocaliseandcustomisecontentonICTplatforms.Further,lackofinfrastructureandlowlevelsofskillsamongthepopulationremainthekeybottleneckstowidespreadICT adoption, especially in Fifth and Sixth Schedule areas. This underscores the need for propertrainingandimplementationofICTprogrammesinasimplewayandinalanguagewhichiseasilyunderstandablebytheruralpeople.
Further,internetconnectivityandbandwidthissuesremainchallengesinmanypartsofruralIndia-particularlyinpartswhereinelectricityavailabilityiserratic.Majorpowercutsand'brownouts'affectingthecountrysiderangingfrom5to12hourseveryday.Inaddition,thereareproblemsinestablishingnetworksaswell.Mostimportantly,thelarge-scaleinvestmentrequiredinsettingupinternetnetworksinremoteruralareashasadiscouragingeffectoninvestors.
201Nielsen.(2019)DigitalinIndia–Round2Report.InternetandMobileAssociationofIndia.
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• ThereisaneedtoexpandfinancialsupporttotheruralICTinterventions:ItisimportanttonotethattheproportionoftheeconomyinvolvedinsomeorotherformofadaptationorusageofICTisstillverysmall.TheproportionofpeopleinvolvedintheICTindustry,especiallyintheruralareasisnegligible.202InorderforthebenefitsofICTtotrickledownaswellascontributetotheruralprosperity,thesettingupofseveralruralandvillagelevelmicroenterprisesiskey.Unfortunately,mostprofessionalswanttoworkintheurbanareaswherethereareampleopportunitiesavailabletothemforgrowthaswellasprosperity.DrasticstepsneedtobetakentoinjectfundsforthedevelopmentoftheICTsintheruralareas;increasinglybytheparticipationoftheprivatesector.
Further,seriousbandwidthconnectivityissuesneedtobeaddressedthroughfinancialsupport.Eventhoughtechnologyisavailabletoupgradethebandwidth,notenoughresourceshavebeenbudgetedby the Government to change this scenario. Financing difficulties are encountered by the localgrassrootslevelinstitutionsaswellasbytheStateGovernments.
• ICTprojectsintheagrariancontextareyettoshowsubstantialresults203:InIndia,overthelastfewdecades,hundredsofgrassroots ICTprojectshavebeen implemented. Invariably,agriculturebecomesoneoftheindispensablepartsoftheprojectservicemenu.However,substantialresultssuchas significant increase of agricultural production because of deployment of ICTs are yet to beobserved.ICTprojectsareyettomakeanybreakthroughinagriculturalinformationdissemination.Eventhough,ICTprojectsarepromisingtomakedifferenceandalsoacceleratinginformationaccessbysomefarmers,institutionalizingofICTsneedtobegivenmoreemphasis.
Wayforward
• AunifiedportalforallRDschemesshouldbedeveloped:Whileschematicconvergenceisakeyfocusareafortheruraldevelopmentsector,suchconvergenceshouldalsobeappliedtodigitalspaceswhich in turn will feed into synergistic scheme operations. There is a need for all the schemeimplementationteamstobeseamlesslyintegratedtoimproveinter-operabilityofthesedepartmentsandresultinrealtimeservicedeliveryfromonlineormobileplatforms.
• FocusonhumanresourcedevelopmentforICTshouldbestrengthened:GiventhatlackofskillsandawarenessimpedesadoptionofICTplatforms,DoRDshouldprovideastrongimpetustocapacitybuildingandtraining,forbothbeneficiariesandimplementingofficials-andwithaspecificfocusatthegrassrootslevel.CreatingawarenessonICTpotentials,aswellasskillandcapacitydevelopmentamongruralstakeholderswillfacilitatebetterusageofICTs.
• MakingICTcontentlocalandcustomisedshouldbeapriority:Research,educationalinstitutionsand extension systems should continuously strive for appropriate content localisation andcustomisationasperthedemandofallruralstakeholders,soastodemocratisecontentandencouragegreateruserengagement.
• Innovativeapproachestoe-governanceshouldbeadopted:ASMARTapproachtoe-governanceshouldbeundertakensuch that it isSpecific (stating theexact specificationsof theachievementstargeted),Measurable(ensuringanddemonstratingtowhatextentthegoalhasbeenmet),Achievable(ensuring outcomes, which are within the range of current technology, resources and people’scapacity),Relevant (startingwithmostpressingneedsandmovingtosecondarygoals)andTime-bound(includingdeadlines,frequenciesetc.)
202UNCTAD.(2019).DigitalEconomyReport.203MohanKumarC.K.(2014).ICTforRuralDevelopment.
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• Agrarian ICTs should be institutionalised: ICTs for agricultural extension projects need to becomparedandevaluatedobjectively.LowcostICTtoolssuchasmobilephoneshavealotofpromiseforagriculturalextension.Atthesametime,experiencesindicatethatICTinterventionsaregoingtoplaygreaterroleinprivatesectoragribusiness,marketinformationandmarketintelligence.Further,interventionscentredonthedisseminationoffarminformation(e.g.informinggovernmentschemes)andonlinemonitoringoftheprogressofthegovernmentalschemeshaveproventobesuccessful.Farmersnowneedinformationabouttrendsandtechnologyneededinfarmingsoas to produce more and participateeffectively insettingpriceof theirproduct.Tomakeall thispossible,institutionalisationofagrarianICTinitiativesshouldbeprioritised,byformulatingNationalandStatelevele-Agriculturepolicies,aswellasthroughhumanresourcedevelopment.
(vii) Development,dissemination&adoptionofinnovativepractices,technology&know-how
Introduction
Withtheglobalemergenceofdisruptivetechnologiestypifiedasa‘fourthindustrialrevolution’,morethaneverbefore,successfulruraltransformationrequirestheuseofinnovativesolutionsdirectedtobroadeningtheruralproductionbase.Suchinnovativesolutionswouldensuretheshiftfromtraditionalactivitiesintomore productive sectors and enablemembers of rural communities to enhance their livelihoods andwellbeing.Therecognitionthatinnovationisnotjustabouthigh-technologyproductsandtheknowledgefrontier is important. It is thereforenecessarytoshiftemphasistobuilding innovationcapabilitiesandfosteringlocalinnovationstoaddresschallengesspecifictolocalcontexts.
Growinginequalityandtheexclusionofpeoplefrominnovationprocesseshaveledtoabroadscientificdiscussionoftheproblemsofinclusion,inclusiveinnovation,andinclusivegrowth204.India’sruralsectorcallsforfollowingelementsininnovations,whichwouldnotbeenoughifimplementedindividually:
1. Economicgrowthand inclusive structural transformation, throughwhich investmentsgenerateemploymentinsectorsandterritorieswherethepoormayalsobenefit.
2. Increaseofproductivity inpoorruralhouseholds - increasingaccesstonaturalresources(land,water,forests)aswellasinputsandotherassets-toimprovetheircapacitytomanagerisksandincreasetheirproductivity,linkingsmall-scaleagriculturalmarketstoagri-foodsystems.
3. Expansionofsocialprotectionsystemsinruralareasandstrongercoordinationwithotherruraldevelopmentandnaturalresourcessustainablemanagementprogrammes.
4. Creationandimprovementofruralinfrastructure,especiallyinenergy,transportation,waterandsanitation.
5. Facilitationofdecentemploymentcreationintheagricultureandnon-agriculturalruraleconomy,bothintermsofself-employmentandwageemployment.
6. Generationofhumancapitalthroughaccesstosocialservices(healthandeducation).
7. Strengtheningofruralinstitutionsandlocalgovernmentstoencouragetheirparticipationinpolicydialogueanddecisionmaking,whichrequirespromotingprofessionalqualifications.
8. Empowerment of the rural poor by boosting their organizational capacity to promote politicalparticipationsotheycanbenefitfromtheprocessesofdevelopmentandeconomicgrowth.
204 Ustyuzhantseva. O (2017). Studies of inclusive innovation in sociotechnical systems: Case studies in Russia and India,InnovationandDevelopment,7:1,83-100,DOI:0.1080/2157930X.2017.1281359
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Development,disseminationandadoptionof innovativepractices, technologyandknow-howneed totakecognizanceoftheaboveaspects.Thestartingpointforreflectingonhowtoinduceinnovationsforsustainableruraldevelopmentistounderstandthevaryingconceptionsoftheterminnovation,aswellashow they might be produced. Innovations are changes made to current patterns which generateimprovements–suchasincreasesinproductivityandcompetitiveness;socially-mindednotionssuchastheincreaseofincome,sustainabilityandequity(FAO,2016;EuropeanUnion,2014)aresometimesaddedtothisdefinition.Inthisdefinition,thesubstanceofaninnovationisidentifiedbyitsresultsratherthanbytheprocessthathasproducedit.
Background
RoleofPRIsindrivinglocalinnovation
India, with about 2,50,000 Rural Local Bodies (Panchayats) which hold enormous opportunities inlocalizing the SDGs and meeting the goals. Panchayats are expected to play an effective role in theplanningandimplementationoffunctionsrelatedto29subjectsenlistedintheEleventhScheduleoftheConstitution.ManySDGtargetsarewithinthepurviewofthesesubjects.ThereportoftheCommitteeonPerformanceBasedPaymentsforBetterOutcomesinRuralDevelopmentPrograms(2017)byDoRDhasidentified thecentral roleof thePanchayat,humanresourcesand its capacitybuilding todevelop thenormsandcontoursofdevelopment,disseminationandadoptionof innovativepractices.Thedriversofinnovationshavebeenexpansionandperformance,drivenbyeffectivefieldimplementationforadequatestaffinglevels,programmetraining,andskillsavailabilityatlocallevel.Giventhepolicyimportance,thegovernmenthasinvestedininnovation,adaptationandreflexivityinprogrammedevelopmentsinceitwasinitiatedandsupportedmeasurestopromoteimpact,planningandadministration.
Usheringinadigitalage
In2015,thegovernmentlaunchedtheDigitalIndiaprogramme,whichaimstoclosethisgapbyfosteringinvestmentindigitalinfrastructure,improvingdigitalliteracy,andincreasinglyprovidingonlineservicestocitizens.India’sperformanceintermsofprovidingonlineservicesandallowinge-participationhassofarbeeninlinewiththatofthepeercountries,butfarfromtheglobalbest(57thand40th,respectively).However, almost all States have now been covered under Bharat Net, which provides broad bandconnectivitytotheGPs205.
Flexibilityinsectoralinterventions
FlexibilityinvariousschemessuchasMGNREGSandPMAY-Gonindividualbeneficiaryinvestmentshasresultedinenhancedincomesofthebeneficiariesandalsoimprovementinthequalityofassets.TheshareofsuchIndividualBeneficiarySchemeshasincreasedfrom21.4percentin2014-15to66.1percentin2018-19.UnderMGNREGS,several innovativepracticessuchastweakingthewageandmaterialratio(thatleadstonon-productiveassetsbeingcreatedsimplybecause60percenthastobespentonunskilledwageinaGP)hasbeencarriedout.Thewageandmaterialratioof60:40hasbeenallowedattheDistrictlevelratheratGPlevel.
Similarly,developmentofAnnualMasterCircularviz.;amastercircularissuedin2016,withconsolidated1039 advisories issued since the inception of the programme; is amended and issued every yearsubsequently.Thishashelpedtostreamlinetheimplementationoftheprogrammeandbringinclarity.
ResearchandDevelopment
205BharatNetStatusason25thSeptember2020,http://www.bbnl.nic.in/BharatNet.pdf
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ThereareanumberoforganizationsinIndia,bothprivateandpublic,thatperformR&Dfortheruralsector.This includes IITs.Arangeofapplicationsarebeingdeveloped invarioussectors that includeenergy (for lighting, cooking, transportation, and agriculture),water (for domestic consumption andcultivation),agriculture(betterseeds,practices,andequipment),manufacturing(smallscale,agro-based,etc.), sanitation, health, transportation, communication, environmental conservation, and ruralemployment.
Potentialforinnovationwithinthenon-farmeconomy
Considering the size and potential of the non-farm economy in the rural sector there exists a hugecapabilitytogenerateknowledgeoninnovativepractices.Pressuresfromscarcityofresourcesandlimitedornoaccesstofinancialinstitutions,technologies,andformalknowledgecreatesaspacefornewideas,experimentation,andpracticesthatareanalternativetoformal-sectorproductsandpractices.Thus,GrassRootInnovations(GRIs)canbeconsideredasnicheinnovationwithintheexistingsociotechnicalsystemofruralIndia.Theseinnovationsdrawattentionofmainstreamactors,andinteractionsbetweennicheinnovators andmainstream actors thereby resulting in launching transformation of the regime. Forinstance, the rural sector has come up with an innovative idea of setting up of Livelihood BusinessIncubatorCenters(LBIs)todriveinnovations,pilotanddisseminateitfurther.TheprimaryroleoftheDoRDhereliesinconvergingwiththeprocesstomobilizeandreallocateresourcesonalargescale,andtoprovide incentives forharnessingscience, technologyand innovation- for thepurposeofspurringtransformativedevelopment.
Innovationforruralemployment
ThroughitsDigitalIndiaprogramme,GovernmentofIndiaisworkingtotransformthecountry'sruraleconomyandcreateskilledjobs inruralareas.Fortheestimated156millionIndianruralhouseholds,mostlivinginpovertyaccordingtoIndia’sNationalSampleSurveyOrganization(NSSO),theinternetisaninnovativeinstrumentfordigitalaccesssoastocreatemoreemploymentandprovideinformationforwomenandyouthinruralareas.
ComplementingeffortstoincreaseagriculturalproductivityandemploymentisIndia’stripleinnovationsystem (JAM), consisting of JanDhan (the PrimeMinister’s initiative to open universal bank accounts,Aadhaar(aunique12-digitIDnumberforcitizens)andmobilephones.Further,MGNREGSusesDBTstopaybeneficiaries,andthishasreducedtransfercosts,wasteandcorruption-andsidesteppedanypossiblemisallocationoffundstransferredfromCentretoStatetoDistricttoPanchayatsfordistribution.
Thematically,onecanidentifythreecategoriesofissues:
1. Howdoesthestateatvariouslevelspromotetransformativeinnovationpoliciesbyapplyingmethodsthatcombineinsightsfromallheterodoxideasandexplorepotential forpoliciesthatcanfacilitateproductivityconvergenceandinclusivetransformationofruralareas?
2. How does the state build capacity for an inclusive process of co-operative learning forinnovative co-creation in ‘living labs’, and thereby explore the role of governance and instandardization?
3. Howdoesthestatecatalyseandsupportprovisionofpro-poorinnovationforsocialinclusioninruraltransformation?
Whilepublic-privatecollaborationisunderscored,it’simperativetoguideandfacilitatesuchinteractionsthroughendeavours,includesthefosteringofinnovationtoenhancesocialcohesion;reducepovertyandinequality; redistribute wealth; create jobs; protect the environment; ensure safety and security; andimproveeducationandhealthcare.
Takeaways
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• Innovation demands stakeholder interaction, which often requires skilled facilitation.Innovationcanbestimulatedbypartnershipsbetweencommunityorganizationsandbusinessesbutdue to different interests, facilitation is often needed in order for different players to recognize thebenefits/valueofworkingtogether,whicharenotalwaysapparent.Facilitatorscanhelpactorstoseethebenefits of collaboration. Innovation isneedednotonly atproduction level, but throughout thewholevaluechain.
• Innovationoftenrequiresaprocessofempowerment,trust-buildingandpowerre-balancing,inwhichskilledfacilitatorscanplayacriticalandenablingrole.Innovationasamulti-stakeholderprocess needs to balance competitive and collaborative impulses. Innovation along the whole chainrequiresthatdifferentstakeholders(publicandprivate,)cometogether,takerisksandjointlyimplementnew ideas. Trust and social networks need to be built up alongside technical knowledge and skills.Inclusionmustbeconsciouslysoughtandmanaged–whetherwomenorvulnerablegroupsarethoseatriskofbeingexcluded.Toensurethatinnovationsreachlesspowerfulgroups(e.g.women,the‘poor’)innovativeprocessesmustbeexplicitlyguidedtoinvolvesuchvulnerablegroupsandtoensurethattheless advantaged are not restricted to support roles, but can instead participate in decision-makingprocesses.Interactioniskeyandweneedskilledpeopletocoax,stirandnudgethatinteractiontosupportinnovation.
• Ruralinnovationprocessesrequiredynamicandlearning-orientedmonitoringandevaluation(M&E) to respond to a rapidly changing context. The success of development initiatives can beenhancedbygoodM&E,butruralinnovationprocesseshaveparticularrequirementsinrelationtoM&Eduetothenatureoftheseprocesses.TheyrequiredynamicandlearningorientedM&E,asthecontextandthereforeeffectsoftheinnovationprocessesrapidlychange.Oftenmanystakeholdersatdifferentlevelsneedtoquicklylearnfromeachother’ssuccessesandfailuresforresponsivemanagement.Forstakeholderstoinnovateandlearntogethertheyneedgoodinformation.Thisrequires‘entrepreneurialmonitoringandevaluation’thatsupportsinnovation.
• Communication plays a key role in innovations:Equally important to the innovation process isadequatecommunicationtoconveythebenefits,andtobuildthesocialcapabilitiestoensurethatendusersacquiretheknowledgeandtoolsnecessaryforappropriateuse,andthemaintenancecapacitytosustain, the newly adopted innovations. The involvement of marginalized communities in theinnovation process, to solve problems they identify and provide solutions based on their realities,resultsinbetterdevelopmentoutcomes206.Thelackofanagencytoensurecontinuousandasustainedadoptionprocessalsoprovidesspacetostepup,ifitwantstheinnovationtobetrulytransformative.
Wayforward
• An empowered body is needed to steer holistically the management of technological andpracticesrelatedinnovationsinthecountry:Itsscopewillincludescienceeducationandscientificresearchaswellascoordinatingandguidingvariousinitiatives.Theneedistopursueinter-ministerial,inter-disciplinary research besides breaking silos among various scientific departments/agencies. Theinherentweaknessesofinformationdisseminationtoenhancetechnologycommercializationmaybeaddressedbysettingupofvalueadditioncentres inup-scaling technologies, improving technologiesfrom technology readiness level to technology dissemination level, demonstrating up scaling of pilot,coordinating with investors to incubate, bridging the gap between institutions and technologyprovidersteams,enablingcommercializationandmarketingandprovidingtechnologysupportduring
206Arza,Valeria,andPatrickVanZwanenberg."Thepoliticsoftechnologicalupgrading:InternationaltransfertoandadaptationofGMcottoninArgentina."WorldDevelopment59(2014):521-534.
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production.TheDepartmentofScienceandTechnologyshould looktocreateaNationalTechnologyDataBankincoordinationwithallpubliclyfundedR&Dinstitutionssoastoprovideacentraldatabasefortechnologiesisdesired.
• Financialandtechnicalsupportforfrugalinnovationsintheruraldevelopmentsectorshouldbeexplored:Tobringvibrancytofrugalinnovations,anon-lapsable‘DistrictInnovationFund’withacorpusineachDistrictmaybecreatedandusedtopromoteGRIs.AtalInnovationMissionhasalreadylaunched Atal New India Challenges in partnership with five Ministries to create products fromtechnologiesandprototypesinareasofnationalimportance.These,AtalIncubationCenters(AICs)mayalsoprovide theplatformforpromoting frugal innovation.FurtherexpansionofAtalTinkering labsspecificallydedicated to rural sector shouldbe consideredbasedon theoutcomeof the first phasepresentlyunderway.
• TheM&Estructureshouldbebasedonaresult-basedmanagementframework:Thecriteriaforevaluation as mentioned in the NRLM implementation document need revision. The elements like‘innovation’needstobefurtherunbundledandveryspecificandmeasurablecriteriashouldbefixed.Thesecriteria should bemaintained in all the stages from project appraisal to delivery level.The idea ofincluding‘learning’askeycriteriaintheM&Eframeworkislaudable.However,suchmeasuresshouldbealsomadespecificandmeasurable.
• A criterion for the review of innovation support funds needs to be operationalized for thepromotionofinnovations:Thebroaderobjectiveswithconcreteanddetailedparametersengagingthefollowingmaybeconsidered:
1. Governance (in terms of the fund charter, organizational structure, management andaccountabilityarrangements)
2. MonitoringandImpact(intermsofM&Esystemsandimpactassessments)
3. Implementation(intermsofconcreteexperiencesandcasestudies)
4. TransactionCosts(intermsofadministrativeoroverheadarrangementsandcostsinrelationtoresults)
5. Flexibility(toincludeadaptability)
6. Beneficiaries(intermsofidentifyingprimarytargetgroups)
7. InnovationScouting(asidentificationandvettingstrategiesforinnovations)
8. ReplenishmentStrategy(asaplanforeconomicsustainability)
9. SelectionCriteriaandProcedures (asamatterofapplicationproceduresandselectioncriteria,includingthequestionofwhethertheseincludecompetitivearrangements)
10. Commercialization Learning (as a matter of learning and sharing systems, includingdocumentationanddissemination,whether throughbrokerage involving thepublicorprivatesector,andanyIPRsuchaspatents)
11. AccesstoandControlofResources(intermsofaccessandcontrolbybeneficiaries)
12. PartnersandStakeholders(asamatterofpartnershipapproachandstakeholderinvolvement)
(viii) Stakeholder&beneficiarybehaviouralchange
Introduction
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The2015WorldDevelopmentReport207highlightsthreemajorfeaturesofhumandecision-makingbasedontheevidencefromalargenumberofresearchpapers. `First,peoplemakemostjudgmentsandmostchoicesautomatically,notdeliberatively:wecallthis“thinkingautomatically.”Second,howpeopleactandthink often depends on what others around them do and think: we call this “thinking socially.” Third,individualsinagivensocietyshareacommonperspectiveonmakingsenseoftheworldaroundthemandunderstandingthemselves:wecallthis“thinkingwithmentalmodels”.’
Transformationalpotentialofbehaviourchange
TheEconomicSurvey2018-19hasdrawnonNobelLaureateRichardThaler’sBehaviouralEconomicsTheory208tolayoutwhatitdescribesasan“ambitiousagenda”forbehaviourchangethatwillbringinsocial change,which in turn,will help India transit to a $5 trillion economyby 2024-25. Fewof theprogrammesexecutedby thegovernmentof Indiaprovide testimony to thepotential forbehaviouralchangeinIndia.GivenIndia’srichculturalandspiritualheritage,socialnorms(thatplayaveryimportantroleinshapingthebehaviour),canbeutilizedtoeffectbehaviouralchange.Itprovestobeaneffectivemethod of economic analysis that applies psychological insights into human behaviour to explaineconomic decision-making. Drawing on the psychology of human behaviour, behavioural economicsprovidesinsightsto‘nudge’peopletowardsdesirablebehaviour.
Dopoorpeoplehave tochange theirbehaviour toenable theirhumandevelopment?Canpractitionersbringaboutsuchbehaviouralchangeamongthebeneficiariesoftheirdevelopmentactions?Thesearehighlycontestedquestionsinsocialscienceandindebatesonbehaviouralchange.ThereisneedinthecontextofruralIndiatoidentifythesetofspecificchangesinbehaviourthatareneededtoaddresscertainwell-knownissuesofunderdevelopmentinthecountry.
Behaviourchangeindevelopmentinterventions
Todate,researchtounderstandindividualbehaviourinthecontextofdevelopmentinterventionshastendedtofocusontheuseofexperimentalmethodstoidentifywherebehaviouralinsightscanbeusefullyappliedtoimprovetheeffectofanintervention.Behaviouralinsightscanbeparticularlysuccessfulforunderstandingone-off decision-making at onepoint in time, e.g.womenengaged in thrift and savingsprogramsorfamiliesdecidingtoengageinnon-farmeconomicactivity.
Thereisagrowingbodyofworkthatfocusesonunderstandingongoing,repeatedbehavioursandhabitformation,forexample,studieshavelookedattheeffectofincentivesonlongtermneedaroundcollectiveactionssuchasfederationsorproducerorganizations.Instancesalsoincludeinterventionsoncommonpropertyresourcestoincreasethewaterretentionpotentialinthelongterminentitlementprogrammesof Government of India, aswell as interventions to nudge to providewomenworkers the necessaryfacilityattheconstructionsites.
Some studieshave focusedon shifts ina set of behaviourswithina specific environment, for example,savingandriskaversionbehaviourinthemicrofinanceprogrammesinruralareas.
207Cammack,P.(2014).WorldDevelopmentReport2015:ProgrammingthePoor.TheMultilateralDevelopmentBanksandtheGlobalFinancialCrisisWorkingPapersSeries,7.208Thaler,R.H.(2016).Behavioraleconomics:Past,present,andfuture.AmericanEconomicReview,106(7),1577-1600.
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There are fewer examples of behavioural insights applied to understand behaviour in complex changeprocesses,whereasetofdifferentbehavioursneedtochangewithinindividuals,orwheredifferentactorsneedtoshiftmultiplebehaviourssimultaneously(e.g.ruralcommunityadoptingthepackageofsupportbeing offered within the housing and village road programs or rural households engaging with themaintenance of community assets). To effectively apply behavioural insights, it isnecessary to knowpreciselywhereandwheninaprocessofchangingbehaviourthatspecificbehaviouraldeterminantscomeintoplay,aswellastherelativeimportanceofvariousbehaviouraldeterminantsinthedecision-makinglandscapeandtheroleandinfluenceofotheractorsonthebehaviourchangeprocess.
Research on resilience and social-ecological systems has attempted to overcome the challenge ofexplainingbehaviourincomplexchangeprocesses,inparticularthehumandimensionsofsocial-ecologicaldilemmas. However, the research tends to focus on social units, rather than the complex interplaybetween individualsandthesocialunits.Suchconceptsdoattempttoanswerthechallenges thatarebeingfacedinthesocial-ecologicalsystemstoacknowledgethecomplexityandsocialdiversityofsystemsandtherebyachieveoutcomes.
Theruralsectorpolicydesigncanbethoughtasthemapanddevelopmentoutcomesasthedestination,then nudges can bethe pointers that gently guide actions towards the best route. Formulating thesepointers requires expertise at two levels: understanding why consumers pick fewer optimum routes(cognitivebiases);anddesigningsignsthatguideuserstobetterroutes(nudges/interventions).
Background
Toolsofstakeholderandbeneficiarybehaviourchange
Behaviouralsciencecanbeappliedtolarge-scaleruraldevelopmentprograms.Theverynatureofthesciencebeingimbuedinasocialandculturalcontextenablesittogenerateeffectiveandsustainedresultstopublicserviceprograms.Interventionsthataredesignedusingthissciencecanreducetheintent-to-actiongap.Thereexistsaplethoraoftoolslikedefaults,reminders,prompts,andincentivesthatcanreducepooradherenceandincreasecomplianceforsustainedimpactthroughoutthelifeofanintervention.Thereisevidenceofuseofsuchtoolsintheruraldevelopmentspaceaswell.
Forinstance,engagingwiththecadreofCommunityResourcePersons(CRPs)fromthecommunityunderDAY-NRLM,hashelpedpeopleidentifywiththeirlanguageandculture.TheseCRPshaveprovedtobekeysocialmotivatorsforprovidingcriticalinputsonvariousknowledge,skillsandrelatedbehaviourswithculturally appropriate socialmeasures to convert thought process into a sustainedhabit has yieldedresults.Anothergoodexample is theuseofdigitalplatforms toprovidemessages intheruraldomaindirectly to families’ mobile phones. This behavioural insight approach improves the management ofprogrammeperformances.TheimpressiveworkdonebyDoRD,onmonitoringtheimplementationofnationalflagshipschemesthroughDISHAdashboardsarealsonotableexamplesofdigitalinterventionsforbehaviourchange.
Leveragingsocio-culturalnormstochangebehaviours
Intheruraldevelopmentsector,contextualbehavioursarealsoshapedbysocialfactors,suchaspeople’scultural beliefs and their perceptions of how socially acceptable particular behaviours are in theircommunity.Thisiscriticalinthecontextofvarioussocialcapitalformationinitiativesintheruraldomain.Theinterventionsaroundsocialgroups,interpersonalinteractions,socialnorms,andmoralnormsdrivehomeanexplicitmessagethatisdesiredfortheprograms.
Socialgroupsmayincludecommunityorothersupportgroups.Inbehaviouralinterventions,theymaybeusedtoapplysocialpressureorleveragesocialcapitalinordertoinfluencepeople’spracticesand
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behaviours. Thismay includepublicmeetings and events or local language theatre that is tailored toand/or targets local traditions. For example, in a rural institution formation framework- - severalmeetingsandpubliceventsconductedaspartofIECactivitiesgoinlinewiththenudgetheorytoimprovedecisionsamongbothfemaleandmalepopulation.Suchinterventionsalsoprevailupontheinfluenceofmalemembersofcommunityandpreventstheparticipationofwomenfrombeingdiscouraged.
Behavioural change interventions primarily rely on design andmessaging that address the effect ofbehaviouralbiasesonhumanbehaviour.Thesebiasesarenouniquephenomenon ingovernmentandpublic policy, neither do they affect only a small percentage of the population—cognitive biases areeverywhere. Previous experiences suggest that, if planned carefully, and backed by accurate bias-targeting,then,suchinterventionsdowork.
InBihar,effortstoimprovethequalityofhealth-careservicedeliverybyfront-lineworkerstakesintoaccount popular ‘rituals’, like keeping a baby away from the ground in a cot (palna), or markingdecorationsaroundherhearth(chulah),fortransmittingmessagesthatareculturallyacceptable.Lessonsfrom such interventions can form the basis of other interventions in the rural sector related toinfrastructure,socialsecurityandlivelihoods.InruralIndia,wheresocialandreligiousnormsplaysuchadominant role in influencingbehaviour; behavioural economics canprovideavaluable instrument forchange.ManyIndianschemesthatemployinsightsfrombehaviouraleconomicshavemetwithsuccess.LeadingexamplesincludetheSwachhBharatMission(SBM)andBetiBachaoBetiPadhao(BBBP)scheme.
Roleof“nudgepolicies”
The efficacy of a new class of policies called“nudge” policies togently steer people towards desirablebehaviourevenwhilepreservingtheirlibertytochooseneedremindersandpositivereinforcementtosustainsociallydesirablebehaviour.FewexamplesofnudgepoliciesareforincreasingthesavingbasebythewomenledSHGprogrammesinIndia.Ruralwomenaresentmessagesregardingthewaysinwhichsavings canmake a difference to their household emergency needs. Even the rural populationmaybeofferedspeciallydesignedsavingsaccountsthatlockedupfundsuntilaself-specifiedtargetwasmet.
WhiletheJanDhanYojanaopenedalargenumberofbankaccountsinashortspanoftime,itssuccessreliesonpeopleusingtheseaccountsregularly.Theprogramme’smandateisnotonlytoopenaccountsbut to enable access to credit, insurance, pension schemes and other facilities offered by the formalbankingsector.Goingforward,theprogrammeofferstremendousscopetoemploybehaviouralinsights.Inlinewith“savingsup”and“savingsdown”theory209,thehabitofhouseholds’majorassetsorsavings,isacaseofclassic“savingup”technique.TheSHGmembershavealsoresortedto“savingdown”approachwherebytheyborrowedmoneytotidethroughknownorunknownexpendituressuchasanemergencymedicalexpenditure.
Theapplicationsofbehaviouralinsightsappeartobearesultofconfirmationbias(totheextentthatpastpolicieswereviewedwithabehaviourallens).ReducingcorruptioninMGNREGSinculcatesasenseofprideofbeingthebestlocalgovernancesystem(Panchayat)inaDistrictandrewardingitwouldgoalong way in ensuring behavioural change vis-à-vis compliance with program norms. In this scenario,governmentregulation,awardsandrewardpoliciesmaybeclubbedwithanudgeeffecttoincreasetheefficacyofpolicymaking.
Targetingdemandsidebehaviour
209Rutherford,S.(2000).Thepoorandtheirmoney.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.
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When economic, psychological, social, or other mechanisms inhibit service use, directly targetingdemand-sidebehaviourchangeisessentialforsustainedservicedelivery.Interventionsthatacknowledgeindividuals’decision-makingprocessesandtheimplicittrade-offsrequiredofindividualsarelikelytobemoresuccessful.Relevanceofobjectivestobehaviourchangecoversthreetopics:
1. Definingtheproject’stargetedpopulation,whetherandwhichbehavioursaretargetedintheprojectdevelopmentobjectives(PDOs)andotherindicatorsanddiagnosingthecurrentbehaviours.First,“behavioural”activitiesmusthaveadefinedpopulationoftargetbeneficiaries.
2. Next,bycapturingthePDOsandtheirindicatorsandbyinterrogatingthedegreetowhichtheprojectexplicitlyaimsforchangesinthewaybeneficiariesusetheiragency,Apilottestofwhetherornottheprojectisgovernedbybehaviouralconsiderationsseekstoidentifythetemplatetohelpanswerthequestionofwhethertheprojecthasidentifiedaspecificbehaviourthatitistryingtochange.
3. Finally,thetemplateasks fordetailsonwhethertherewasanydiagnosticworkdoneto identifythecurrent behaviours. Nearly all prescriptive behavioural frameworks emphasize the importance ofdoingdiagnosticworkbeforeaprojectisdesignedinordertounderstandthedifferentprocessesthatcanproducebeneficiarybehaviour.
It isrealizedthatthebehaviouraldiagnosticstage inprojectdesignistypicallyunderdeveloped.Suchdiagnosticworkmaycomefromawiderangeofsourcesbutunderstandingthecontextualbottleneckstobehaviourthatcanaffectthedesignoftheinterventioniscritical.
Successelsewhere
InIsrael,theissuingorrenewalofanID,passportordrivinglicense,becameconditionaluponansweringthequestionofbecomingaregistereddonor.Thedefaultoptionwasan‘opt-in’provision,whichgreatlyincreasedthelistofregistereddonorsbytargetingthestatusquobias.
Similarly, in Singapore—known for a number of innovations in governance—providing the averageelectricityusageofthelocalityonthebackofbillshasnudgedhouseholdstothinkabouttheirownenergyconsumption,drivingthemtowardsreducingittotheaveragelevels,anexampleofthegroupthinkeffect.
Copenhagen’s experiment of using green footsteps to lead to trash bins helped reduce littering by 46percent.Similarly,inSingapore,printingtaxbillsonthepinkpapertypicallyusedfordebtcollectionledtoanimprovementinthepromptpaymentrateofbetweenthreetofivepercentagepoints.ThesearethemeansthatcanwellformthebasisofstrengtheningtheroleofPanchayatsineithertaxcollectionorforthatmatterthenormsthatarerequiredtobedevelopedwithinthecommunity.
Takeaways
Behaviouralscience-basedapproachestodesignandtestdevelopmentinterventionshavecomealongwayintermsofidentifyingkeycognitiveprocessesandbehaviouralleverstotriggerbehaviourchangeinruralsector.AchangeinbehavioursandsocialnormsseemshugelyimportantforaddressingtheissuesfacedinruralIndia.Anexampleofthelowerworkparticipationrateamongwomenwithimplicationsforbothhumandevelopmentandeconomicgrowthofthecountrycanwellbeattendedtobythechangebehaviour.Thekeytakeawaysare:
• Rigorousevaluationofbehaviorisoftenmissedwhilemeasuringprogrammeperformances:However suchdata is crucial andcanhelp explain the limited impactofwell-intendedgovernmentprogrammes.
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• Peoplevaluelossesandgainsdifferently:Intheruralsector,thepotentiallossesoutofvariouseconomic opportunities are being viewed differently. There is a tendency to preserve what theyalreadyhave;theirperceivedloss/gainisbasedonabenchmark.Allentrepreneurialinterventionsforruraldevelopmentshouldtakecognizanceoffactsinordertoproposeforthebusinessopportunitiespotential.
• Behaviouraldesignframeworkrecognizestheopportunitytocloselylinkbehaviouralinsightsand intervention design: Such a frameworkhelps to identify unintended consequences, generatebettersolutionsanddiagnoses,anddevelopdiagnostictechniquesrelevantforothercontexts.
• Iterativeexperimentalapproachesholdthepotentialtobeingtransformationalchangeintheruraldevelopmentsector:Aniterativeexperimentalapproachrequiresisolatingthecausaleffectofasinglecognitiveprocessorpathway.Further,itisalsoimportanttofocusonasetofinterconnecteddesigninnovations.Akeystrengthofsuchanapproachliesinthethoroughtestingthattakesplaceateachpointintheprocessallowingformistakes,forexample,misdiagnosedproblemstobecorrectedalongtheway.
Wayforward
• There is need to merge the methodological approach of service design with behavioralinsights in value-chain based interventions: Service design offers both a process for carefullyfindingsolutions,andamethodologyforbasingsuchsolutionsonaknowledgebasethatisaswidelyand inclusively informed as possible. Theuser journey component of the framework allows us tovisualize the experiences andperceptions of users of a given technologyor service throughout achangeprocessandensuresthatimportantbehaviouraldriversandsocialprocessesarecapturedateveryphaseofthejourney.
The systems mapping component situates the lived experiences of users within complex social-ecologicalsystemsandhighlightsconnectionsbetweenusersandotherpotentiallyimportantactorsandprocessesatdifferentlevelsofsociety.Suchamethodologytofuelbehaviourchangeiscriticalforthevaluechain-basedinterventionsthatisdesiredforbothfarm/non-farm-basedinterventionsintheruralcontext.
• Everyruraldevelopmentsectorprogrammustgothrougha“behaviouraleconomics”auditbeforeitsimplementation:DoRDmayadheretotheprinciplesofbehaviouraleconomicstoconductits audit. Such an audit and themodifications undertaken, therein, can significantly enhance theefficacyoftheprogram.
• Mentalmodelsfocusingonaspirationsforabetterlifeshouldbeencouraged:Theimportanceof financial disciplines needs to be communicated effectively through popular narratives and byexposingpeopletosocialcontextswhichhaveundergonedesirablesocialchanges.Theexposuretothenewsocialcontextsmaycreatenewmentalmodelsenablingpeopletothinkaboutabetterlife.Thisneedforcreatingaspirationsorthedreamofadesirableworldisimportantinseveralcontextsinrural India.This isneeded forgendermainstreamingacrossvariousruraldevelopmentprogramsparticularly among the marginalized communities. The absence of such aspirations may bediscouraging.Multiplestrategiesmayberequiredforthispurpose.Consciouslycultivatingrolemodelsfromthesesocialgroupswhohavebenefittedcouldbeone.Theexperienceandsuccessoftheserolemodels may have to be communicated widely. Inspirational videos can be used for suchcommunication.
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Theinfluenceofprevailingmentalmodelsmayencouragepeopletobehaveinwaysthatmaynotbedesirablefortheirdevelopment.Decisionstoengageintoaprocessorprogrambasedontheprevalentmentalmodelisnotcompletelyeffectiveandhence,strategiestochangementalmodelsmustbetriedout.
• Thereisaneedforbehaviouralchangeamongdevelopmentresearchersandpractitioners:Thesestakeholdersmaybepronetobiases, ideologicalpre-conditioning,andincorrectpresumptionregardingtheabilitiesofthebeneficiariesofdevelopmentactions.Hence,theyshouldbemadeawareof their possible influences if their research is to inform development actions or policies. Thesestakeholdersneedtobemoreopentodatawhichdoesnotconformtotheirtheoryofaction,andalsototheneedtoexperimentineachandeverycontext.
Organizationsinvolvedindevelopmentpracticeshouldbemoreopentocontextualfactorsbothfromwithinandoutside.Thereneedstobeargumentsandcounter-argumentsatthetimeofdesignandatevery stage of the project implementation with respect to such behavioural biases. A conduciveenvironmenttoencouragegenuinedisagreementsandconcernsabouttheprogramstrategyshouldenablecriticalengagementwithoutaffectingtheprocessofimplementation.
• Informationdisseminationshouldbeundertakenacrossdiverseplatforms:Peopleactwithoutseekinginformationeitherbysimplybelievingthatsuchinformationisnotneededorbyacceptingwhatafewotherpeopletellthemtodo.Manypeoplemaynotacttimelytoparticipateinschemeseven if such participation is useful to them. Hence, information provision by all possiblemeans –includingthosethatcanbeeasilyaccessedbytechnologyandsocialmedia–isimportant.Theroleofreminders,publicnotices,non-monetarygifts(whicharegivenatthetimeofsubscription),makingproductsconvenientandeasytounderstandareimportant.
• Steps to increase the coverage of education should be taken to benefit from cognitivestimulation:TheoneareawheresomeprogressisachievedinIndiaistheprovisionofeducationwhich is necessary for the socio-emotional and cognitive stimulation of not only the children butessentialfortheircognitivedevelopmentandachievementsduringadulthood.Thoughasystemforeducationisinplace,thisisnotwell-utilized(forthecognitivestimulation).Makingitmoreeffectiveisanimportantcontributortothecognitivedevelopmentoftheruralpopulation.
(ix) ResearchandDevelopment
Introduction
Ruralcircumstancesarechanging;developmentthinkingischanging;andruraldevelopmentpolicyneedstokeepup:thesearethecoremessagesforresearchanddevelopment.Differentgovernmentsanddonoragencieshavedifferentperspectivesandpursuedifferentcombinationsofruraldevelopmentpolicies.Ifaidforruraldevelopmentistobere-establishedonagrowthpath,thenitwillbewithinthewidercontext,dominatedbyideasabouttheComprehensiveDevelopmentFramework,PovertyReductionStrategyPapersandSectorWideApproaches.Keyfeaturesoftheholisticapproach,ownership,partnership,andresults-orientation(especially inconnectionwiththeInternationalDevelopmentTargets)havetobesuitablyimbibed.
Basedonsecondaryliteraturereview,emergingissuesinruralsectorareasfollows:
1. Theparadoxinfunding:Themajorityofthepoorstillliveinruralareas,andyetdonorsupportforagriculturalandotherruraldevelopmenthasslumped.
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2. Adiminishingurban-ruraldivide:Ruralandurbanlivelihoodsare inter-dependent,andthere israrelyasharpgeographicaldividebetweenruralandperi-urban.Ruraldevelopmentstrategiesmusttakeaccountoftheurbanlinksandcontext.
3. Diversifiedlivelihoods:Therearefewfull-timefarmersnow,ashouseholdspursuemulti-functionalandmulti-spatial livelihoods.Thus,support to thenon-farmruraleconomy and tomigrationareasimportantasagriculturalsupport.
4. Small-holderfarminginruralareasfacesnewchallenges:Increasinglyruralhouseholdsconsistofpart-timefarmers,worksmallerplotsandareheadedbytheelderly,youngandwomenwhofaceseverecreditandinputconstraints.Further,theformatofaccesstosubsidiesandextensionserviceshaschanged.Marketchangesincreasetheneedforspecialisttechniques,qualitycontrol,information-intensivetechnologiesandmarketinginvolvinghightransactioncosts–factorswhichprovidelargerfarms with economies of scale. Targeted assistance is needed where small-scale farming can becompetitive;otherwisesmallfarmersneedgoodexitsfromfarming.
5. Reversestatecompression:Astrongstateisneededtounderpinthemarketandenableprivatesectordevelopment.Publicinterventionsareneededtoincreaseaccesstonewopportunities(agriculturalornon-farm)specificallybythepoor,andtoestablishtheinstitutionalframeworkforeffectivemarketdevelopment.
6. Technological targeting: Production increases based on the seed-fertilizer model of the GreenRevolution have slowed. New technologies are likely to be more crop and region specific, andinformation-intensive. Technical change is largely biased against the poor. Policies to targettechnologiesneed tobe location specific.Public intervention isparticularly required indevelopingtechnologiesandinformationchannelsappropriatetopoorfarmers.
7. Rethinking institutional capacity and governance: Many recommended measures for ruraldevelopment cannotbe effectivewithout significant capacity buildingand institutional support. Insomeareas,decentralizationshouldprevailtoreinforcepositivetrendsforincreasedaccountability.Butinsomeareas,likeaspirationaldistricts,thesecond-bestsolutionswouldbemoreeffectivethanattemptsatbusinessasusual.
8. Growingdivergencebetweenlowandhighpotentialareas:Lowpotentialareashaveverydifferentneeds as compared to high potential areas where diversification and modernization is alreadyunderway. They generally still need agriculture-based development, are least likely to gain fromglobalizationopportunities,andwillgeneratelowerreturnsbecauseoftheirinherentdisadvantages(remoteness,poorsoilsetc.).Policymustadapttocontext.
9. Ruralrisksandvulnerability:Theruralsectorfacesnewrisksduetoincreasingnaturaldisastersandrapideconomicchange.Externalsupportforrisk-mitigationandcopingstrategies isgenerallyinsufficient.Publicandprivaterolesinsupportinginsuranceandrisk-copingneedtobestrengthened,whichinturndependsonthefiscalburdenbeingaddressed.
10. Preventing and managing conflict: Conflict has a debilitating impact on rural livelihoods, andincreasing levels of conflict threaten the achievement of poverty reduction targets. Programframeworksand implementationstrategiesneedtoescape fromtheconceptualandprogrammaticconstraintsofalinearapproachtoreliefanddevelopment.
Background
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DoRD is committed to eradicate poverty and hunger from the rural India and usher in all rounddevelopmentofruralmasses.Accordingly,theDoRDisimplementinganumberofprogrammes,whichaim at, bridging the rural-urban divide, guaranteeing wage employment and ensuring food security,providingeconomicupliftbyself-employment,creatingruralinfrastructure,providingdignifiedlivingbyproviding shelter and restoring lost or depleted productivity of natural resources like land,water andbiomass.Theresearchanddevelopmentneedsoftheruralsectorhasbeenattendedtoby‘GuidelinesforEvaluation, Impact Assessment and Research Study’ which lay-down in clear terms, themethods andprocessesofresearchanddevelopment,alongwiththepriorities.
Overthelastfewyears,thebudgetaryallocationsforruraldevelopmentprogrammesareincreasingatafastpace.Consideringthesizeandscopeoftheprogrammeimplementation,itisnecessaryforthepolicymakersandimplementerstoknowthebenefitsandimpactsofsuchdevelopmentintervention.
Inordertoassesstheoutcomesofthishugeexpenditureandtoimprovetheefficienciesandeffectivenessoftheprogrammes,theMinistryorganizesevaluationandimpactassessmentstudiesonaregularbasis.Issuesandchallengeslimitingtheeffectiveimplementationoftheprogrammeatthegrass-rootlevelcanbe diagnosed through detailed micro-level data analyses and corrective measures can be outlined,accordingly.Further,DoRDregards theevaluationof itspolicies,programmes, schemes,projectsandinterventionsasaninstrumentofaccountability.
The evaluations are entrusted to the agencies internal to the Ministry (Programme Divisions, NIRD,Monitoring Division, etc.), or external agencies or are conducted jointly. Partnership by choice inevaluationisencouraged-betweentheMinistryandoutsideagencies,betweenprogrammedivisionsandmonitoringdivision.But,inordertoensurecredibility,thirdpartyindependentevaluationstooarethepreferredmode of evaluation. The focus of the evaluation approach is practical, and the findings areuseabletolargeextent.Toensureusabilityofthefindings,themainusersofevaluationareinvolvedinspecifyingtheobjectivesandselectingthemostappropriatemodel,methodsandtheory.Theevaluationstudies are either ex-ante, ex-post and/or mid-term. The instruments such as concurrent evaluation,evaluationandimpactassessment(pilotorotherwise)tooareemployed.Whereverevaluationisnecessaryor mandatory, funding provisions are made to conduct such studies. All the policies, programmes,schemes,projectsandinterventionsoftheMinistryareframedinsuchawaythatitbecomespossibletoevaluate them meaningfully. This means; outcome budgeting, logical framework analysis, stakeholderanalysisandmoderntoolsofmanagementareusedwhileframingthem.ThefindingsoftheevaluationstudiesoreventhedashboardsoftheMinistriesaresharedandupdatedregularlywithalltheconcernedasperthediscloserpolicyoftheMinistryandtheRighttoInformationAct.
In general, the evaluation and impact assessment studies capture the ground realities regarding theexecution/implementationprocessesandtheimpactoftheprogramme/projects.However,thesestudiesingeneral,attimesdonotexaminespecificquerieswithregardtoindividualprogrammes/projects.Thetheories,hypothesesandassumptionson thebasisofwhich the ruraldevelopment interventionsaredesignedandimplementeddonotfindpropermentionedintheprobes.Astheutilityofsuchstudiesareofimmenseimportancetostrengthenthepublicaccountabilityoftherangeofpovertyalleviationandruraldevelopmentprograms,issuebased,andthematicresearchstudiesaredesired.Suchresearchstudiesmayconcentratemainlyon:
1. Sector, area and programme/scheme/project specific issues relating to theories, hypotheses andassumptionsofgovernmentinterventionsinruralsector.
2. Adoptingresearchmethodologykeepinginviewtherecentdevelopmentsinthefieldofsocialresearchinthesubjectofeconomics,statistics,sociologyandpsychologyetc.
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3. Ensuringthatthefindingswillbeusedtodesignandimplementcentralgovernmentinterventionsattheall-Indialevel.
4. Prioritizingstudiesthatcutacrossvariousgovernmentschemes/interventions.
There are several modes of devising operational plans viz.; Suo-moto proposals; Invited Proposals(Competitive); Commissioned Proposals (Non-competitive), depending upon specific needs of policymakingandpreparationofScheme.
National Institute ofRuralDevelopment andPanchayati Raj (NIRDPR) has been leading the researchagendakeepinginviewtheshiftsindevelopmentparadigms.ThemajorthemesforNIRDresearchincludepovertyreductionandruralemployment,environmentandsustainabledevelopment,decentralizationandgoodgovernance,andtransferoftechnology.Itlaysspecialemphasisonlivelihoodsofcorepovertygroupsandempowermentofmarginalizedgroupsandwomen.
TheInstitutealsoundertakesactionresearchprojectsonrelevantthemes.NIRDPRhasbeentakingupresearchstudiesonseveralthemesrelatingtodevelopmentstrategies,qualitativeaspectsofprogrammeimplementation,focusingonDoRDschemesandemergingdevelopmentissues.Inaddition,casestudiesofsuccessfulinitiativesarealsotakenup.Thestudiesidentifythecriticalareasaffectingtheprocessofimplementation,deficienciesandalsoclearlysuggestactionpointsbasedonthecausativeanalysis.
The Institute disseminates the results of the research studies and recommendations of its variousseminarsandworkshops throughanumberofpublications. Itbringsoutaquarterly JournalofRuralDevelopmentandmonthlyNIRDPRNewsletterinEnglishandHindi.TheJournalofRuralDevelopment,apeer-reviewed quarterly publication is rated highly among the academicians. The journal publishestheoretical andempirical articles andprovides a forum for exchangeof views betweenvariouspolicymakers,planners,researchersandfunctionariesconcernedwithruraldevelopment.TheCentreforMediaand Rural Documentation (CMRD) of the Institute acts as a referral and serving agency for the ruraldevelopmentsectorasawhole.
In addition, several national institutes and centres of excellence are engaged in undertaking variousresearchtooffernecessarylinkagestothepoliciesandprogramsinruraleconomy.Largelytheresearchthemeshavebeenfocusedonthefollowing:
• Analysis of theories, hypotheses and assumptions of wage employment interventions, self-employment interventions, skill development, rural road sectorwith special reference toPMGSY;ruralhousingsectorwithspecialreferencetoPMAY(G);ruralinfrastructuresector;
• InclusivegrowththroughRuralDevelopmentProgrammesviz.,MGNREGSandDAY-NRLM;
• Womenempowermentandgenderissues;
• Levelsoflivingofwomenandothervulnerablesocialgroups;
• LabourmarketrelationsandroleofgovernmentinterventionslikeMGNREGSandDAY-NRLM;
• Processstudiesofvariousschemes/programmestofindoutitseffectivenessandefficiencies;
• RuralDevelopmentandgoodgovernance;
• Sustainablelivelihoodsupport-roleofgovernment,particularlytheDoRD;
• VulnerabilityreductionthroughRuralDevelopmentProgrammes;
• Financialinclusion;
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• SocialCapitalformationanditsimpactontheimplementationofRuralDevelopmentProgramme;
• Communitybasedmonitoring;
• Socialauditandcommunityempowerment;
• Public-private-PRI-communitypartnershipsforsustainabledevelopment;
• Convergencefeasibilitiesandmethods;
• Ruraldevelopmentinterventionsandhumanskillimplications;
• InstitutionalcapacityofPRIsandEffectiveImplementationofRDProgrammes;
• GenderBudgetinganditsoperationalization.Takeaways
• Strengtheningfeedbackmechanismisdesiredurgently:TheofficersattheDistrictleveloftenfeelthattheironlyrolewithrespecttothepoliciesofthecentralgovernmentisimplementingthemaspertheguidelines.Whiletherearehugelacunaseveninputtingtheoryintopractice,acruciallinkthatismissinginpolicyformulationisthefeedbackonexistingpolicieswhichshouldcomefromtheofficersin chargeat the lowest tierofdevelopmentadministration, that is, either theBlockDevelopmentOfficeroradistrict-levelofficerinchargeofdevelopmentadministration.Anefficientinstitutionalizedfeedback channel should be established so that the challenges faced are brainstormed by thoseinvolved inpolicy formulation and implementation, and the learnings canbe incorporated in thepoliciestomakethemmoreeffective.Theabsenceofinstitutionalizedfeedbackmechanismwillonlyleadtoineffectivepoliciesgettingimplementedinaninefficientmanner.
• Widedisseminationofresearchfindingsshouldbefurtherencouraged.Apartfromprofessionaljournals/books,finaltechnicalreportsofcompletedprojectsmaybedisseminatedthroughoneormoreof the following channels, as appropriate viz.; website of the Ministry; website ofNIRDPR/SIRDs/Institutes;WebsitesofMajorUniversities (throughUGC);Websitesof StateRuralDevelopmentDepartments;ProfessionalandPolicy-makers’Workshops.
• R&D efforts should focus on calibrating India’s social safety net programmes to presentcircumstances:TheobjectivesanddesignofIndia’ssafetynetprograms,whetherfoodorcashbased,need to evolve with economic growth and the changing nutritional needs of the marginalizedpopulations.Thefutureroleofsafetynetsneedstobemoretransformationalratherthanvulnerabilityreducing. Overall effectiveness of safety nets would depend to a large extent on how they arecombinedwithstructuralreformsandlong-terminterventionstoincreasehumancapabilitiesandaddressstructuralpovertythroughthat.Synergiesbetweenagricultureandsafetynets, therefore,becomeessential.Urbanization,especially,posesachallengeaswellasopportunityinrestructuringthesafetynetarchitecture.ThefutureresearchanddevelopmentthemesshouldtakeintoaccountthefactthatIndiawouldbemoreurbanthanruralby2050.
• Research efforts exploring agrarian innovations would be significant knowledge gains:Institutional interventions, such as Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) and cooperatives, canoffsetscaledisadvantages facedbysmall farmsinsupplyingtothemodernvaluechainsaswellasaccesstoelectronicmarketsandfuturestradingplatforms.Byreducingtheriskassociatedwiththeadoption of new crop technologies and reducing transaction costs in market access, theseinterventions could help in farm diversification aswell as better price realizations in the output
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market.AppropriateappliedresearchtoidentifyinnovativemodelsandsolutionsthathighlightsuchwaysbythestageofdevelopmentaparticularStateisinshouldbeprioritized.
In the few States with low agricultural productivity, FPOs have the potential to enable greatercommercialization, enabling greater yields. Linkages to output markets will help incentivize theproductionofpulsesandcoarsegrains,giventheircomparativeadvantage.Inagriculture-ledstatesandurbanizingstates,alternativemodelssuchascontract farmingaremore likely tosucceed sincefarmsintheseareasarealreadyhighlycommercialized.Hence,aggregationmodelsandpilotstohelpreduceorganization costsof engagingwithamore significantnumberof small farmsand reducecontractingcoststoevolvepolicymeasureswithnecessaryfinancialandinsurance-basedservices,linking them to information and extension services and enabling market linkages by improvingconnectivity,willfurtherincentivizesocialcapitalformationeffortsandestablishlinkagesacrossthevaluechain.Thefocusnowshouldshiftonresearchaimedatstructuraltransformationsintheruralsectorsoastoaugmenttheeffortsoflivelihoodmissions.
Withincreasingdemandforqualityandhigh-valueagriculturalproduce,alternativevaluechainsandnewermarketingplatformshaveemerged.Verticalcoordination(VC)bywhichretailersformdirectlinkageswith farms,bypassing traditionalmarkets,hasbeengrowing in India’smoreprogressivestates.VC can bemore relevant for regions with good linkages tomarket (agriculture-led growthstates),whilefuturesandwarehousingplatformscanbeusefulfornon-perishablecommoditiesandcanemergeinlowpotentialareas.
• A sustained focus on climate change is desired in all R&D efforts: Climate change can havesignificantadverseimpactsonagriculturalproductivity,ruralincomesandwelfare;inaddition,itcanposeseriousriskstothefoodsecurityofnotonlytheruralpopulacebutfortheeconomyasawhole.Climateresilientpoliciesforthefutureshouldallowdiversificationofgreeningruraldevelopmenteffortsinwaysthatenhancetheenvironmentwhileimprovingthefoodproductionsystemandalsotheemploymentpatternandincomesecurityofruralyouthsinparticular.Climatechangerisksmustnotbeunderstated,andappropriateactionstowardsitsmitigationneedtobeadoptedinalltheresearchanddevelopmentdimensionsoftheruralsector.Theresearchshouldbefocusedoninsightswithdataand evidence on the current systems challenges from external forces such as the overuse of theenvironmentandthealsotheprojectionsonactionsdesiredfromtheperspectiveofclimatechange.
• Thereispotentialforchangeinallowingpublicsectoraccesstoprivatesectorinnovations:UnlikeGreenRevolutiontechnologieswhichwerepublicsectorgenerated,technologicalinnovationstodayaregeneratedintheprivatesectorandhenceposechallengesofaccessforruralsector.Processevaluationsandmonitoring,formativeassessments,impactevaluationsandsummativeevaluationsshouldbesuitablydesignedtotakecognizanceofinstitutionalinterventionsthatenablepublicsectoraccesstoprivatesectorinnovationsandtoadaptthemtoruralsectorarecrucial.
• Spatial dimensionsof ruraldevelopmentneed to take into cognizance the constraints andopportunities differently and require different strategies: Key factors such as proximity andaccesstocities;theamountandqualityofnaturalresources;densityofsettlementandvulnerabilitytonaturalcatastrophesneedstobeconsidered.Simplifyingacomplexspatialpicture,itmaybehelpfultodistinguishbetweenperi-urbanzones,the‘standard’countryside,andremoteruralareas.
In general, though, ‘location theory suggests that rural areas indeveloping countries onlyhave acomparative advantage in a narrow range of activity. These dimensions have implications fordiversification. Rural people seek to diversify livelihoods and may do this locally or over longdistances: thephenomenonof ‘multi-locational’households is increasingly familiar. Inmanyplaces,
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thereisaU-curveofdiversification,whichseesnon-farmactivityconcentratedamongthepoor(asasurvival or coping strategy) and among the rich (as an accumulation strategy). Similarly,decentralization,de-concentrationanddevolutionaimtomakethestateapparatusmoreresponsivetolocalneedsrequireemphasis.Indoingsotheessentialpreconditionsforsuccesssuchasadequatefunds;powers;andaccountabilityofelectedrepresentativestocitizens,andofbureaucratstoelectedrepresentativesneedtoformthecore.
Wayforward
In the ecosystemof research institutions, universities and think tanks chargedwith the taskof ruralsectortransformation,thewayforwardtocarryforwardresearchanddevelopmentagendamayengagethefollowing:
• ResearchRoles:Institutionsandcentersofexcellencearesupposedtodoextensiveresearchontheruralcontextinordertofindouttheinequalitiesbetweenthedifferentsub-systems.Often,earliestpredictionshelpindivertingorabolishingformulationofprogramimplementationframeworks.
• CoordinatingRoles:Significantcoordinatingrolesbetweendifferentsub-systemsoftheruralsectoraretobeprioritizedinordertounderstandthefutureimplicationsandalsotoidentifyissuesinaneffective,convenientandtimeboundmanner.
• Innovation:Innovativesolutions,whereandwhenrequired,inordertobringthebalancebetweenvarioussub-systemsneedtohelpunderstandtherootcauseofanyproblemandsuggestsolutions inordertoaddresstheproblemsatisfactorily,effectivelyandefficiently.
• Testing Roles: Roles of such nature provide credibility and proof of concept to newlyinnovated/invented solutions/models/strategies that work perfectly in sync with various sub-systems.Primetestingmayprecedebeforeimplementinganythingontheruralsectorasawhole.Testingalwaysgivesoptionstofinetuneandfoolproofthesolutions/models/strategies.
• IncubationRoles:Someideas/solutionssometimesrequireincubationfacilitiesinordertodevelopafull pledged solution. Conducive atmosphere to incubate such solutions/ideas to amatured levelwouldbedesired.Fore.g.;ruralcottageindustriesbeingset-upwillhaveinherentinitialchallengesofsiteorlocationproblem.However,latertotheinitiationofworkandproductionitmaynotbeabletolocateittoaplaceofchoiceuntilthemicroenterprisereachesacertainstage.Incubationcentreshelpingrowingmicroenterprisesbyreducinganinitialinvestmentcostsandtherebymakingventuresprofitablebyanearlyperiod.
• MediatingRoles: In the rural development space, often the inclusionof several organizations inachieving a particular goal may help the sector at large to increase its effectiveness of itssolutions/models. In such situations, a mediating agency coordination role on research anddevelopmentamongseveralecosystemsmayhelptobringoutthedesiredsynergy.
• VentureCapitalRoles:Thebiggestobstacleintheruraldevelopmentsectoristhedearthofviabilitygapfundingattimestosecureemploymentofmasses.However,sourcing,channelizingdistributingandrecollectingitinanorganizedmannertosafeguardtheinterestsofalltheinvolvedstakeholdersismajorchallenge.Therewouldbeseveralstakeholdersrequiredtocollectivizeandtherebydevelopthenecessarybridge.
• EvaluationRoles:Intheprocessofruraldevelopment,evaluationofexistingactionsandstrategiesiscritical.Italsocallscontinuousmonitoringofimplementingmodels/solutionsonaregularbasisto
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ensurethatobjectivesareachievedinacontinuousandtimeboundmanner.Besidesthis,continuousevaluationofallruralandruralconvergentpoliciesmaydedicatedlybecarriedout.
(x) Unlockingsynergieswithothergovernmentprogrammes
Introduction
Mutuallybeneficialprogramsalongruraltrajectoriescancontributesubstantiallytoruralsector’ssmart,sustainableandinclusivegrowthagenda.Successincreatingsynergiesislargelydeterminedbydecisionsmadeatlocalandregionallevels.Well-designedgovernancearrangementscanbeconducivetodecisionsthatstrengthenbeneficialrelations.Thematicfunctionallinkagescuttingacrossdepartmentstoidentifyand strengthen policies, governance systems and practices is desired. Some of the key concerns onunlockingsynergiesinclude:
1. What type of synergies (fund, institutional technical expertise, and socialmobilization) has beenattempted?Howsimultaneousconvergenceofallthedimensionscanbeachieved?
2. Howparticipatorywastheprocessadopted?WhetherPRIsorlocalbodies,inparticular,havebeeninvolvedintheplanningandimplementationofconvergenceinitiatives?
3. Whatisthescopeforachievingmulti-sectoralcollaborationtakingintoaccountregionaldiversitytomakeasignificantcontributiontoprojectsustainabilityandmaximizationofbenefits?
4. What institutional arrangement would ensure the identification of convergence projects by thecommunityforwideracceptanceandownership?
5. Whyarethesuccessful/innovativeprojectsnotbeingreplicated?Howcanthisbeinstitutionalized?
6. Howtoaddressthevariousfactors(capacity,commitment)hinderingtheconvergenceplanningforachievingsynergyandoptimaluseofresources?
Background
Social sector expenditure accounts for a major share of the government expenditure. The financialresources currently allocated under different thematic areas, such as rural development, health andfamily welfare, school education and literacy, food and public distribution, women and childdevelopment, grants from the 14th Finance Commission, and State shares for Centrally SponsoredSchemes,amountstomorethanRs.4lakhcroresannually.BudgetexpenditureonRuralDevelopmentitselfhasbeenenhancedby62percentfromRs.58,630croresintheyear2013-14,toRs.95,990croresintheyear2016-17.Later,thisamountrosetoRs.1,05,448croresfortheyear2017-18.
Asaconsequence,substantialpublicinvestmentsarebeingmadeforstrengtheningofruraleconomyandlivelihoodbaseofthepoor.ThisincludesespeciallythemarginalizedgroupssuchasSC/STsandwomen.Toeffectivelyaddresstheissueofpovertyalleviation,thereisaneedtooptimizeeffortsthroughinter-sectoral approaches. The convergence of different programmes with MGNREGS, such as WatershedProgrammes,NationalAgricultureDevelopmentProgramme(RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana),NationalHorticulture Mission, Scheme of Artificial Recharge of Ground Water through Dug well, BackwardRegions Grant Fund, would enable better planning and effective investments in rural areas. Thisconvergencewould bring synergies between different government programme/schemes in terms ofplanning,processandimplementation.Thiswillalsofacilitatesustainabledevelopment.
Inthissense,althoughsubstantialpublicinvestmentsarebeingmadeforstrengtheningruraleconomyandlivelihoodsbaseofthepoor;duetomultidimensionalityofpoverty,thereisaneedtooptimizeeffortsthrough synergies with other departments. There is a growing realization that the phenomenon ofpovertyismorecomplexthanmeremismatchinincomeandexpenditureofaparticularhousehold.
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Hence,itisnecessarytodevelop/unlockthesynergieswithothergovernmentprogramstoaddressthismulti-dimensionality of poverty, which is based on convergence, accountability and measurableoutcomestoensurethattheresourcesareeffectivelyspentinproviding“sustainablelivelihoodsforeverydeprivedhouseholds”.Itmeansthatwhileexistingresourcesareusedmoreeffectivelyalongwithannualincreases,progressisalsomonitoredonthebasisofanagreedsetofindicatorsemployedbydifferentcentral and state departments. Thus, a composite index would not only ensure accountability andconvergence,butalsoindicateprogressonmeasurableoutcomesattheGramPanchayatandhouseholdlevel.
Inthisregard,itisimportanttonotesomeofDoRD’sinitiativestoensureasustainableandintegratedRuralDevelopment.OnethatdeservesmentionistheDishainitiativebuilttowardsamoreparticipativegovernancetofacilitatesynergiesinplanning,monitoringandimplementationofdifferentschemes.Itsmandate seeks to achieve efficient and timely Centremonitoring of all administrative levels throughcoordination,synergyandconvergenceforgreaterimpact.TheinitiativeinvolveselectedrepresentativesanddistrictadministrationinschemeimplementationstagesinquarterlyCommitteeMeetings.ItalsoreliesonadigitalMIS system forunifieddatakeeping.Another initiative is thePerformanceReviewCommittee, inwhich the performance of difference schemes under the umbrella of theMinistry arereviewed.AllPrincipalSecretariesofallStatesareinvitedtoattendthemeetingpersonallytoparticipateintheadvancementstowardsthevisionofNewIndia2022andthe75MilestonesforIndia@75.
Another initiative that contributed to a better understanding of poverty is the SocioEconomicCasteCensus, conducted by DoRD in 2011. The SECC data allows us to understand the socio-economicconditions of a household from the perspective of multidimensional deprivations (e.g. landlessness,householdsheadedbysinglewoman,SC/SThouseholdsetc.).Multidimensionalityofdeprivationmeansthatahouseholdcouldbedeprivednotonlyduetoabsenceofassets,poorqualityofhousing, lackofaccess to sanitation and clean water but also due to social inequality, lack of education, absence ofsustainablelivelihoods,inadequateincome.Inadequateskillsor/andhealthcarethisdeprivationitselfcould be further compounded due to say disability or absence of an earningmember in thewomenheadedhousehold,whichcouldthrowspecificchallenges.
After the 73rd Amendment to the constitution, three tier Panchayat systems are increasinglyspearheading thedevelopmenteffortsat thegrassroots.However,due tomultiple layersofplanning,administrationandresourceallocationtotackledeprivation,theeffortsareoftendispersedintimeandspaceleadingtosuboptimalresults.Thus,convergentplanningwiththeGramPanchayatasitsbasicunitprovidesthekeytoaddressmultidimensionalityofpovertybysynergizingallresources–financialandhuman– insaturationmode,acrossdifferentgovernments,departmentsandschemesto target thesedeprivationssimultaneouslyandithastobestateledpartnershipforruraltransformation.
The overarching global commitment on SDGs seeks to address the inequalities across countries anddisparitiesofopportunity,wealthandpower.The2030agendaforSDGsadvocatessustained,inclusiveandsustainableeconomicgrowthasanoutcome.DoRDisthenodalministryofGovernmentofIndiaforSDG goal; “End poverty in all its forms everywhere”. The achievement of such outcome requiresconvergenceofplans,effortsandconstantmonitoringofprogressforremedialmeasures.DoRDstrivestowork on the sustainable and inclusive growth of rural India through amulti-pronged strategy bydiversification and enhancement of livelihoods opportunities, providing social safety and developingqualityinfrastructure.
Toensure transparency inMGNREGS,district administrationandGramPanchayats tried to involvemultiple
agenciesintheimplementationofworkincludingallthemajorlinedepartments,suchasRevenue,PublicWorks
Department,Agriculture,Horticulture,etc.Further,10,454inspectionshavebeendonebytheblock-levelrural
development functionaries and 1,677 inspections by the district-level officials of the Rural Development
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Department.Additionally,5,432inspectionsaredonebytheLineDepartmentofficials.Theseofficersaregiven
amonthlyminimumtargetoffiveinspections.Theadministrationcloselymonitorsthesetargetsduringmonthly
reviewmeetingsofRevenueandotherLineDepartmentfunctionaries.Formotivatingandencouragingthem,a
revolvingtrophyhasbeenintroduced.Everymonth,thetrophygoestothedepartmentandtheindividualsdoing
the highest number of quality inspections Thus, thismulti-agencymonitoringmechanismhelps to keep the
village-level implementingmachineryona constanthighalert.Thishasensuredcorrectness inMusterRolls
eliminatingghostworkers.
Takeaways
• The present approach to synergy falls short on addressing multidimensional aspects ofpoverty: Schemesaredesignedbasedondifferent conceptionsandapproaches towardspoverty,whichcreatesadiscrepancybetweenthevariousstrategiesadoptedineachscheme.Asaresult,thereisconsiderablevarianceinselectioncriteriaandtargetingacrossschemes.Thisisbecausethereisaspatial and temporal mismatch in supporting individuals and households through differentgovernmentschemes.Inthissense,synergiesacrossdepartmentscouldcontributetoawidervisionof the multidimensionality of poverty, one which would be more consistent across differentinterventions and lead to more effective interaction with agencies. This includes especially linedepartments, Panchayat Raj Institutions, banks and other financial institutions for resources isrequiredforproductivepovertyreductionefforts.
• ThereareoverlapsamongsimilarschemesunderDoRD:TheMinistry’sschemesfocusonlocalinfrastructure development, betterment of poor by providing wage employment and self-employmentopportunities.Overlapsleadtorepetitiveplanning,aswellaslackofsynergy.Thereisaneedtoevolveasystemofsynchronizationamongtheseschemes.Further,variationsinbenefitsandsupportprovidedundertheseschemescreateproblemsatoperationallevel.Thereisalsoaneedtoidentifyasolutiontoaddressthisissue.
• Planning,implementationandmonitoringofdifferentschemesworkinsilos:Thefunctionaldeliveryofprogrammestendstohappenindependently,resultinginunderutilizationofcapacityandsub-optimaloutcomesacrossdepartmentsanddifferentadministrative levels.Thisoften imposesobstacles to poverty alleviation. Therefore, there is need to bring in synergies between differentgovernmentprogrammesandschemestoachievesubstantialpovertygoals.
• TherelationshipbetweenPanchayatsandinstitutionsofthepoorneedtobestrengthened:InviewoftheeminentrolesofPanchayatRajInstitutions(PRIs),itisnecessarytoconsciouslystructureandfacilitateamutuallybeneficialworkingrelationshipbetweenPanchayatsandinstitutionsofthepoor.LinkageswithPRIsareparticularlynecessaryatthelevelofVillagePanchayats.
• PartnershipswithNGOsandotherCSOscontributetosynergies:DoRDprogrammesoftenseekpartnerships with Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) and other Civil Society Organizations(CSOs),attwolevels-strategicandimplementation.ThepartnershipsareguidedbyDoRD’scorebeliefsandvalues,andmutualagreementonprocessesandoutcomes.
Wayforward
• Unlocksynergiesinplanning,implementationandmonitoringacrossschemes:HouseholdsandvillagesshouldbeconsideredasthebasicunitofplanningthatfacilitateshouseholdlevelmicroplanandGPdevelopmentplan.Harmonizingselectioncriteria,implementationprocessesandguidelinesandavailabilityof fundsat thesame time iscritical for implementation.Thiswouldneedpoolingfinancial and human resources in different schemes of government and their rationalization inimplementing the plans atHH level andGPDP. This requires alignment of interventions towardsconvergencesatalllevelsofgovernment.
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• Buildpartnershipswithgovernmentandnon-governmentstakeholders:ThereareunexploredopportunitiesofpartnershipswithNGOs,CSOs,academicandtraining institutions,Public,PrivateandCooperativeSectorstotaptheirareasofstrengthandexperience.
• Set a robustmonitoring and evaluation strategy of synergy interactions:Monitoring effortswouldincludeindicatorsfortrackingprogressofsynergies,assessmentoftheperformanceofGPs,arrangementsregardingthecoordinationofworkofdifferentadministrativelevels,suchasCentralandStatelevelmonitoringcommitteesformation,andabaselinedatatobeinterlinkedwithDISHAportaltoprovidefocusedinterventionsandresourceconvergence.
• ProvideHumanResourcesupport:Itincludesinformationeducationandcommunicationactivitiesandasystemofincentives,particularlyforGPs.
• BuildlinkageswithPRIs:ItisnecessarytoinvolvePRIsinprogrammeimplementationandbuildinginteractiveplatformsbetweenPRIsandSHGs/Federationsformutualsupport.
(xi) Reformsandregulations
Introduction
Regulations codify the spaces encompassing rural development and reforms bring in processes thatestablishresponsiveandgoodgovernanceinthesespaces.Thissectionaimsatdocumentingthedifferentlegislationsthatimpactruraldevelopmentasasectorandhaveadirectbearingontheprogrammaticinterventions and the different reform processes that have been instituted by other ministries anddepartmentsinadditiontothereformsthathavebeenundertakenbyDoRD.
Background
Regulations
Theevaluationhasnottakenintoaccountspecificregulationsthatoperateforspecificlivelihoods,e.g.agriculture, forest based livelihoods, fisheries, khadi and village industries etc. These are livelihoodspecificandcomeintoplaywhenactivitiesrelatedtotheselivelihoodsisundertaken.Thelawsthatareconsideredherearetheonesthatcreateanenablingenvironmentwithinruralspacesandthelawsthatempowerruralpeopleandhouseholds.Lawsfallingundereachofthesetwocategoriesaredetailedintheensuingparagraphs.
Enablingenvironment
Thereare three typesof laws thathavean impact in themanner inwhichruralspacesaregoverned(Panchayat andPESA); extensionof rural development intonew territories (FRA); and the laws thatoperate for the development and functioning of people’s collectives (Cooperatives and ProducerCompany).
(i)Panchayats:tofulfiltheconstitutionalmandatetoorganizevillagePanchayatsandendowthemwithsuchpowerandauthority that enables them to functionasunitsof self-government (Article40), theSeventyThirdConstitutionalAmendmentwaspassedthatledtoinsertionofPartIXintheconstitution.Article243Bensuredthatthere“shallbeconstitutedineveryState,Panchayatatthevillage,intermediateanddistrictlevels”.TheAmendmentredefinedthepoliticalandadministrativestructureinthecountrywhereinPanchayatsareendowedwithpowerstofunctionasunitsofself-governmentinruralareas.ConsequenttotheAmendment,eachoftheStatesenactedtheirrespectivePanchayatRajActsandtheinstitutionsofPanchayatRajwerefirmlyestablishedinallruralareasofthecountry.Atpresentthereare654DistrictPanchayats,6,824IntermediatePanchayatsand2,55,534VillagePanchayatsinthecountry.AllstatesexceptDelhi,Mizoram,MeghalayaandNagalandhavePanchayatinstitutionswithintheruralareasofthestate.
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Panchayatsonceconstitutedholdofficeforaperiodoffiveyears.TheircompositionatalllevelsisbasedondirectelectionsfromterritorialconstituencieswithinthePanchayatarea.However,Stateshavebeengiventheoptiontodeterminethemannerofelectionof theChairpersonforeachof thesePanchayatiinstitutions.ThereareprovisionsforreservationofseatsforSC,STandwomensoastomakepoliticalrepresentationpossibleforthesociallyandeconomicallymarginalizedgroupsintheruralsociety.
Though the Constitution gives flexibility to States to determine powers and authority that may benecessarytoenablePanchayatstofunctionasinstitutionsofself-government,italsolaysdownthatallsuchlawsshouldcontainprovisionsfordevolutionofpowersandresponsibilitieswithrespectto(i)thepreparationof plans for economicdevelopment and social justice; and (ii) entrustingPanchayats forimplementationofschemesforeconomicdevelopmentandsocialjusticelistedinEleventhScheduleofthe Constitution. The schedule lists 29 subjects which among other items include issues related tolivelihoodssuchasagriculture,minorirrigation,animalhusbandry,fisheries,minorforestproduce,smallscale industries, and khadi and village industries. Programmes pertaining to rural housing, drinkingwater,roads,povertyalleviationprogrammes,markets,andsocialwelfarenowfallwithinthedomainofPanchayatsinruralareas.
Panchayatshavethusbecometheprimaryunitforgovernanceinruraldevelopment.Thesectorinallitsprogrammaticinterventionsplaysthedualroleofone,workingthroughPanchayatsateachlevelintheimplementationof schemesandprogrammes,and theother, to strengthen these institutions throughgraduateddevolutionofpowers,functions,andresources.
(ii)PESAforScheduleVAreas:Article244oftheConstitutionprovidesforthedeclarationofareasasScheduledAreasinthecountry.TwotypesofScheduledareashavebeenenvisagedintheConstitution:one, isScheduleSixareasthat includethetribalareas inthestatesofAssam,Meghalaya,TripuraandMizoram;andsecondistheScheduleFiveareaswhichincludestribalareasotherthantheareasunderScheduleSix210.TheConstitutiondoesnotspecifycriteriafordeclarationofanareaasaScheduledArea,yet the principles followed by different Acts, Commissions and sub-committees211 includespreponderance of tribal population; compactness and reasonable size of the area; under-developednatureofthearea;andmarkeddisparityintheeconomicstandardsofpeople.Atpresent10StateshaveFifth Schedule areas, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand,MadhyaPradesh,Maharashtra,Odisha,RajasthanandTelangana.
There are three implications that have a direct bearing on the formulation and administration ofinterventionsrelatedtoruraldevelopmentinScheduledAreas.First,GovernoroftheStateisempoweredtoimpactimplementationofanAct,oritspartthereof,subjecttoexceptionsandmodificationsasdeemednecessary.Second,Governormaymakeregulationsforpeaceandgoodgovernmentoftheareathatmayinclude(i)prohibitionorrestrictiononthesaleoflandbyoramongmembersofST;(ii)allotmentoflandtomembersofST;and(iii)conductofbusinessofmoneylendingbypersonswholendmoneytomembersofST.Third,theprovisionsofPanchayatActsofrespectivestatesneedtoconformtotheprovisionsofPESA212forScheduledAreasintheirrespectivestates.
TheProvisionsofthePanchayats(ExtensiontotheScheduledAreas)Act,1996isanActthatextendstheprovisions related to Panchayats in theConstitution and the consequent respective StateActs to the
210ScheduleFiveandScheduleSixareasgaintheirnomenclaturemainlybecausethelistoftheseareasisgivenintheScheduleFiveandScheduleSixoftheconstitution211‘Excluded’and‘PartiallyExcluded”areasundertheGovernmentofIndiaAct,1935;ScheduleBofrecommendationofTheExcludedandPartiallyExcludedAreasSubCommitteeofConstituentAssembly;andtheScheduledAreasandScheduledTribesCommission1961.212 THE PROVISIONS OF THE PANCHAYATS (EXTENSION TO THE SCHEDULED AREAS) ACT, 1996 No.40 OF 1996 (24thDecember,1996)
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ScheduledAreassubjecttocertainexceptionsandmodificationasspecifiedundertheact.ThePESAhasprovisionsthatareprotectivetowardsthelifeandlivelihoodsofScheduledtribes;andprovisionsthatestablishthesupremacyofGramSabhaasaninstitutioninthedesign,developmentandimplementationofplansfordevelopmentofsuchareas.Morespecificallytheseprovisionsareasfollows:
• ProtectionofthelifeandlivelihoodsofSTs:PESAprohibitstheStateGovernmenttomakeanylawthatisinconsistentwiththecustomarylaw,socialandreligiouspracticesandtraditionalmanagementofcommunityresources.
• EstablishmentofGramSabha:InScheduledAreas,villagecanbeahabitationorgroupofhabitations,orahamletorgroupofhamletscomprisingacommunityandmanagingitsaffairsinaccordancewiththeirtraditionsandcustoms.PESAenableseverysuchvillagetohaveGramSabhaconsistingofnamesofpersonsincludedintheelectoralrollsforPanchayatsatthevillagelevel.Thisimpliesthatevenahamlet inaScheduledArea cangetdeclared itself asavillageandhave itsownGramSabhaandprogrammesandschemesofdevelopmentspecificallyfortheirvillage.
• SupremacyofGramSabha:PESAestablishesthesupremacyofGramSabhathroughprovisionsthat:(i)mandatetheirapprovalandrecommendationoftheGramSabha.TheGramSabhawillapproveplans,programmesandprojectsforsocialandeconomicdevelopmentbeforethesearetakenupforimplementation;andtheywillidentifyorselectpersonsasbeneficiariesunderpovertyalleviationprogrammes. Further it is mandatory to consult Gram Sabha before acquisition of land fordevelopmentprojectsandbeforeresettlementandrehabilitationofpersonsaffectedbyprojects.TheGramSabharecommendationsaremandatorypriortogivingprospectinglicenseorminingleaseforminorminerals;andbeforegrantofconcessionfortheexploitationofminormineralsforauction;(ii)empowertheGramSabhatointerveneinspecificinstancesespeciallytosafeguardandpreservethetraditionsandcustomsofpeople,theirculturalidentity,communityresourcesandothercustomarymodeofdisputeresolutions;(iii)endowsGramSabhaswithspecificpowerstoenforceprohibitionorregulateorrestrictthesaleandconsumptionofanyintoxicant;toexercisecontroloverownershipof minor forest produce, money lending to Scheduled Tribes, management of village markets,institutions and functionaries in all social sectors, and local plans and resources for such plansincluding tribal sub-plan; and prevent alienation of land; (iv) makes Panchayats accountable bymakingitmandatoryforPanchayattoobtainfromGramSabhaacertificateofutilizationoffundsbythePanchayatfortheplan,programmesandprojectsimplementedintheirarea.
PESA creates an exception within the rural development space specifically for Scheduled Tribecommunities.TheprogrammaticinterventionsandtheirimpactshavetobeassessedinreferencetotheprovisionsofPESAbeforetheycanbeimplementedinthesegeographies.InfactsomeoftheprovisionsofPESAhavebeenextendedtoallruralareas,Forexample,theendorsementofSECCfinal listbytheGramSabhaisapplicabletoallPanchayatsinthecountry.Similarly,theidentificationofworksunderMGNREGSarerequiredtohaveapprovalofGramSabhabeforethesecanbesentforinclusionasshelfofprojects under the programme. PESA has contributed in bringing Gram Sabha as a central body forapprovalofworksandinterventionsinthevillagesinallruralareasofthecountry.
(iii) Forest Rights Act:The Scheduled Tribe and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition ofForestRights)Act,2006213,popularlyreferredtoasFRA,wasenactedprimarilytorecognizeandvesttherightsoverforestandoccupationinforestlandbyScheduledTribesandotherforestdwellersespeciallywhoserightshavenotbeenrecordeddespitethefactthattheyhavebeenresidingintheseforestsforgenerations.TheActcreatesalegalframeworkforstakingclaim,thenatureofevidencerequiredtobacktheclaim,andtheprocessofvestingrightsinrespectofforestlandtotheabovementionedcommunities.
213TheScheduledTribesandOtherTraditionalForestDwellers(RecognitionofForestRights)Act,2006,No.2of2007.
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TheActisequallysensitivetotheneedsforconservationregimeofforestsandincludesresponsibilitiesfor sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance along withachievinglivelihoodandfoodsecurityaspartoftherightsthatarevestedonSTandothertraditionalforestdwellers.
Fromthepointofviewofruraldevelopmentasasector,FRAdefinestwocategoriesofrightsthatarevestedundertheactthatalignitselfwiththesectorasfollows:
- Individualforestright(IFR):Thesearerightsavailabletoindividualtoholdandliveinforestlandforself-cultivationforlivelihoodorforhabitation.Theserightsalsoincluderightofownership,accesstocollect,useanddisposeofminorforestproducethathasbeentraditionallycollectedwithinoroutsidethevillageboundaries.Exceptionhasbeenmadeforprimitivetribalandpre-agriculturecommunitiestoholdcommunitytenuresoverland.Theserightsarethusalignedwiththeinterventionsrelatedtolivelihoods,shelter,andemploymentwithintheruraldevelopmentsector.
- Community forest right (CFR): Community rights for nistar and other community uses andentitlementslikefishandotherproductsofwaterbodies,grazing(bothsettledandtranshumant),andrightstoprotect,regenerate,conserveandmanageanycommunityforestresourcethathasbeentraditionallyprotectedandconservedforsustainableuse.TheCFRalsoextendstoincluderightofaccesstobiodiversityandcommunityrighttointellectualpropertyandtraditionalknowledgerelatedto bio and cultural diversity. These rights relate to interventions pertaining to livelihoods andinfrastructuredevelopmentwithintheruraldevelopmentasasector.
FRAcreatesanexceptionunderForest (Conservation)Act,1980where in itprovides fordiversionofforestland(ifrecommendedbytheGramSabha)forlistedfacilitiesthatinvolvefellingofnotmorethan75 treesperhectare.The listedactivities, interalia, includes tanksandminorwaterbodies,drinkingwatersupplyadwaterpipelines,waterorrainwaterharvestingstructures,minorirrigationcanals,skillup-gradationandvocationaltrainingcentres,roadsandcommunitycentres.Thus,ruralinfrastructuredevelopmentcanbeundertakenthroughinvestmentsinruralinfrastructurethathaveadirectbearingonthelivelihoodactivitiescarriedoutbySTandotherforestdwellingcommunities.
Accordingtothe latestreportavailable87percentof theclaimshavebeendisposedof tillNovember2019.Amongstthese40,92,183havebeenIndividualForestRightsand76,174havebeenCommunityForestRightclaims.
FRAhashadtwoimpactsintheruraldevelopmentsector:one,theprogrammesofruraldevelopmenthavebeenextendedtohouseholdsandcommunitiesthathavebeenrecognizedundertheactasthetagofencroachersonforestlandwasremoved;andsecond,theissuesofforestconservationandlivelihoodsforthesecommunitieshavegainedprominenceforruraldevelopment.Thoughthesectorassuchhasnotcreatedanyspecificprogrammedealingwithforestdwellerscommunitiesandtheprogrammeatpresentareshortonexperienceanddesignforimprovementsinlivelihoodsandinfrastructureintheseareas.
(iv)Cooperative:ThespiritofcooperationanditsinstitutionalformshavebeenexistentinruralIndiaforages,beitdevariorvanaraisystemsforcreationofvillagetanksandforests,orphadsthatwereusedtoimpoundwaterleadingtoequitabledistribution,orlanawherepeasantspartneredwitheachothertocultivate jointly.The first codified formof theCooperativeActhoweverdatesback to1904with theenactmentofTheCooperativeCreditSocietiesAct,1904.TheActwasrestrictedtocreditcooperativesandby1911therewere5,300suchsocietiesinexistencewithmembershipof3,00,000persons.
ThesubjectofcooperativesocietiesisplacedundertheStateListintheConstitution.ThisenabledeachStatetoframeitsownlawsandrulesthatgovernedthefunctioningofcooperativesintheirrespectiveStates.However,aMultistateCooperativeActwasframedbytheCentralGovernmentforcooperativesthatoperateinmorethanonestate.ThefirstoftheseActswasenactedin1954whichwasreplacedin
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1984thathasreplacedwithTheMultiStateCooperativesSocietiesAct2002214.ThepurposeofthenewActhasbeenstatedto“servetheinterestsofmembersinmorethanoneState,tofacilitatethevoluntaryformation anddemocratic functioningof cooperatives aspeople’s institutionsbasedon self-help andmutualaidandtoenablethemtopromotetheireconomicandsocialbettermentandtoprovidefunctionalautonomy.”215
Thelegislativespaceforco-operativeshasbeenstrengthenedwithenactmentofTheConstitutionNinetySeventhAmendmentActin2011.Theamendmentledtothreecriticalchanges:one,thefreedomtoformcooperative societieswas placed as one of the fundamental rights in Art 19(1); second, in DirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicyadditionalarticle43BwasinsertedthatenjoinedupontheStateto“promotevoluntaryformation,autonomousfunctioning,democraticcontrolandprofessionalmanagementofco-operativesocieties”;andthird,PartIXBwasinsertedtitledTheCooperativeSocietieswhichenabledtheStatestomakelawsforcooperativesocietiesfortheirincorporation,regulationandwindingupbasedontheprinciplesofvoluntaryformation,democraticmembercontrol,membereconomicparticipationandautonomousfunctioning.SimilarenablingprovisionhasbeenprovidedforCentralGovernmenttomakelegislationrelatedtomulti-statecooperativesocieties.
There are 8,33,560 cooperative societies in the country with a total membership of 274.97 millionpersons.Amongstthese17%arecredit-basedsocietieswhereasothersareengagedinnon-creditrelatedactivities.Theadvantageofthefederatedstructureofcooperativesisreflectedinthefactthatthereare17Nationallevel,399Statelevel,and357Districtlevelfederations.Additionally,1,255Co-operativesareregisteredunderMulti-stateCooperativeActandimplyingthattheirareaofoperationsisinmorethanonestate216.
Cooperativespresentanorganizationalformatthatisbackedwithenablinglegislationtocollectivisethepoorandenablethemtotakeadvantageoftheirsynergeticsocialcapital.Theorganizationalformatissuitedfordevelopingandstrengtheningfederatedinstitutionsthatmayberequiredasthecollectivesgatherstrengthinnumbersoverlargegeographicalareas,namelyclusterofvillages,orblockandevendistrict level.With each State having a long history of Cooperatives Acts in place there is sufficientexperiencewithinStatestonavigateweaknessesandconstraintswithintheirrespectiveActsanduseitforthebenefitofthepoor.
(v) Producer Company: The concept of Producer Company (PC) was introduced through andamendmenttotheCompaniesAct1956in2002.ThebasisofPCisthedefinitionofprimaryproducethathas been defined as produce of farmers arising from agriculture including animal husbandry,horticulture,floriculture,pisciculture,viticulture,forestry,forestproduce,re-vegetation,beeraisingandfarming plantation products, produce of persons engaged in handloom, handicraft and other cottageindustries;byproductsofsuchproducts;andproductsarisingoutofancillaryindustries.
PC is a body corporate registered under Companies Act that carries on production, harvesting,processing, procurement, grading, handling, marketing, selling, export of primary produce of themembers or import goods or services for their benefit. The scope of PC also includes rendering oftechnicalserviceand/ortraining,education,researchanddevelopmentforpromotionoftheinterestsofthemembers;andgeneration,transmissionanddistributionofpower,revitalizationoflandandwaterincludingtheiruseandconservation,andcommunicationsrelatedtoprimaryproducts.
InaPConlypersonsengagedinactivityconnectedwithorrelatedtoprimaryproducecanparticipateintheownership.AsfarmersaretheprimaryproducerthePCshavecometobeknownmorecommonlyas
214TheMulti-StateCooperativeSocietiesAct,2002[ActNoof39of2002]in2002215PreambletoTheMulti-StateCooperativeSocietiesAct,2002216IndianCooperativeMovement,AStatisticalProfile,NationalCooperativeUnionofIndia,2016
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FarmerProducerCompany(FPC).Aminimumof10primaryproducersarerequiredfortheformationofthecompanywhichafterincorporationwillbeknownaslimitedliabilitybodycorporateandaprivatelimitedcompany(withoutthelimitationofmaximum50members).ThereisnolimitonthemaximumnumberofmembersfortheFPC.
Atpresent,thereare7,374ProducerCompanies217registeredundertheamendedCompaniesAct.
PCasaninstitutionalformathasstringentprotectivemeasuresasitrestrictsthemembershiptoPCtopeoplefromandamongsttheprimaryproducersonly.Thisensuresthattheproducerwillbetheownerof the organization and the organisationwill thuswork for the betterment of themembers and theprimaryproduce.PCsalsorepresenttheopportunityforprimaryproducerstomoveupthevaluechainoftheirproduceandtakeadvantagethroughvertical integrationofprocessesandbytradinginvalueaddedproducts.
EmpoweringPeople:Guaranteeingemployment
Therearetwolegislationsthatdefinetheentitlementsofruralhouseholdsandindividualsasrightsandcreate legal framework which enables them to access these as rights. These two legislations areMGNREGAandRPWDAct.
MGNREGS
Oneofthefocusesofruraldevelopmentplanninghasbeenproductiveabsorptionofunder-employedandsurpluslabourforceinruralareas.Programmesforwageemploymentwerelaunchedandimplementedthat provided relief to the rural poor. However, an increasing need was being felt to create a legalframeworkthatwillensureminimumdaysofemploymenttoeveryhouseholdinruralareas.BasedontheexperienceoftheEmploymentGuaranteeSchemeofMaharashtratheGovernmentofIndiaenactedtheMahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct218 thatcame in to force from1April2007.ThepurposeoftheActis“enhancementoflivelihoodsecurityofhouseholdsinruralareasofthecountrybyprovidingatleastonehundreddaysofguaranteedwageemploymentineveryfinancialyeartoeveryhouseholdwhoseadultmembersvolunteertodounskilledwork.”219
TheActlaysdowntheconditionsandthemannerinwhichtheguaranteeofhundreddaysofemploymentwillbefulfilled:(i)eachstatetoprepareandnotifytheSchemethatwill,interalia,specifyhowtheadultworkerswillbeenrolled,demandwork,conditions foremployment,assessmentofwork,paymentofwages,andlistofpermittedworks.TheseschemesareknownareMGNREGS(MahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeScheme)withreferencetothenameofrespectivestates;(ii)wageratesthatwillbepaidundertheScheme;(iii)conditionsunderwhichunemploymentallowancewillbepaid.
MGNREGS is comprehensive in its approach and coverage of the issues related to commitment ofprovisioningguaranteedemployment.ItlaysdowntheinstitutionalarrangementincludingdistributionofrolesandresponsibilitiesalongwithpowersandfunctionsattheCentre,State,District,IntermediateandGramPanchayatlevel.AnelaborategrievanceredressalandaccountabilitymechanismincludingthatofSocialAuditshavebeenmandatedwithintheact.
PersonswithDisabilityAct
TheRightsofPersonswithDisabilitiesAct,2016(RPDAct)waspromulgatedbyGovernmentofIndia,interalia,togiveeffecttotheprinciplesofnon-discrimination,equalityofopportunityandaccessibilitytoDivyang in thecountry.TheActcomprehensivelyaddresses theirrightswithrespect toeducation,
217Neti,Annapurna,Govil,Richa, andRao,MadhushreeR., (2019), "FarmerProducerCompanies in India:Demystifying theNumbers,"ReviewofAgrarianStudies,vol.9,no.2,availableatras.org.in/fc5e6f86c86e8548e3eb17f4ec8fbc9f218TheMahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct,2009(42of2009)219PreambletoTheMahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct,2009
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healthcare,rehabilitation,employmentandskilldevelopmentandprotectionagainstviolence,abuse,exploitation. For the rural development sector, specific provisions of the RPD Act that apply are asfollows:
- Promotional (Employment and Livelihoods): These are provisions that direct the governments atappropriate levels to formulateschemesandprogrammes,subject to theireconomiccapacityanddevelopment,forDivyangthatincreasetheiropportunitiesforemploymentandlivelihoods.Theseprovisions relate to facilitation of Divyang for: (i) vocational training and self-employmentprogrammes(sec19);(ii)loansatconcessionalrates(includingmicrocredit)(sec19);(iii)marketingofproducts(sec19);and(iv)servicesandprogrammesfortheirrehabilitationincludingprogrammesforemployment(sec27).
- Protective(Socialsecurity):TheRPDActexpectsGovernmentstoformulateschemesandprogrammestosafeguardandpromotetherightsofDivyangforadequatestandardofliving.Amongotherthings,theseschemesrelateto(i)disabilitypensions,subjecttosuchincomeceilingasmaybenotified;andaccess to safe drinking water and accessible sanitation facilities. Though the Act stipulates thatprovisioningofsuchschemeswillbesubjecttothelimitsofeconomiccapacityanddevelopmentofrespectivegovernments,yettheActstatesthatthequantumofassistanceshallbeatleast25%higherthan the similar schemes applicable to others (sec24); and (ii) conduct of social audit to ensureprotectionfromadverseimpactofallgeneralschemesandprogrammesandtomakesurethattheneeds,requirementsandconcernsofDivyangarebeingmet(sec48).
- Entitlement(infrastructure):ThereareprovisionsintheRPDActthataccordsrightstotheDivyangasspecificentitlementsthatappearasreservationsingovernmentprogrammes.Theseprovisionsinclude (i) measures to provide accessible roads to address mobility (sec 41); (ii) five percentreservation in allotment of agriculture land and housing, poverty alleviation and developmentalschemes,andallotmentoflandonconcessionalrateswheresuchlandistobeusedforpurposeofhousing, shelter, setting up business, enterprise, recreation and production centres (sec 37).AccordingtoCensus2011thereare2.26croresDivyanginIndiawhichcomprise2.21percentofthetotalpopulationofthecountry.AmongtheDivyang,56percentaremalesand69percentofdisabledpopulationresidesinruralareas.Theagebreakupofpopulationofdisabledpersonscompriseof17percentinthe10to19yearagebracket,16percentinthe20to29yearand21percentintheelderlyagebracketof60plusyears.
MGNREGSisapplicabletoallpersonsresidinginruralareas,theRPWDActisspecifictoDivyang.TheintentandpurposeoftheboththeActsishowevertodefinetheentitlement,createaframeworkandprocesstoclaimentitlement,andestablishaccountabilityfordutybearersincasetheentitlementsarenotmadeavailablewithinthegiventimeframe.WhereasMGNREGSis implementedbytheDoRDtheRPWDActhasimplicationsforthesectorwhereithastodevelopinterventionsandsecureresourcesthatwillbespecificallydirectedtoDivyang.AlargepartofcoveragebythesectorhasbeenensuredbymakingthecriteriaofdisabilityasinclusivewithintheSECCdata.ThishasensuredidentificationandselectionofthesegroupsofpersonsforindividualbenefitschemeslikethePMAY-G.ThedesignofinfrastructureandlivelihoodsrelatedprogrammaticinterventionsdocatertotheneedsofDivyangbuttherearenospecificdesignandprocessinterventionsthatensurethatthesebenefitsaresecuredandreservedforthemonly.
Reforms:GoodGovernance
Goodgovernanceframeworkshaveemphasizedontheparticipationofbeneficiariesaspartofdecisionmaking processes; on addressing spatial and inter-household inequalities to make interventionsinclusive; and an accountability framework that monitors and ensures compliances with laws andguidelinesofthescheme.
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DecentralisedGovernance
The73rdConstitutionAmendmentledtotheestablishmentofPanchayatsandtheconsequentStateActsgavethemtheStatespecificlegalmandatefortheirfunctioningasunitsofself-government.However,theautonomy of these institutions has been critically linked to the availability of untied funds at theirdisposalthatallowsthemtomeettheirdevelopmentalaspirations.PreparationofGPDPasapricehasbeen institutionalizedwhich isnowincreasinglybeingusedtogivedirectiontodevelopment inruralareasofthecountry.
IntheGramPanchayatDevelopmentPlan(GPDP),the14thFFCrecommendeddevolutionoflargeamountofmoneytoGramPanchayatstothetuneofRs.2,00,292croresforprovidingbasicservicesforaperiodoffiveyearsduring2015-20.Thiswasthreetimesmoreallocationthanwasrecommendedunderthe13th FFC. The Ministry of Panchayat Raj framed guidelines for the preparation of Gram PanchayatDevelopment Plans (GPDP) for economic development and social justice based on participatoryprocessesandconvergenceofallschemesofCentralandStategovernmenton29subjectsthathavebeendevolvedtoPanchayatsunderScheduleXIoftheconstitution.
GPDPessentiallyhasthreedimensions:first,itcapturesthevisionofwhatthepeoplewouldliketheirvillagetobe;second,itsetsoutgoalstoachievethevision;andthird,itgivesanactionplantoreachthestatedgoals.GPDPsareexpectedtorespondtothegoalsandactionplansinamannerwhereexecutionofplanswillleadtowardstheachievementofSDGtargetsby2030.
Outof2,66,870GPs93percenthadapprovedGPDPsin2019-20.ThenumberofGPsinthecountryoptingforfocusareawisedatafortheyear2019-20isgiveninthefigurebelow.ThefocusareaofBasicServiceincludeswater,sanitation,healthandPDS;Socialwelfareincludesschemesforweakersectionsandtribalwelfare. HumanDevelopment includes education, libraries, women and child, and cultural activities.Livelihoodsincludetheentirerangeoflivelihoodsinruralareasagriculture,animalhusbandry,fisheries,small scale industries, andkhadi andvillage industries. Infrastructure is abroadgroup that includesschemesforenergy,plantation,housing,roads,socialforestryandirrigationworks.ItisnoteworthythatlargestshareofworkswasinBasicservicesfollowedbyLivelihoodsandInfrastructure.
Figure16:FocusAreaWiseGPsPlan2019-20
Addressinginequalities
Inclusionimpliesaccountingforinequalitiesanddifferencesamongregionsandhouseholds.Wherethelaws mandate non-discrimination and equality of opportunity, it is reforms like adoption of
22%
6%
9%
26%
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TransformationofAspirationalDistrictsprogrammeandSECCdata for targetingofspatialand inter-householdinequalities.Thedetailsofboththesereformativeactionsisgivenbelow.
(i) Geographical: Aspirational districts:The story of India’s growthwill not be complete unless itensuresthatgrowthisbothinclusiveandsustainable.Itisthusimperativethattheresultsandfruitsofdevelopmentaresharedbyallandtheprocessesofdevelopmentandgrowthcreatespaceswhereallcanparticipate and contribute in the growth story. There is, however, spatial dimension tounderdevelopment in the country. There are places that have not been able to keep pace withdevelopmentonaccountoftheirrelativelypoorresourceendowment,poorerinfrastructuralnetwork,lowqualityofsocialcapital,lowstandardsofhealth,nutrition,educationandskills.Dependingonthecontext these factors appear as cause and symptom of under development. The programme forTransformationofAspirationalDistrictswas launched toaddress thecausesofunderdevelopment inthesedistrictsandgiveasustainedpushthatwillbringthesedistrictsindevelopmentalignmentwithotherareasofthecountry.
TheTransformationofAspirationalDistrictsprogrammeisaimedtoincreasethepaceofdevelopmentalactivitiesinselected117districtsin28statesofthecountry.TheprogrammeisimplementedbyStatesandthefocusistoidentifyandusethestrengthsofeachdistrictandprioritiseattainableoutcomesforimmediateimprovement.TheprogrammeworksonthethreecoreprinciplesofConvergence,betweenschemesofCentralandStategovernment;Collaboration,amongcitizensanddistrictteamsofCentralandStategovernment;andCompetition,amongdistrictstomaintainandsustainthepaceofdevelopment.TheprogrammedrawsonfivethematicareasincludingEducationandHealthandNutrition.Theotherthree themes,AgricultureandWaterResources,Financial InclusionandSkillDevelopment,andBasicInfrastructure,arerelatedtoindicatorsofRuralDevelopmentastheyseektoenhancemultipleaspectsoflivelihoodsandinfrastructureinruralspacesinthesedistricts.
Theprogrammemonitorsthereal-timeprogressofaspirationaldistrictsbasedon49indicators(81data-points)fromthe5identifiedthematicareas.NITIAayoghascompletedabaselinerankingof101districts.Thedistrictsarerankedbasedontheirprogressonareal-timebasistoassess‘distancetofrontier’–i.e.thedistanceofeachdistrictfromthestate’sandnation’sbest.Thedistrictsarerankedineachofthefivethematicareasaswellasonacompositeindex.Thedashboardinrealtimeprovidesrankingofeachofthe aspirational districts aswell as give rank of the top and bottom district for each theme and oncompositeindex.220
(ii) Household: Addressing Deprivations: Identification of poor households is a prerequisite foreffectivetargetingofbeneficiariesunderpovertyalleviationandruraldevelopmentprogrammes.BPLCensuswas conductedbyDoRDevery five years since1992.TheCensusprovided credible basis forevidence based intervention; an estimate of extent of poverty in the country; and efficacy of thegovernmentprogrammesinamelioratingsocio-economicconditionsofthetargetedbeneficiaries.TheBPLCensuswasconductedin1992,1997and2002.TargetingbasedonBPLlistwasnegativelyaffectedbyseriousmethodologicalerrorsthatledtoerrorsofexclusionandinclusionwhichnotonlydeprivedthe poor fromgetting benefits of poverty alleviation programmes, but also placed the non-poor intocategoryofpoor.
SumitBoseCommitteerecommendeduseofSECCdatafortargetingthepooranddeprivedhouseholdsasbeneficiariesofpovertyalleviationprogrammes.TheBPLlistispreparedbasedonthedataprovidedbyNSSP,whereasSECCdatarankshouseholdsondifferentparametersofdeprivationandalsoaccordstheopportunityofprioritizinghouseholdsbasedoncriteriaofmultipledeprivations.Further,sinceSECC
220NITIAayog(2018)AspirationalDistricts:UnlockingPotentials,NITIAayog,GovernmentofIndia
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has disaggregated data on different deprivations it allows use of the same data set for targetinghouseholdsfordifferentprogrammes.
SECCwas conductedwith participation fromDoRD,MoHUA and Office of the Registrar General andCensusCommissioner.TheSECCwasarespondentbasedsurveythatwasratifiedbytheGramSabhaandGram Panchayat. It had six steps: Enumeration, Supervision, Verification and Correction, Draft listpublication,ClaimsandObjections,Finallistpublication.Thefinalapprovedlistservedasthereferencedatatotargetprogrammesofruraldevelopment.
Accountability
Detailsofaccountabilityandtransparencythathighlightthereformsinstitutedforgoodgovernancearegiven in the Accountability and Transparency section of the report (Page 87). To summarise, theaccountability in the sector takes place through multiple mechanisms that include performancemonitoringthroughwebbasedMISsystemwellsupplementedbygeo-taggingofassetsandmonitoringby DISHA committee at district level. The second system in assessment by National LevelMonitors,conduct of Common reviewMissions and evaluation studies of specific schemes. The third oversightmechanism entails statutory audit compliances aswell as the social auditmechanism that has beendevelopedandinstituteduptoGramSabhalevel.Foreachofthesethreesystems,specificmechanismsand frameworkshavebeendevelopedwhichhavebroughtconsistencyanddepthto theanalysisandhave given valuable feedbacks for enhancingmanagement and operational efficiency in programmeimplementation.
E-GramSwaraj
MinistryofPanchayatiRajincollaborationwithStateshasundertakentheenormoustaskofe-PanchayatinMissionModeProjectunderDigital IndiaprogrammeofGovernmentof India.Theproject aims toautomate internalworkflowprocesses of all the 2.5 lakh Panchayats across the country andmake asignificant contribution in transforming the ruralgovernance landscape in thecountry.With the14thFinanceCommissionmakinglargeamountsofmoneyavailabletoPanchayatsithasbecomeimperativetoinstallarobustandeffectivemonitoringsystemthatcapturesactivitiesinalltheirmanifestformsnotonly from planning to implementation but also fulfilling accountability compliances and ensuringsustainabilityofbenefitsandimpacts.
Thee-GramSwaraj,under thee-Panchayat, isasingleplatformforplanningandaccountingneedsofPanchayats. Developed as part of Panchayat Enterprise Suite, it aims to bring transparency andstrengtheningofe-Governance inPanchayat institutions. Ithas fivemodules:onemoduleprofiles thePanchayatintermsofdetailsofelectionsandelectedmembersofthePanchayats;thesecondmodulefacilitatesplanningbyrecordingsuggestionsofGramSabha, repositoryof shelfofprojects,detailsofresourcesintermsofbudgetaryallocationfromallsourcesandenablesconvergenceandpreparationofaction plans. The third and fourth modules are focused on progress reporting and accountingrespectively.Thesemodules trackphysical and financialprogress includinggeo taggingandsecuringtechnicalandadministrativeapprovalsofworksandadoptdoubleentrycashbasedsystemforworkbased accounting andmonitoring of flow of funds. Themodule facilitates daily, monthly and yearlyclosureofbooksofaccounts.ThelastmoduleisanAssetDirectorythatkeepsaninventoryofallmovableandimmovableassetsofthePanchayatsalongwiththeirlocation,statusandownership.
Takeaways
• Strengthening Decentralisation of Governance. Rural development interventions conform totakingforwardtheagendaofstrengtheningPanchayatsinthecountry.AsallthesubjectsentrustedtoPanchayats fallwithin thepurviewof rural development sector the collaborationbetween thesector and Panchayat is not a strategic option but a constitutional imperative. Working with
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Panchayatsandincreasinglygivingthemspaceinplanningandimplementationofprogrammesofruraldevelopmenthascreatedinstitutionalexperienceintheseinstitutionsthathasworkedforthestrengtheningofdecentralizedgoverning systems.Making functionsactionable throughreformistmeasureslikeGPDPfurtherstheconstitutionalvisionofemergenceofVillagePanchayatsasunitsofself-government.
• Sensitivitytotribalculturalmilieu.Mostofprogrammesofruraldevelopmentaredesignedforuniversalcoverageandimplementation.Theregionalorculturalvariationsbasedongeographicalandcommunitygroupsarenotgivenenoughprominence.Forexample,thedesignofruralhouseshasgeographicalvariations,buttheyhavenotbeendesignedfortheneedsoftribalgroupsthatgivespecificmeaningtodifferentpartsoftheirhouse.Similarly,theinstitutionofSelf-HelpGroupshasbeentransplantedintribalareaswithoutassessmentoftheirowntraditionalsystemsofcollectivesandmechanismsforextendingcredittoeachother.InlargepartthetribalgroupsinPESAareashavenotbeeninformedoftheirrightsandpowerunderthePESA,generallyorthroughprogrammesofruraldevelopment.Thus,thetraditionalwisdomandsociallyacceptedinstitutionshavenotbecomepart of the development design and rural development as a sector seems to have lost on thisopportunity.
• Forestasaspecialsubsector.AdministrativelyforestshavealwaysbeenadministeredbyMinistryofForestaccordingtotheprovisionsofForestConservationAct.Asaresult,ruraldevelopmentasasectorhasnotdevelopedspecializationinforestbasedlivelihoodsasithasonfarmandfarmbasedlivelihoods. Further, rural development interventions that always lie outside the forest area.However, with FRA bringing in area significant population, hitherto outside the ambit of ruraldevelopment,aspartofthesectorimpliesdevelopingforestspecificinterventionsinlivelihoodsandinfrastructureforthesegeographiesandpeople.
• RightsandEntitlements.Therightsandentitlementsframeworkhasbeenempoweringtotheruralhouseholdsandhavegiventhemopportunitytovoicetheiraspirations.Theimpactsofthesearealsoreflected in theprocesses associatedwithGPDPs thathas further strengthened thesevoices.Theimpacts of rights based framework in legislations and their follow up with administrativelyimplementedschemeshaspromptedformulationofsimilarlegislations(e.g.NationalFoodSecurityAct)inthecountry.
• Bridging the digital divide. Use of ICT and computer based, and digital technology is makingaccountabilityeasierandavailabletocitizens.AtoneenditismakingtasksofPanchayatseasierandontheotheritisbridgingthedigitaldividethatexistsbetweenurbanandruralareas.
Wayforward
• Nodefinitionof“country”.Therehasbeennodefinitionofruralorcountryinanyofthelegislationsinthecountry.TheTownandCountryPlanningActdonotdefinethewordcountry.Withruralandurban areas developing as a continuum the distinction becomes important as institutions ofgovernanceandstandardsofservicesandservicedeliverywillhavetobealignedaccordingly.Suchadefinitionwillcontributeindevelopinglongtermplansforthecountry,similartotheplansthatareenvisagedfortownandcities.
• Nolegalframeworkthatwillguaranteesocialsecuritytoelderlyandwidows.Atpresent,thereisnolegalframeworkthatdefinestherightsandentitlementsrelatedtosocialsecurityoftheelderlyand widows. These legislations will establish benchmark minimum of social security and willguaranteeaminimumstandardofdignifiedlivingtothemarginalizedanddependentpopulationinthecountry.
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• DecreaseofAgency functionofPanchayats.Thedesignof ruraldevelopmentprogrammeshasvisualized Panchayats in the function of agency of the rural development administration. ThedelegationoffunctionsanddevolutionofpowerstoPanchayatshavetogininnumberandcontentsothatthesearesubstantiveinnatureandenablePanchayatstoincreasinglyfunctionasunitsofself-government. A review of functions entrusted to Panchayats in the rural development sector canhighlight and develop a plan that will gradually transfer powers and function to Panchayatinstitutions.
• Universalisation of programme design. Programmatic designs are universal in nature. Theguidelinesneed tomakeexception fordifferent geographical areas (ScheduleFive andSix areas)different communities (tribal groups) to account for their diversity and to people in differentcircumstances(Divyang)tocatertotheirspecificneeds.ThesewillrequiregreaterparticipationofStatesindevelopmentofprogrammaticdesignsandformulationsofschemes.
• Bringing forest and forest based communities and livelihoods as special group. Forest andforestbased livelihoodsneed tobe carvedoutas special groupwithin ruraldevelopment so thatspecificinterventionsinlivelihoodsandinfrastructurecanbedevelopedforthem.
• PilotsfromAspirationalDistrictforreplication.AspirationalDistrictshavedefinedpathwaysthathaveshownprogressondifferentindicators.Thereisurgentneedtodocumenttheexperimentsthatwereundertakenforplanningandimplementationthathaveincreasedpaceofdevelopmentinthesedistrictsforwiderreplicationalloverthecountry.
• MakingSECCdynamic.ForSECCtobemadeeffective,itneedstobemademoredynamicwhereinitsupdationismorefrequentsothathouseholdsthathavebeenleftoutorhaveaddedtothelistofdeprivedhouseholdsareincludedintheprogrammesforruraldevelopment.
(xii) Impactonandroleofprivatesector,community/collectives/cooperatives
Introduction
Theruraldevelopmentsectorcompriseskeystakeholdergroupswhocontributetoandareimpactedbysectoraloutcomesindifferentways.Theprivatesectorhasincreasinglybecomeanimportantstakeholderinruralspaces,therebyopeninguppossibilitiesofpublic-privatepartnershipsandcreatingspacesforinnovationandresearch.Further,India’shistoryofruraldevelopmenthasstrongmechanismstoinitiateandreinforcecommunityparticipation,withpeople’saspirationsanddemandsformingthebasisofpoliciesandprogrammes.Furthermore,collectivesandcooperativesarekeyinnovationstoaggregateactionsandinterestsinruralspaces,therebyenablingcitizenstochannelizetheirfundsandeffortstowardscommondevelopmentalgoals.
Background
PrivateSector
Privatesectorcontributiontoruraldevelopmentisattwolevels:oneisthroughparticipationincreatingofvaluechainsthatenablesproducersinruralspacetogainbyparticipatingasprocessorsinthevaluechain;andsecond,asCorporateSocialResponsibility(CSR)investmentinruralspaces.
(a)Valuechaincreation
Theinitialyearsofagriculturalgrowththatwereinstrumentalinusheringindevelopmentinruralareaswerefocusedoninterventionsdesignedtoincreaseproductionandproductivityoffarms.However,inthe1990sasagricultureproductionstabilizedandthesectorwasopentoprivateplayerstheopportunityofprivatesectorcominginparticipateinthecreationofvaluechainsbecomepossible.Further,theprivate
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sectorexpandeditspresencefromagriculturetoothersub-sectorsthatincludedanimalhusbandryandlivestockfarming,fisheries,handloomandhandicraftproducts.
Theprivatesectorplaysmultiplerolesinthevaluechain:astradingpartners,serviceproviderslikestorageand transportation, design and technology providers, knowledge disseminators, processors of` primaryproduce and creators of agriculture/off farm business hubs in rural areas221. The private sectorparticipation has been instrumental in bringing transformation in agri-based businesses as well asmovementofsurpluslabourinruralareasfromagriculturetonon-agriculturalsectors.
There ishowever lackofdata that captures the roleandcontributionofprivate sector contribution increationofvaluechainemanatingfromruralsector.Theinformationavailableisanecdotalanddoesnotprovideamacropictureofthetrendsandimpacts.
(b)CSRinvestment
ThetotalCSRspendin2014-15wasRs.10,065crorethatincreasedby54percenttoRs.18,653crorein2018-19.However,overthisperiodtheamountinitiallyincreasedin2015-16butthendecreasedinthesubsequenttwoyearsandfinallyunderwentaquantumjumpin2018-19.During2014-15to2018-19theexpenditureunderCSRforRuralDevelopmentincreasedby45percent.222
AsproportiontothetotalspendunderCSR,investmentsunderruraldevelopmenthavegrowninabsoluteaswellaspercentage terms.Ruraldevelopment comprised10.5percentof totalCSR in2014-15but itincreasedto12.3percentin2018-19indicatingthatwithincreaseinCSRexpenditureruraldevelopmentisincreasingitsshareinthetotalspendbyprivatecompanies.223
Figure17:TotalCSRspendandExpenditureonRuralDevelopment(Rs.crores)
TheCSRspendishoweverunevenacrossdifferentstates.ThemajorityofinvestmentisinMaharashtra,TamilNaduandAndhraPradeshfollowedbyKarnataka,Rajasthan,OdishaandDelhi.Sectorwise,thelargestshareisthatofeducationfollowedbyhealthandthenruraldevelopment.224
CivilSociety
Thereare92,484NGOsregisteredwithDarpanportal.Amongstthese22,891(or24percent)workinthefieldofruraldevelopment.Thesecivilsocietyorganizationsaccessfundsfromgovernment,corporate,
221AdaptedfromJainN(2019)Roleofprivatesectorinbuildinganefficientagriculturalchain,TERI222NationalCSRPortal,MinistryofCorporateAffairs.Retrievedfromhttps://www.csr.gov.in/.Accessedon27May2020.223SameasFootnote239.224SameasFootnote239.
1,059.34 1,376.16 1,554.77 1,479.80 2,308.83
10,065.93 14,517.21 14,333.04 13,708.02 18,653.48
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foreignandindividualdonations.In2016-17thelargestdonationscamefromforeignsourcestothetuneofRs.14,824croresfollowedwithCSRfundofRs.13,465croresandgovernmentdonationsofRs.5,367crores. There is no centralized data for individual donations, yet these have been estimated to beapproximatelyRs.461crores.225
The thematic disaggregation of data present difficulties for its categorization. For example, in case offoreignfundsthebroadcategoriesareSocial,Educational,Religious,EconomicandCultural.ThematicdisaggregationispossibleincaseofCSRdatathatindicatesthat18%datatocivilsocietyorganizationshasbeenforruraldevelopmentandpovertyalleviation.Incaseofindividualdonationlackofcentralizedanddisaggregateddatarestrictsassessmentofthematicdatasets.226
Communitycollectives
SelfHelpGroups(SHGs):TherearetwomajorsourcesthatareresponsibleforformationofSHGsinthecountry:NABARDthroughitsSHG-BLPprogrammeandDAY-NRLM.BoththeProgrammeshavetogetherformed 1 crore SHGs in the country that cover 12 crore households in rural areas. These SHG havemobilized Rs. 23,324 crore worth savings by March 2019227. Almost half (50.77 lakh) SHGs hadoutstandingloanamountsasofMarch2019whichwereworthRs.87,098crores.228
Cooperatives:Therewere8,33,560cooperatives in thecountry in2016witha totalmembershipof274.97millionpersons.Ofthetotalcooperatives46,870(around5.6percent)weredefunct.Amongstthetotalcooperatives,17percent(141,118)werecredit-basedcooperativesandtheremainingwerenon-creditbasedcooperatives.ThecooperativeshadatotalsharecapitalofRs.383,285million.Amongthecooperativestherewere12National,399stateand3,571Districtlevelcooperativefederations.Further1,255weremulti-statecooperatives.229
Thecontributionofcooperatives innationaleconomycanbeassessedwiththefactthatcooperativescover94.32percentvillagesanddistribute17percentofthetotalagriculturecreditandKisanCardsto75.71percentfarmers.230
ProducerCompanies(PC):Thereare7,374producercompaniesregisteredinIndiabetweenJanuary2003andMarch2019.231Thepaceof registrationof companieswas slow in the initial10years of theamendmenttotheCompaniesAct.Itisonlyafter2016thattheregistrationofPCstookoffwithmorethan1,691companiesbeingregisteredduringtheyear.In2019,atotalof11,804producercompanieswereregistered.232
Atotalof445companiesareintheprocessofbeingstruckofforhavebeenstruckoffrepresenting6percentof the totalcompaniesregistered.Thepercentageofcompaniesstruckoffmaybe lowas theprocessofstrikingoffbeginsaftertwoyearsofregistrationandwhenthecompanyhasbeengiventimetorespondtothequeriesoftheMinistryofCorporateAffairs.Significantly,46percentofthecompaniesthathavebeenregisteredformorethan10yearshavebeenstruckoffbytheMinistry.233
225CentreforSocialImpactandPhilanthropy,AshokaUniversity.(2019).EstimatingPhilanthropicCapitalinIndia:ApproachesandChallenges.226SameasFootnote242.227NationalBankforAgriculture&RuralDevelopment.(2019).StatusofMicro-FinanceinIndia2018-19228SameasFootnote244.229NationalCooperativeMovementofIndia.(2016).IndiaCooperativeMovement:AStatisticalProfile.230SameasFootnote246.231RegisteredasproducercompaniesunderSection581ofPartIX-AoftheCompaniesAct1956orSection465oftheCompaniesAct2013232Neti,A.,Govil,R.,&Rao,M.R.FarmerProducerCompaniesinIndia:DemystifyingtheNumbers.233SameasFootnote249.
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TheregisteredproducercompanieshaveatotalauthorizedcapitalofaboutRs.15.7billionandtotalpaid-upcapitalofaboutRs.8.6billion,withanaverageofRs.1.17millionpercompany.Thereareabout4.3millionshareholdersacrossallproducercompanies.234
KeyTakeaways
• Rural Development sector has gained by collaborating with private sector, civil societyorganizations and people’s collectives: The gain to rural development by collaborating withprivate sector and civil societyhasbeenmanifold. Therehasbeenwidespreadpenetrationof civilsocietyandpeople’scollective(especiallycooperatives)inthelengthandbreadthoftheruralareasofthecountry.Theseorganizationshavebeenabletobuildastrongsavingandcreditbaseforcollectivesofthepoorandensuredtheirfinancialinclusionwithbanks.
In addition to its financial contribution through CSR funding, the private sector has madecontributionsbywayofdevelopingandstrengtheningofvaluechainenablingmovementfromproducetoproductandfromfarmtofirm.
• Therearenocomprehensivepolicyguidelinesforengagementwithprivatesectorandcivilsocietyatasectorallevel:Thereareschematicguidelinesthatstipulatethemannerofengagementwith collectives and civil society for the purpose of the scheme only. For example, theDAY-NRLMguidelinesstipulatetheengagementofNGOsastechnicalsupportagenciesandtheformationofPCsasaggregatorsofproducerwithcommonrangeofproduce.Thereare,however,nocomprehensivepolicyguidelinesthatcreatesspaceforinterfaceandengagementwithprivatesectorandcivilsocietyorganizations on a regular basis which are not only knowledge sharing platforms but also forcollaborativeresearchanddevelopmentaswellactionorientedinitiatives.
WayForward
• Creationof knowledgeharingplatformwithprivate sector and civil societyorganizations:Bringingtogethersectoralrepresentativesfromtheprivatesectorandcivilsocietyforknowledgesharing and exchangewill bring depth to the sector as it will gain from different experiences andcompetencies.
• Interfaceplatformsthatcangiverisetoprivate-public-collectiveinitiatives:Thereisneedtofacilitate promotion of public, private and people’s partnerships that will create the base forinnovationandhighriskventures.Theseinterfacesmaycreateanewbreedofstartupsindifferentfieldsofruraldevelopment-namelylivelihoods,infrastructureandsocialsafetynets.
• Policyforengagementwithprivatesector,civilsocietyorganizationsandpeople’scollective:There is need for sector level policy framework and guidelines that enable regular interactionbetweenprivatesector,civilsocietyandpeople’scollectiveswithruraldevelopmentinterventions.Thepolicyneedstotakealongtermviewthatwillpromotetheseengagementsandcreatesynergiesamongthestrengthsofdifferentinstitutions.
(xiii) Migration
Introduction
Migrationisacomplexandmultifacetedphenomenon,manifestedinavarietyofforms,fromlocalmobilitytopermanentrelocationacrossinternationalboundaries.235Despitetheimportanceofmigrationasthe
234SameasFootnote249.235Avis,W.R.(2017).Scopingstudyondefiningandmeasuringdistressmigration.
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harbingerofeconomictransformation,itsuffersdefinitionalinconsistencies.TheUNConventionontheRightsofMigrantsdefinesamigrantworkerasa ‘personwho is tobeengaged, isengagedorhasbeenengagedinaremuneratedactivityinaStateofwhichheorsheisnotanational’236.However,thisdefinitiondoes not take in to account caseswheremigrants leave their place of origin on account of economicinsecurity, conflicts, political or social persecution, environmental degradation or disasters or simply insearchoftheirverysurvival.
Based on review of various definitions that exist in different countries, scholars have grouped themotivations tomigrate in to five criteria:directionofmovement,destinationofmovement,durationofmovement, lawfulness of movement, and willingness to move. Such a classification has been made tounderstandthe‘degreetowhichindividualsorhousehold’sdecisiontomigrateismadevoluntarilyorinvoluntarily’.237 Voluntary migration indicates a decision based on their intrinsic desire to bringimprovement in theireconomic lifebyexploringbetter livelihoodoptions. Involuntarymigrationontheotherhanddepictsamigratorymovementthathaselementsofcoercionorthreatstolifeandlivelihoodsfrommanmadeornaturalcauses.Arelevantandsignificantfactorforruraldevelopmentasasectoristhephenomenaofdistressmigrationthatispromptedbythelackofaccesstoemploymentandtheinabilitytosurvivewithdignity238.
Background
Migrationgainsconstitutionalsanctionwhichguaranteesallcitizenstherighttomovefreelyandresideandsettle inanypartof thecountry(Article19),prohibitsdiscriminationon thebasisofplaceofbirth(Article 15), andguarantees equal opportunity to all citizens inmatters of public employment (Article16).ThesesanctionshavebeenfurtherstrengthenedwiththerulingoftheSupremeCourt239thatheldrestrictionsbasedonresidenceforthepurposeofemploymentunconstitutional.Economically,migrationrepresents opportunity that carries human capital to regions where it is needed thereby enablingacquisitionofnewskillsandbetterstandardsofliving240.AtmacroeconomiclevelruraltourbanmigrationhasbeenthedriverthathasfuelledtheIndianeconomyawayfromagriculturetowardsmanufacturingandservices.
DataonmacrotrendsinternalmigrationinIndia isbasedonCensusandthequinquennialhouseholdsurveyscarriedoutbyNSSO.Censusdefinesmigrantasapersonresidinginaplaceotherthanhisorherplaceofbirthoronewhohaschangedplaceusualplaceofresidencetoanotherplace.Residentisdefinedasonewhoisstayinginalocationforsixmonthsormore.NSSOusesthechangeinusualplaceofresidenceas thebasis of identifyingmigrant. In its64thRound (2007-08),migrantwasdefinedas ahouseholdmemberwhoselastusualplaceofresidence,anytimeinthepast,wasdifferentfromthepresentplaceofenumeration.Inboththecasesthefactofmigrationhasbeencapturedbutthereasonformigration(basedon thewillingness criteria)hasnot been captured. Thisdefies amacro level assessment of the trendofdistressmigration andwhether the interventionsat the sector level in ruraldevelopmentareable toaddressthephenomenaofdistressmigration.
Sangeeta(2017)241explorestheinvertedUrelationshipbetweenincome/wealthandmigrationtolooksintosituationsofdistressmigrationorhighlevelsofmigrationsatabysmallylowlevelsofincome.Thepaperpositsthatasincomeincreasesthereisanincreaseinmigrationtillacertainpointbeyondwhich
236 Faso,B. (2012). InternationalConventionon theProtectionof theRightsofAllMigrantWorkersandMembersofTheirFamilies.237SameasFootnote252.238Mander,H.&Sahgal,G.(2015).InternalMigrationinIndia:DistressandOpportunities.239CharuKhuranav.UnionofIndiaandOthers(CivilWritPetitionNo.73/2013)240Korra,V.(2011).LabourmigrationinMahabubnagar:Natureandcharacteristics.EconomicandPoliticalWeekly,67-70.241Sangita,S.(2017).PovertyandMigration:EvidenceofDistressMigrationinIndia.InIARIW-ICIERConference(pp.23-25).
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there is an inflection.Beyond this point, there is adownward sloping curve,wherein improved levels ofincome lead to decreased migration. At the same time there is a cost associated to migration andhouseholds that areunable tobear the costmaynotmigrate andmay remain trapped in the zone ofimmobility.Sangeeta(2017)uses64thRoundofNSSOdataandgeneratesevidencethatatextremelylowlevelsofincometheinvertedUcurvehypothesismaynotholdtrueforincome/wealthandmigration.Thatis,lowerlevelsofincomewillcausedistressmigrationandthehouseholdsmayoptforunsafepassagestomigrate.
Rural development sectormakes investment at both ends - investments that facilitatemigration, andinterventionsthatseektoarrestthephenomenaofdistressmigration.
- Sectoralinterventionstofacilitatemigration:Investmentsininfrastructurebywayofroadruralnetworksenhancemobilityandbringdownthecostoftransportation,therebyfacilitatingmigration.Further,SPMRMrecognizestherural-urbancontinuumandadoptsaclusterapproachforlivelihoodsenhancement. This, in turn, creates a network which facilitates increased opportunities foremploymentwithin the cluster. These interventions are directed towards increasedmovement ofhouseholds seeking better job opportunities. Effects may also manifest in the form of decreasedmigrationasthejobseekerswillchoosetocommute,andnotmigratewithinthecluster.
- Sectoral interventions to mitigate distress migration: Sectoral investments that direct theirimpact on decreasing distress migration are at four levels: one, provisioning of demand-basedemploymentunderMGNREGSthatguaranteeswork/unemploymentallowance;two,providingsafeandsecureshelterbywayofhousingthatactsasadis-incentivetomigrate(atleastforlongperiods);three,provisioningofpensionsunderNSAPthatmakescashavailabletothehouseholdsthatactasadeterrenttomigrate;andfourth,easyaccesstocredittothepoorfamiliesthroughtheSHGs(includingVulnerabilityReductionFund)providesopportunitiestothefamiliesonthresholdofdistresstomakeinvestmentsintheirfoodsecurityandlivelihoodsandrefrainfrommigratingindistress(theimpactof the scheme and programmes on distress migration will be discussed in detail in respectiveschematicsectionsinthisreport).
Takeaways
• Thereisalackoftypologiesofmigration:Migrationasaphenomenonhasbeenwelldocumentedand researched. Surveys and narratives explore the phenomena as an evidence of structuraltransformationonIndianeconomyandasevolutionoftheeconomyfromanagrarianbasetowardsindustrialandserviceorientedsourcesofwealthcreation.Theseexplorationshavenotdwelledintodifferenttypesofmigration,otherthanmakingbroadgeneralizationsofthepushandthepullfactors.Thelackoftypologiesofdifferenttypesofmigrationhascreatedaninformationandknowledgegapwhereinitisnotpossibletoassessanddeterminelongandshorttermstrendsinmigrationingeneral,anddistressmigrationinparticular.
• Sectoralinterventionsfacilitatemigrationaswellasseektoarrestdistressmigration:Intheabsenceofclearandconsistentdefinitionofdistressmigrationitisdifficulttomakeanassessmentofthe impact of sectoral interventions on distressmigration. Evenwithin programmes, the factor ofmigration is not tracked in regular monitoring and review processes. Consequently, the ruraldevelopmentpolicydependsonsystematicevaluationstoprovidefeedbackontheimpactmigrationand distressmigration of the investmentsmade in the sector. These gaps constrain the sector inidentifyingandgivingprioritytohouseholdsthatarethevergeofdistress.
• MGNREGS holds the potential to mitigate distress migration to some extent:MGNREGS isperhapstheonlyprogrammaticopportunitythathasthecapacityandtheflexibilitytobringsuccourand relief to households and geographies facing distress on account of prolonged drought and/or
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naturaldisasters.Theprogrammehasincreasedtheguaranteeof100daysto150daysinDistrictsthatfacehighlevelsofmigrationonaccountofdroughtsituations.However,sincetheprogrammeisdemand-based,itdoesnotimpactthedecisionsofthehouseholddirectlybutindirectlybymakingworkavailable locally.Other issuesof foodsecurity,debtburdenetc.arenotaccountedfor intheprogramme.
WayForward
• Initiate demand for definition ofmigration and typologies of different types ofmigration:DoRD,representingthehosttomigrants,cancollaboratewithMoHUA,asdestinationandrecipientofmigrants,demandingthedefinitionofmigrationandcreationofcategoriesandtypologiesofdifferenttypes of migration. These will bring in consistency in data collection and exploration in thephenomenonofmigration,anditsreasonsandimpactsthereof.TheMinistryofStatisticscanprovidetechnicalbackstoppingtodevelopglossaryrelatedtomigrationinthecountry.
• TrackmigrationaspartofregularMISofprogrammes:Thesectorneedstoinitiatetheprocessoftrackingmigrationasaresultofitsprogrammaticinterventions.Thetrackingcanbeofboth,theindividuals andhouseholds thatwere facilitated tomigrate (byway of skill development and/orthroughfacilitativeinvestmentsintheireconomicsystem),andhouseholdsthatweresupportedtoreduceorstoptheirmigrationindistress.Thisdatawillbehelpfulinprovidingrealtimeinputsoftheimpactsofprogrammesinruraldevelopmentforpolicymaking.ThepilotfortrackingmigrationcanbemadepartofTransformationofAspirationDistrictsprogrammewhichwillgiveapan-Indiaviewofthemagnitude,extent,processes,factors,andreasonsformigrationinthecountry.
• Promoteimpactstudiesonmigrationunderdifferentprogrammes:Sofarthestudiesinruraldevelopmentandmigrationhavebeenwithreference toMGNREGS.However, the impactofotherprogrammesespeciallyPMAY-G,PMGSY,NSAPandSPMRMonmigrationhavenotbeen studiednorassessed.Theseimpactstudieswillbehelpfulindevelopingimpactindicatorsforeachoftheschemesandalso generate thenarrative thatwill link investment in rural spaces to development of humancapital, thereby laying down conditions that facilitate migration (whether in distress or forimprovementinstandardofliving).
• Developingapackagedapproachtoaddressdistressmigration:Theissueofdistressmigration,atpresent,doesnothaveapackagedapproach.ThereisrelianceonMGNREGStoprovideworklocally.Otherissuesoffoodsecurity,debtservicing,availabilityofsafedrinkingwateretc.arenotpackagedwiththeprogramme.Eveninhighmigratingdistricts/regionsthereisneedforapackagedapproachtoaddresstheissueofdistressmigration.
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1.3. Issues and Challenges Ruralsectorwithconsiderablehistoryofvaryingscaleofprojectsandapparentsuccessandchallengesrequiresstocktakingforunderstandingtherelevantissuesandchallengesforfuturepolicy.Therehasbeenconsiderablerecentdiscussionofthechangesthataretakingplaceintheruralsector,bothwithinrural economies and in terms of the approaches adopted towards rural policy. The predominantcharacterisation is of a single change, commonly from an approach focussed fundamentally on theagriculturalsectortowardsonefocussedontheruralspaceandmorediversifiedeconomicactivity.Thesewere driven by a need to ensure domestic food security and the central role of agriculture in ruraleconomies. This approach met variety of objectives for food security, rural development and farmincomessimultaneously.Therehasbeenasteadierprocessofeconomicandsocialchangeinruralareasoveraperiod.
Thecoreoftheruraltransformationagendanowisdefinedbythefollowingmajorimperatives242:
• Reducingpovertyandinequalities243:notonlythoseinheritedfrompastpolicydecisionsandsocialstructuresbutalsothenewgapsandinequalitiesbeingcreatedbytheprocessofrapidchangeitself.
• Ensuringfoodsecurityandacceleratingagriculturaldevelopment244:securingarelevantroleandopportunitiesforsmall-scaleproducersandfamilyfarmersinvaluechains.
• Creatingmoreandbetter jobsandeconomicself-sufficiency245 inruralareas: includingsmalltownsandintermediatecities.
• Ruraleconomicdiversification246asamajordriverofjobcreation.Atthesametime,addressingimperfectrurallabourmarkets.
• Meetingtheclimateadaptationandenhancinggreenagenda247.• Stimulating growth of rural towns and intermediate cities and strengthening the links248
betweenthemandtheirruralhouseholds.• Managingthecomplex249andsensitiveissueofrural–urbanmigration250.• Securinguniversalaccesstobasicpublicservices251withimprovedqualitystandards.• Securing widespread access to efficient and sustainable financial services and capitalwith
improvementsinefficiencyandinstitutionalcapacityofruralfinancialsystems252.
242 The agenda of rural transformation has been arrived at based on references derived from secondary literatures. Ruraltransformation(bothstructuralandsectoral)vis-à-vistherelationshipsthatexistsfindrelationshipbothintermsofconceptualunderpinningsandpolicyimperatives.243 Claire Aubron, Hugo Lehoux et Corentin Lucas (2015); Poverty and inequality in rural India.http://journals.openedition.org/echogeo/14300244HLPE.2016.Sustainableagriculturaldevelopmentforfoodsecurityandnutrition:whatrolesforlivestock?AreportbytheHigh-LevelPanelofExpertsonFoodSecurityandNutritionoftheCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurity,Rome.245IFAD(2019)Creatingopportunitiesforruralyouth;RuralDevelopmentreport246Mehta,Niti.(2018).OccupationalDiversificationandRuralTransformation.10.1007/978-981-10-8962-6_2.247UNDP(2012)GreeningRuralDevelopmentinIndiaVolI&VolII.248 Sietchipinget.Al (2014)TheRoleof Small and IntermediateTowns inEnhancingUrban-RuralLinkages for SustainableUrbanization,RegionalDevelopmentDialogue,vol.35,2014https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322909630(accessed8thMarch2020)249Bhagat (2017) International Institute forPopulationSciences,Mumbai.PaperpresentedatUnitedNationsExpertGroupMeetingonSustainablecitieshumanmobilityandInternationalmigration,PopulationDivision,DepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsUnitedNationsSecretariatNewYork7-8September2017250 Bhagat, R. B. (2016) ‘Changing pattern of migration in India’, In C. Guilmoto and Gavin Jones, (eds.) ContemporaryDemographicTransformationsinChina,IndiaandIndonesia,Springer,Dordrecht,pp.239-254251SameasFootnote65.252IFAD.(2016).RuralDevelopmentReportChapter7–RuralFinance.
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• Promotinginnovation,researchanddevelopment253focusedontheneedsofruralecosystemwithengagementforcommunityandruralproducerswithopportunitiesofferedbydigitaltransformation.
• Putting inplacesocial support schemes includingcash transfers,pensionsandemploymentguaranteesforthemostvulnerabletosecurethebasichumandignityandeaseofliving254foreveryruralhousehold.
Alltheseoffersustainablelong-termoutcomeswithlocalized,inclusiveeconomicgrowth,complementedandnotreplacedbysocialsupportschemes.Theevolutionofsuchapatternleadingtotransformation,enabling ecosystem and convergence-based interface across all the nodes of rural sector viz.;infrastructure,livelihoodsandsocialsafetynetsaretabulatedbelowtounderstandtheempiricalpatternandspatiallyexplicitnarrativeoftheruralsector.
Table8:EvolutionofRuralDevelopmentTransformationAgenda255
Underpinning Paradigm–Old Paradigm–New EnablingpoliciesParadigmBasicprinciples Agriculturepolicy
RuralPolicyMultisectoral
(Competitiveness)Multipledimensionsaddressedbyprogramsviz.;ruraleconomy(infrastructurecreationandlivelihoods);decentralizedplanningandimplementation(PRIs)&resilience(ecologicalandparticipationofwomenineconomyandsociety)
Policy,ProceduralandInstitutionalChanges
Supportforsingledominantresourcesector
InclusionandInclusivegrowth
• PromotionofHumanDevelopmentandgenderEquality
• CapacityBuildingforDecentralization
• SustainableLivelihoods• Vulnerabilityreductionand
SustainabilityTools Subsidies Transparencyand
AccountabilitysystemsofPRIsDevolutionandAutonomytodecentralizedplanningFiscalprovisioningandTargeting
• IntegratedapproachincorporatingSubsistenceruralhouseholds,diversifiedruralhouseholds,Specializedfarmandnon-farmhouseholds(agriculture,livestockfisheries,forestbased,services,skillbasedetc.)&transitioningruralhouseholds(Rural–urbancontinuum)
• Aimstoaddressbothspatial-andregionalandgender-baseddisparities/inequalities
Keyactorsandstakeholders
CentralandStateGovernmentsand
Alllevelofsynergywithinandoutsideincorporatingpublic,
• InterfacewithPublicsector,privatesectorandnon-
253FAO(2017)Innovationforsustainableruraldevelopment254ILO(2014)Socialprotectionforolderpersons:KeypolicytrendsandstatisticsSocialprotectionforolderpersons:keypolicytrendsandstatistics/InternationalLabourOffice,SocialProtectionDepartment.-Geneva:ILO,2014(Socialprotectionpolicypaper:No.11,ISSN:1020-9581;1020-959X255Relatedindicestoarriveatthematrixhavebeenestablishedbasedonthestatisticalinformationandthepatternofruraltransformation in India. Three multidimensional assessing indicator system viz.; Rural Development Index (RDI), RuralTransformationIndex(RTI)andurban-ruralcoordinationindex(URCI)havebeenconsideredasenumeratedinthestudybyOhlan(2016);RuralTransformationinIndiaintheDecadeofMiraculousEconomicGrowth,JournalofLandandRuralStudies4(2)1–18�2016CentreforRuralStudies,LBSNAADOI:10.1177/2321024916640110
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Underpinning Paradigm–Old Paradigm–New EnablingpoliciesParadigmsectoralfocussedInstitutions
privateandcivilsocietyandlocalstakeholders
governmentorganizations/civilsociety
• Demographicstructureandtrendsconsideredforeconomicopportunitiesandwelfare
Approach Uniformlyappliedtopdownpolicy
Bottomuppolicy,localstrategiesEmpowereddeliberativedemocracy(EDD)(Funget.al.,2001)256
Opportunity(Demand)basedvs.Necessity(Provisioning)basedwithpolicyandinvestmentbalance
RuralDefinition
Noturban(Classifiedbasedonpopulation)
Ruralasvarietyofdistincttypesofgeographies
Functionalareas:Switchfromstaticdefinitionof“rural”and“urban”towardmultidimensionalpoliciesthatincorporateruralareasintoregionaldevelopmentandbuildonpositivedynamicsofruralurbanlinkages
PolicyandOperationalParadigmofRuralSector
Theincreasedcomplexityanddifferentiationofruralsectoralsohasimplicationsforthewaysinwhichpolicydecisionsandvariousoperationalparadigmarebeingcontextualized.Diversityofvariouskindsimpliesthatappropriatedecisionswithinthemulti-levelgovernancesystemfortheadministrationofprogramsintheIndianruralsectorshouldincludeaneffectivesovereignsystemfordeliveringpoliciesandassessingtheirimpacts.
Thecausalmechanismincludingfocusontheissuesandchallengestodrivetheruralgrowthwillbringaboutnotonlyeconomicbutalsosocialstability.Anintegratedapproachwithallsubsectoralpoliciesinconformitywitheachother,publicgoodsbecomingefficientinservingtheirpurposeandmarketsserveas guiding force towards allocation ofresources, the vision ofminimum government, maximumgovernancecanberealised.Theentireprocessmaynotbeachievedovernightbut itmayset theballrolling.
Developing productive assets and expanding economic inclusion to develop a supportedmarket ledapproach,whichaddressesregionaleconomicopportunities,withoutchangingthedemandleddriveofcurrent investments is the need. Investment in monitoring and evaluation to assess sustainability,creationofplatformsandnetworkingsystemsforquickpeertopeer/cross-programmelearningtooarecritical.Systemicimpactsofthesocialcapital-basedprojectstonegotiateandmediatethetermsonwhichthepublicandprivatesectorinteractwiththepooronacompletelynewscalethatfacilitatestargetingandinclusionandbuildsonitsleveragingcapacitywillbedesired.HouseholdsustainabilityalongwithcosteffectivenessandeconomicratesofreturntocopewithresilienceandencourageinnovationsandopportunitiestobuildinglinkagesforfuturewillprovetobeanenablerforthestructuraltransformationoftheIndianruraleconomy.
1. TargetingthePoor257
256Fung&Wright(2001).Deepeningdemocracy:Innovationsinempoweredparticipatorygovernance;PoliticsandSociety,Vol.29,No.1.257Targeting thepoor formspartof theNational levelKII thatwasconductedwithShriNCSaxena (Chairman,CommitteeconstitutedbyMinistryofRuralDevelopment).FurtherthearticlebyShriNCSaxena:Hasitignoredtoomanypoorhouseholds?EPW,Vol.50,Issueno;30,25thJuly2015toohasbeenreferredto.
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Thesubjectof‘what’ispovertyand‘who’arethepoorhasbeenalong-debatedissueinpublicdiscourseforpovertyalleviationinthecountry.Where‘what’ofpovertyisimportantfordeterminingmeasuresofpovertyandtherebyestimatesofnumberofpoor,the‘who’ofpovertygainssignificanceintargetingandidentifyingbeneficiary’spovertyalleviationprogrammes.
Thediscourseon‘what’ofpovertyhascomefromincome-minimumcaloriesin-takemeasurementtothecontentiousmonthlypercapitaconsumptionexpenditure258thatwasrevisedbyRangarajanCommitteein2012. As shortcomings of thesemeasurements became apparent, themulti-dimensional character ofpovertywasrecognized.Thecastecensusthatwasmandatedtobeconductedin2011wasreorientedtocollect data in terms of economic deprivation. SECC 2011 was a respondent-based survey that wasratifiedbyGramSabhaandGramPanchayatthathasbeenusedtoestimatethepoorandthehouseholdleveldatahasbeenusedtotargettheprogrammesaimedatpovertyalleviation.ThemaincriticismofSECChasbeenthree-fold:methodological;under/overreporting;andupdation.
(i) Methodological: Where privileges are attached in a respondent-based survey and vestedinterestsmaycreepinanddistortinformation.Thishasthelikelihoodofincreasingtheerrorsofinclusionandexclusioninthesurveyanditsinterpretation.
(ii) Under/Over reporting: There are specific sets of data that havebeen challenged andhaveraisedquestionovertheauthenticityandreliabilityofSECCdata.Forexample,governmenthad declared a figure of 7.7 lakh manual scavengers in Lok Sabha but the SECC dataenumerated only 1.8 lakhhouseholds. Similarly, the poorestwere enumerated to be 1.65millionwhicharewellbelowthefigureofnumberofissuedAntyodayacardsat25million.
In addition to the under-reporting of the poor, therewas over-reporting of the rich. Thisoccurredbecausethedefinitionofdeprivationwaskeptnarrowsothatmorecanbeexcluded.Forexample,owningatwo-wheelerwastakentobeameasureofrichnessirrespectiveofthefactthatitcouldhavebeenasecond/thirdhandpurchaseandwithouttakingintoaccounttheabilitytouseitatcurrentlevelofincome.
(iii) Updation: TheBPLsurveyswereupdatedeveryfiveyears.Therehasbeennocommitmentordeclarationfromthegovernmentonthefrequencyofupdationofthelist.Asaresult,thehouseholds who had lost out due to various reasons and new entrants do not have theopportunitytogettheirnamesaddedintheSECClistandstaketheirclaimforentitlements.
Oneofthereasonsthatmaketargetingofpooracontentiousissueisthechallengetodetermineauniformcriterionformeasurementofpoverty.Invastanddiverseeconomicandsocialmilieu,thismaynotbethebeststrategyforthesector.
2. TransformativePush:Panchayatsasdriversofchange259
Panchayatsthatgainedconstitutionalstatuswiththeenactmentof73rdconstitutionalamendmenthaveled tocreationofan institutionalarchitecture thathasmade implementationof theschemesof ruraldevelopmentuniversal. There are2, 69, 059GramPanchayats in the country thatprovide local self-governance to 6, 40,930 villages in the country. With conditions attached to the 14th FC grant, thePanchayats prepare their Gram Panchayat Development Plans according to the local needs andaspirations.
258Alagh,Y.K.(2010).Thepovertydebateinperspective:movingforwardwiththeTendulkarcommittee.IndianJournalofHumanDevelopment,4(1),33-44.259Sinha&Jaiswal(2020),PositioningPanchayatsasagentsofChange,NationalCouncilofAppliedEconomicResearch,NewDelhi
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ThereisstrongevidencethatsuggeststhatruralIndiaisatthresholdofamajortransformationawaitingthefinalpush,awaitingitsbutterflymoment.Anecdotalinstancesindicatethatthistransformationwillbe based on tapping/emergence of local genius and local energy. The potential for leadership andcommitmenthasbeencreatedthroughtheinstitutionofPanchayats.
AtpresenttheschemesofruraldevelopmentPanchayatsplayacriticalroleinselectionofbeneficiaries(MGNREGS,PMAY-GandNSAP),preparationofplansforinfrastructuredevelopment(PMGSY,MGNREGSandSPMRM), andexecutewageemployment scheme (MGNREGS).Theperspectiveanddesignof theprogrammes view Panchayats in the role of agency of Central government where the structure andgrammaroftheprogrammehasbeenpre-decided,andthePanchayatshaveaspecificroletoplayintheirexecution.
TheotherfactorthatbringsintheroleandfunctionofPanchayatsintoruraldevelopmentistheverybasic structure that defines the political economy of a federal State that is based on the tenets ofcooperativefederalismandthecontroloverresources.Boththeseaspectsarebasedontwomythsthathavebeencreatedandinstitutionalized:
(i) Lackof InstitutionalCapacityofPanchayats:Apopularmyththatoperatesamongst thepolicyinfluenceringovernmentisgenerallyarticulatedaslackofinstitutionalcapacityofPanchayats.AnobservationinthisregardintheConvergenceReportofNRCDDPisnoteworthy.Thereportstatesthat“observationmadeinthecourseofthereviewoftheCSSsisthatbureaucratswithexperienceinruraldevelopmentandPanchayatiRajgenerallyhaveamorepositiveperceptionoftherolethatPRIscanplayinmoreeffectivedeliveryofservices.Officerswithlittleornoexposure/experiencetoeitherruraldevelopmentorPanchayatiRajtendtobrushasidesuggestionsofinvolvementofthePRIs.Theysupporttheirperceptionwithanecdotalreferencetotheirownfieldexperience,oftendatedbyover25-30years,andwithlittleregardtosubsequentdevelopments”260.
At the same time, there is evidence that suggests thatwhenever Panchayats are endowedwithfreedomtoexercisetheirjudgementtherehavebeenapositivequantitativeandqualitativeimpacton theprogramme.The same report stated that “there is ample anecdotal evidence to show thatwhereverPanchayatiRajInstitutionsoftheirownvolition,orwiththeauthorityconferredbytheStateGovernments,haveinvolvedthemselvesinoverseeingthefunctioningofSchools,AnganwadiCentresandPrimaryHealthCentres,invariably,absenteeismofstaffhascomedownbecauseclientsatisfactionbecomesanissue.ThishasledtoanalmostimmediateimprovementofthequalityofservicesfortheAamAadmi.Clearly,anydirectandupfrontinvolvementofPRIsintheplanning,implementationandoversightofCSSs,beingsofarrunthroughdepartmentalstructures,doesimpactoutputsandoutcomesinapositivemanner.”
ThedesignofinstitutionalmechanismPanchayatswithparamountsupremacyofGramSabhaandthepoliticalprudenceoftheelectedrepresentativescreatessituationswheredecisionsandtheirexecutionmustcorrespondcloselytotheneedsandaspirationsoftheelectorate/GramSabha.
(ii) ResourcesareavailablewithandwillcomefromCentre:Anunstatedbutunchallengedmyththatpervadesthinkingindeterminingresourcesandagenciesforruraldevelopmentisthattheresourcesareavailablewith theCentreand it is theCentrewhichwillallocate theseresources. ItassumesperpetualdependencyofStatesandhencebyimplicationPanchayatsonCentre261.
Thismythhasbeenbusted in caseofprogrammespertaining to social safetynet. Ineachof theschemesunderNSAP,theStategovernmentstopuptheamountallocatedbyDoRDtoimprovethe
260 Convergence Report, Centrally Sponsored Schemes: Identifying a domain for the Panchayati Raj Institutions. NationalResourceCellforDecentralizedDistrictPlanning.261FindingofaKeyInformantInterviewwithaseniorofficialfromtheNGOsector.
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efficacyandeffectivenessoftheseschemes.SimilarexperimentshavebeenmadeincaseofPMAY-Gwhere States have added on amenities to the houses constructed under the rural housingprogramme.TheargumentneedstobestretchedtogivethisspaceandopportunitytoPanchayatstoaddandcreatetheirownvaluewithinthelargerframeworkofruraldevelopment.
3. SpecificusedevolutionbyFinanceCommission262
FinanceCommissionmayadopttwostreamsofdevolutionoffunds:one,istheregularprocessofmarkingfundsintoschematicorprogrammaticsilos;andsecond,specificusedevolutionoffundsthatareplacedin an escrow account which can be drawn upon by states subject to fulfilment of certain conditionpertainingtoruraldevelopment.Forexample,matchingfundstoGramPanchayatsthatareabletoraisefundsformaintenanceofinfrastructurecreatedunderprogrammesofruraldevelopment.Similarly,theFinanceCommissioncanplacefundsintheescrowaccountthatcanbedrawnbyStatesorPanchayatstoupscale/replicateanyoftheproveninnovation/pilotsdevelopedbythemtotheentirestate.Theprimarycriterionforspecificuseshouldbeactivitiesandprocessesthatimprovetheeaseoflivinginruralareas.
4. Addressinginequalityandregionaldisparity263
Among the various axes of inequality in India, regional disparities have acquired greater salience inrecenttimes,withdemandsbeingmadeforspecialstatusforcertainstatesonthisbasis.WhathasbeencompletelyoverlookedintheprocessisthatregionalbackwardnessinIndiaisamovingfrontierwiththemost intense forms of poverty and deprivation getting increasingly concentratedwithin enclaves ofbackwardness,especiallythoseinhabitedbyindigenouscommunities.
Thisspatialdimensionofunevendevelopmentinthesepolariseddistrictscallsforare-examinationofsomeof the conventional theories of developmentplanning.Mainstream regional economicplanningentailsagrowthpolestrategydesignedwiththeexpectationoffavourablespin-offimpactsforthelargerregion. Advocates for the strategy argue that all regions do not possess equal capacity to grow anddeliberatefocusingofinvestmentonalimitednumberofcentreswouldsatisfyanecessaryconditionfordevelopment.
5. Convergence264
Whenconvergencehasbeenbuilt intothedesignoftheprogramme, it inevitablyhappensandisalsoreportedupon.Inmostcases,suchconvergenceshaveelementoflinearitybuiltintoitthatmakesiteasierfor different implementing agencies to build their execution system on achievement of the previousmilestone.ThisisbestexemplifiedinhousesconstructedunderPMAY-G.Thedesignandguidelinesoftheschemeprovidefor90persondaysofunskilledlabourwhichisimplementedandreportedunderMGNREGSaswellasPMAY-G.Similarly,assistanceforconstructionoftoilet,distributionofgasunderUjjwala,etc.happensafterthehouseisconstructedandtheinformationistransmittedtotherelevantimplementingagencies.
However, incaseofSPMRM,where thedesignof intervention isbasedon thepremiseof convergentplanningandexecution,makingdifferentagenciesworktogetherhasbeenthemajorchallenge.Further
262AccountabilityInitiative,CentreforpolicyResearch(2019);DevolutionofUnionFinanceCommissionGrantstoPanchayats–AstudyfortheFifteenthfinancecommission.263Jose(2019),IFMR,Chennai-India'sregionaldisparityanditspolicyresponses,JournalofPublicaffairs,volume19,issue4.264 https://aajeevika.gov.in/en/content/convergence-partnerships finds mention by DoRD wherein various CSS addressdifferentdimensionsofpovertyanddeprivationwithconvergenceto facilitateentitlements, Improvequalityofrural lifebyenhancingcapabilities,skillsenhancement,creatinglivelihoodsopportunitiesthroughfacilitatingInstitutionalfinance,PhysicalInfrastructureetc.
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verticalintegrationinDAY-NRLMandMGNREGSwithintheschemeandacrosstheschemeshaveposedfunctionalchallengesofcoordinationandcollaboration.
6. Non-FarmLivelihoods265
Transition from agriculture-based employment to non-farm job opportunities is both the driver andindicator of change in rural areas. This out-migration of labour from agriculture is constrained bymultiplefactors:availabilityofskill,employmentopportunitiesnotbeingabletomeettheaspirationallevels of the rural populations, growth of entrepreneurial ability, access to credit based on crediblebusinessplan,facilitativeecosystemforgrowthofmicroenterprises,landlawsthatdonotpermitchangeoflandusefromagriculturetonon-agricultureuses,etc.
7. MaintenanceofInfrastructure266
The rural development sector has made substantial investment in creation of range of social andeconomic infrastructure: roads, housing,water harvesting, and storage structures, soil andmoistureconservation works, basic amenities including drinking water, sanitation etc. In some cases, themaintenanceofinfrastructurehasbeenbuiltintodesign,e.g.roads,butthesamecannotbesaidforotheritemsofinfrastructure.
Thedemand forrepairandmaintenanceofhousesconstructedunder IAYhasbeenexpressedby thebeneficiaries. Similarly, the ponds constructed in the first phase of MGNREGS are now demandingresourcesfortheirmaintenanceandupkeep.ThePMGSYroadsconstructedintheearly2000sarenowpasttheircontractualperiodofmaintenance.
Intheabsenceofregularmonitoringandmaintenanceoftheinfrastructureitislikelythattheruralareaswill lose theadvantageofwellbeingandeaseof living thathasbeendevelopedduring theperiod.AtpresentthemaintenanceistheresponsibilityoftheStates.Theyareexpectedtocreateamaintenancefundfortheinfrastructurecreatedunderruraldevelopmentprogrammes.Thisprogressinthisregardhas been inconsistent and except for PMGSY, the need for and the system for maintenance ofinfrastructurehasnotbeenfactoredintotheprogrammes.
8. GreenTechnology267
In the context of climate change and the depletion of natural resources the implementation ofInfrastructureprogrammesinruraldevelopmentspacesnecessitateincreasinguseofgreentechnology.The construction material used in construction of houses; rural roads; wells, animal sheds, dams,irrigationworksetc.havenotbeenassessedfortheircarbonfootprintandmodifiedinusagetomakethetechnologyusedgreenandclimateadaptive.
Adoption of green technology requires re-orientation of skills and procurement of relevant greenmaterial. The implementationmachinery is not geared to, nor do they take it their responsibility, tosearch for and institute green processes and material in construction of infrastructure under ruraldevelopmentprogrammes.This factorhasnotevenbeen identifiedandhencenotbeen incorporatedundertheSPMRMprogrammewhichislikelytousherinmajorinfrastructuredevelopmentworksinatleast300clustersindifferentlocationsinthecountry.
9. SustainabilityofSocialSafetyNets268
265http://www.mksp.gov.in/images/2_Advisory_on_diversification_Farm_Livelihoods_14_April_2020.pdfadvisoriesondiversificationoflivelihoodsunderDAY–NRLM.April2020.266McCord&Paul(February2019);AnIntroductiontoMGNREGAInnovationsandtheirPotentialforIndia-AfricaLinkagesonPublicEmploymentProgramming–WorkingPaperGIZ.267SameasFootnote283.268WorldBank.(2018).TheStateofSocialSafetyNets.
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Socialsafetynetshavelargelycomedowntomeandirectcashtransferstothebeneficiaries.Thesenetshave been effective in providing critical assistance to the most vulnerable and marginalized. Theseperpetual cash transfers raise the challenge of defining sustainability as by themselves these cashtransfersdoaddressthecausesandfactorsthathaveledtothevulnerabilitiesandmarginalizationofthebeneficiaries.
IfthewelfarecharacteroftheStatedemandsthatthecashtransfersshouldcontinueinperpetuitythentheissueofadequacyofpensionamountsanddemandfromothervulnerablegroupsshouldbetakenintoaccountwithgreaterdegreeoffrequencythanitisbeingdoneatpresent.
10. ReimaginingRuralAreas:FutureofWork
The dominant outlook of rural spaces (socially, economically or politically) has been with a deficitperspective.Thatis,ruralareaswerealwaysviewedashavinga“lackof”-itcouldbelackofknowledge,resources, productivity, opportunity, facilities, amenities and so on. The consequent programmaticinterventions were on provisioning that would remove one (or more than one deficit). This led toidentification of a visible product (house, road, amenities, natural resource, credit)whichwas to betransplantedinruralareaswiththeassumptionthatthiswillremovethedeficitandhenceincreasethewellbeingof theruralpopulation.Theperspectiveworkswell indefiningandcreatingapotential forchange.
Presently,ruralareasfacedwithglobalization,technologicalinnovationsanddemographicshiftshavebecomediverseintheireconomicprofiles.Thereisnoonepictureofruraleconomy.Infact,therearemultiple pictures of rural economy and each of these pose the challenge of defining the types oflivelihoods that will emerge in rural areas. The fast pace with which technological innovations aremoving,demandare-imaginationofruralspacesinordertoidentifyanddefinefutureofworkintheseeconomies.
Toenableruralareastoadapttothesetransformativeforcesrequiresanewperspective:aperspectiveof appreciation (as opposed to deficit). The appreciative inquirywill seek answers towhat exists (asopposed towhat lacks). Consequently, the programmatic interventionswill be designed to build onresourcesandopportunitiesthatexists inruralspaces.Thisperspectivewillallowprogrammestobediverse, flexible and widespread in content to keep pace with technological innovations which arecreatingtheirowneconomy.
11. Redefiningtheroleofcentralministry:entrustingthetaskaheadofSustainablelivelihoodstothestates
Intheruralsector,theprogramsunderCSShavebeenprescribedbytheDoRDforimplementationbythestategovernments.Stateshavebeenthecentrestageofallinnovations–processanddesign269.SchemessuchasMGNREGSarefocussedondecentralisedprogrammedeliverywhileotherssuchasDAY-NRLMallowforlocalisationoflivelihoodneeds.Goingforward,itiskeythatgreaterdecentralisationisensured.It is important to unravel the developmental phenomena as societies are cursed by ethnic, lingual,religious, and castepathologies, alongwith the ever-increasingproblemofpopulation. It is true that'publicadministration'ingeneralwillbeheldresponsibleinforgingaheadwiththisuphilltaskbutbeingpivotaltodevelopingnations,thisinstrumentshouldhelpbringaboutachangeaswellasdevelopment.Thus,thequalityandquantityofprogressdependslargelyonthepublicadministrationingeneral.Anantiquatedpoliticalstructureandleisurelyproceduresareinsufficienttorealisethegoalsofawelfare
269Basedoninnovationsininstitutionalapproachesinlivelihoodpromotion(SEWA,Gujarat,Care&DFID–ACCESS,BRLPS,andMPRLPetc.).
135
Sector Report: Rural Development
state.Attentionneedstobegiventowardsevolvinganadministrativesetupandmodesoffunctioningtingedwithprofessionalism.
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Sector Report: Rural Development
ANNEX1:DETAILSOFKEYINFORMANTINTERVIEWS(KIIS)
S.No. NameofKI KIIPost/Occupation
KIILevel(National/State/District/Block/GP)
Scheme State District Block GP
1MrGIRIJASHANKAR/MrNISHANTHHussain/MrRamaRao
CommissionerRD State All6AndhraPradesh
NA NA NA
2MrRAJABABU/MrSUBBAREDDY/NishanthHussain
CEO State PMGSYAndhraPradesh
NA NA NA
3 MrsINDRAPRIYADARSHINI/RangaRao
NodalOfficer/AdditionalCommissionerRD
State SPMRMAndhraPradesh
NA NA NA
4MrAJAYJAIN/MrDhanumjayuduB/MrSRIRAMULLU
MD/ProjectDirector State PMAY-GAndhraPradesh
NA NA NA
5 MrKESHAVAKUMARDeputyGeneralManager
State DAY-NRLMAndhraPradesh
NA NA NA
6MrGIRIJASHANKAR/MrGVenkataSuryanarayana
CommissionerRD State MGNREGSAndhraPradesh
NA NA NA
7 MrRAJABABU/MrPRAMARAO
Chiefexecutiveofficer
State NSAPAndhraPradesh
NA NA NA
8 MrShivaKumar Director District PMGSYAndhraPradesh
KRISHNA NA NA
9 MrAMdImtiaz./Venkateshwararao
DistrictMagistrate District All6AndhraPradesh
KRISHNA NA NA
10 MrGVenkataSuryanarayana
ProjectDirector District MGNREGSAndhraPradesh
KRISHNA NA NA
11 MrKESHAVAKUMAR Director District All6AndhraPradesh
KRISHNA NA NA
12 MrDhanumjayuduB ProjectDirector District PMAY-GAndhraPradesh
KRISHNA NA NA
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Sector Report: Rural Development
13 MrSuryaPrakashChiefExecutiveofficer
District SPMRMAndhraPradesh
KRISHNA NA NA
14 MrSuresh ProjectDirector District DAY-NRLMAndhraPradesh
KRISHNA NA NA
15 MrSudhkar Director District NSAPAndhraPradesh
KRISHNA NA NA
16 MrMaheshwariahProjectEngineeringOfficer
District MGNREGSAndhraPradesh
ANANTAPUR
NA NA
17
MrMaheshwaraihP,MrChandramouliReddy,MrNarasihmhaReddy&MrGandhamChandradu
DistrictMagistrate District All6AndhraPradesh
ANANTAPUR
NA NA
18 MrPrasadBabuDistrictProgramOfficer
District MGNREGSAndhraPradesh
ANANTAPUR
NA NA
19 MrNarasimhaReddy DRDAOfficer District All6AndhraPradesh
ANANTAPUR
NA NA
20 MrChandramoulidharReddy/
Director District PMAY-GAndhraPradesh
ANANTAPUR
NA NA
21 MrAdiNarayanaReddy AssistantEngineer District SPMRMAndhraPradesh
ANANTAPUR
NA NA
22 MrNarsaiah/MrMaheshwariah
AssistantEngineer District DAY-NRLMAndhraPradesh
ANANTAPUR
NA NA
23 MrNazeerAhmed/NarasimhaReddy
AssistantEngineer District NSAPAndhraPradesh
ANANTAPUR
NA NA
24 MrHKurmarao ProjectDirector District MGNREGSAndhraPradesh
Srikakulam
NA NA
25 MrNIWAS/MrHKurmarao
DM/ProjectDirector District All6AndhraPradesh
Srikakulam
NA NA
26 MrHKurmarao ProjectDirector District MGNREGSAndhraPradesh
Srikakulam
NA NA
27 MrKalyanaChakaravarthi
ProjectDirector District All6AndhraPradesh
Srikakulam
NA NA
28 MrSrinivas ProjectDirector District PMAY-GAndhraPradesh
Srikakulam
NA NA
29 MrChakravarthiChiefExecutiveofficer
District SPMRMAndhraPradesh
Srikakulam
NA NA
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Sector Report: Rural Development
30 MrChakravarthiChiefExecutiveofficer
District DAY-NRLMAndhraPradesh
Srikakulam
NA NA
31 MrChakravarthiChiefExecutiveofficer
District NSAPAndhraPradesh
Srikakulam
NA NA
32 MrsMSUDHARANIMandalParishadDevelopmentOfficer(MPDO)
Block All6ANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Ranastalam
NA
33 MrDayanandhKumar AO Block DAY-NRLMANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Ranastalam
NA
34 MrBGOPIKRISHNA SDO Block PMGSYANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Ranastalam
NA
35 MrBPurnandhRao AE Block PMAY-GANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Ranastalam
NA
36 MrsSVASTHAKUMARIExtensionofficerPanchayatrajruraldevelopment
Block MGNREGSANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Ranastalam
NA
37 MrChandrashekar PS Block SPMRMANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Ranastalam
NA
38 MrsBSAILAJA/ShivajiPanigrahi
MandalparishadDevelopmentOfficer/MandalRevenueOfficer
Block All6ANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Sompeta
NA
39 MrPatnayakTirupatiAdministrativeOfficer
Block DAY-NRLMANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Sompeta
NA
40 MrKRAMESH AssistantEngineer Block PMGSYANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Sompeta
NA
41 MrPSHIVARAMAKRISHNA
AssistantEngineer Block PMAY-GANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Sompeta
NA
42 MrGJyothishwarReddy
ExtensionOfficerPanchayatraj&RuralDevelopment
Block MGNREGSANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Sompeta
NA
43 MrMShanthiKumari PS Block SPMRMANDHRAPRADESH
SRIKAKULAM
Sompeta
NA
44 MrShivaReddyMandalParishadDevelopmentOfficer(MPDO)
Block All6ANDHRAPRADESH
ANANTAPUR
Kambadur
NA
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Sector Report: Rural Development
45 MrGovindappa/ShivaReddy
AdditionalProgramOfficer
Block DAY-NRLMANDHRAPRADESH
ANANTAPUR
Kambadur
NA
46 MrSudhakarG SDO Block PMGSYANDHRAPRADESH
ANANTAPUR
Kambadur
NA
47 MrPrudhviRaj WorkInspector Block PMAY-GANDHRAPRADESH
ANANTAPUR
Kambadur
NA
48 MrParandhamaiahExtensionofficerPanchayatrajruraldevelopment
Block MGNREGSANDHRAPRADESH
ANANTAPUR
Kambadur
NA
49 MrShivaReddyMandalParishadDevelopmentOfficer(MPDO)
Block SPMRMANDHRAPRADESH
ANANTAPUR
Kambadur
NA
50 MrKAZADMandalParishadDevelopmentOfficer(MPDO)
Block All6ANDHRAPRADESH
ANANTAPUR
Nallamada
NA
51 MrSHAKEERVillageprogramCo-ordinator
Block DAY-NRLMANDHRAPRADESH
ANANTAPUR
Nallamada
NA
52 MrHariPrakashReddy AE Block PMAY-GANDHRAPRADESH
ANANTAPUR
Nallamada
NA
53 MrSuryaNarayana PPO Block MGNREGSANDHRAPRADESH
ANANTAPUR
Nallamada
NA
54 MrVenkateshwarReddy
BDO Block All6ANDHRAPRADESH
KRISHNAChandarlapadu
NA
55 MrKotiswararaoAdministrativeOfficer
Block DAY-NRLMANDHRAPRADESH
KRISHNAChandarlapadu
NA
56 MrRameshPRAE(PanchayatRajAssistantEngineer)
Block PMGSYANDHRAPRADESH
KRISHNAChandarlapadu
NA
57 MrSridhar AssistantEngineer Block PMAY-GANDHRAPRADESH
KRISHNAChandarlapadu
NA
58 MrVENKATESH TechnicalAssistant Block MGNREGSANDHRAPRADESH
KRISHNAChandarlapadu
NA
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Sector Report: Rural Development
59 MrPrasad PanchayatSecretary Block SPMRMANDHRAPRADESH
KRISHNAChandarlapadu
NA
60 MrsBhargaviMandalParchiatDevelopmentOfficer(MPDO)
Block All6ANDHRAPRADESH
KRISHNAAgiripalle
NA
61 MRRamaKrishnaAssistantProjectManager
Block DAY-NRLMANDHRAPRADESH
KRISHNAAgiripalle
NA
62 MrSrinivasrao AssistantEngineer Block PMGSYANDHRAPRADESH
KRISHNAAgiripalle
NA
63 MrSharathBabuAdditionalProgramOfficer
Block MGNREGSANDHRAPRADESH
KRISHNAAgiripalle
NA
64 MrBSRINIVASRAO SiteEngineering Block SPMRMANDHRAPRADESH
KRISHNAAgiripalle
NA
65 MrNSSinhaAsstExecutiveEngineer,SRDA,PWD
State PMGSY Assam NA NA NA
66 UtpalaSaikiaJointDirector,AssamCivilService
State DAY-NRLM Assam NA NA NA
67 RashulHussainSrStateProjectManager
State PMAY-G Assam NA NA NA
68 MrigankaChoudhury/DibyajotiBorah
JointDirector,AssamCivilService/ITManagerNSAP
State NSAP Assam NA NA NA
69 ArupPathakJointDirector,AssamCivilService
State SPMRM Assam NA NA NA
70 PadmanandaChoudhury
ExecutiveEnngineer District PMGSY Assam Goalpara NA NA
71 NavidAnjumulHaque DistMISManager District MGNREGS Assam Goalpara NA NA
72 ArupKumarSarmaCEOZilaParishad,ACS
District4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Assam Goalpara NA NA
73 KhalidMd.ChoudhuryAdditionalDistrictProgrammeManager
District PMAY-G Assam Goalpara NA NA
74 MusarafHussainChoudhury
DistProjectManager District DAY-NRLM Assam Goalpara NA NA
75 MrinalKantiSarkarAdditionalDistrictProgrammeManager
District NSAP Assam Goalpara NA NA
141
Sector Report: Rural Development
76 ManuranjanSaikiaExecutiveEngineer,PWD,DPIU
District PMGSY Assam Tinsukia NA NA
77 MonjitBorkakoty ADC,Development District4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Assam Tinsukia NA NA
78 SaptarshiPaulAssistantDistrictProgramManager
District MGNREGS Assam Tinsukia NA NA
79 MoidulIslam ADPM District PMAY-G Assam Tinsukia NA NA
80 KamalKantoGoala DPM District DAY-NRLM Assam Tinsukia NA NA
81 SubenduDutta DPM District NSAP Assam Tinsukia NA NA
82 BidurBorgiyariExecutiveEngineer(DPIU)
District PMGSY Assam Nagaon NA NA
83 NilamSarma/AshintaBaruah
AdditionalDistrictProgramManager/AsstEngineer
District MGNREGS Assam Nagaon NA NA
84 DebasishBaishya CEOZilaParishat District4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Assam Nagaon NA NA
85 ChandramohanBarkakaty
DistrictITofficer District PMAY-G Assam Nagaon NA NA
86 AbhijeetDeyDistrictFunctionalExpert
District DAY-NRLM Assam Nagaon NA NA
87 MrinalKumarNathDistrictProgrammeManger
District NSAP Assam Nagaon NA NA
88 RamchandraDeuri BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Assam TinsukiaMargherita
NA
89 OleePaul BPM Block DAY-NRLM Assam TinsukiaMargherita
NA
90 PulinSharma AEE Block PMGSY Assam TinsukiaMargherita
NA
91 PranjalRajkhowa JuniorAsst Block PMAY-G Assam TinsukiaMargherita
NA
92 ManojSharma ComputerAsst Block MGNREGS Assam TinsukiaMargherita
NA
93 MofidurRahman BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Assam Tinsukia Sadiya NA
94 ManojKumarBorahBlockProgramManager
Block DAY-NRLM Assam Tinsukia Sadiya NA
142
Sector Report: Rural Development
95 RahulAminAsstExecutiveEngineer,PWD
Block PMGSY Assam Tinsukia Sadiya NA
96 TarunChandraGogoiSeniorAsstcumAccountant
Block PMAY-G Assam Tinsukia Sadiya NA
97 RitrajitSarkar ComputerAssistant Block MGNREGS Assam Tinsukia Sadiya NA
98 MuslimAli BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Assam Goalpara Matia NA
99BabyshreeDeka/LuitBorkalita/ParasharDeka
BlockProgramManager/Blockcoordinator/BlockCoordinator
Block DAY-NRLM Assam Goalpara Matia NA
100 BanajitAdhikary SDO Block PMGSY Assam Goalpara Matia NA
101AbdulHaseemMandal/MustafaGalibHussain/AbdurRazzak
NSC-ITComputerAsst/GPC
Block PMAY-G Assam Goalpara Matia NA
102 AchyutMadak/ArupKumarDas
Accountant/MISManager
Block MGNREGS Assam Goalpara Matia NA
103 MailnulHaqueChoudhury
BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Assam Nagaon Juria NA
104 KumudNath/ApurbaKataky
BlockProjectManager/BlockCoordinator
Block DAY-NRLM Assam Nagaon Juria NA
105 GirinHazarikaAssistantExecutiveEngineer
Block PMGSY Assam Nagaon Juria NA
106
ImamulHaque/RakibAlom/WahidurRahman/Ibrahimussain
ComputerAssistant/GPC/GPC/GRS
Block PMAY-G Assam Nagaon Juria NA
107ManojKumarSaikia/GautamSaikia/IqbalAhmed/JiaulHaque
ComputerAssistant/JE/GRS/GRS
Block MGNREGS Assam Nagaon Juria NA
108 MunindranathBhattacharjee
BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Assam NagaonKathiatoli
NA
109 KuldipLekharo/GopinathDas
BlockProgramManager/BlockCoordinator
Block DAY-NRLM Assam NagaonKathiatoli
NA
143
Sector Report: Rural Development
110 ManojSaikiaAssistantExecutiveEngineer
Block PMGSY Assam NagaonKathiatoli
NA
111 AbhijeetKumarDas/DilipKumarMedhi
ComputerAsst/SeniorAccountant
Block PMAY-G Assam NagaonKathiatoli
NA
112DebojitDekaBaruah/Assanullah/PoragjyotiKalita
Comp.Asst/GRS/AE Block MGNREGS Assam NagaonKathiatoli
NA
113 MahmudUlHassan InchargeBDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Assam GoalparaKharmuja
NA
114 AlfaruqueHussainBlockProgramManager
Block DAY-NRLM Assam GoalparaKharmuja
NA
115 AbhijeetRajkhuwaAsstExecutiveEngineer
Block PMGSY Assam GoalparaKharmuja
NA
116
SultanaParveenAhmeed/MansurRahman/MukiburRahman
ComuterAsst/GPC/AE
Block PMAY-G Assam GoalparaKharmuja
NA
117 SamimAhmedKhan InchargeAccount Block MGNREGS Assam GoalparaKharmuja
NA
118 VaishaliSolankiDPMU-PMAY-G-NodleOfficer
District PMAY-GDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DadraNagarHaveli
NA NA
119 Ms.SharmishtaDesaiSPMRM-DPMU-NodleOfficer
District SPMRMDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DadraNagarHaveli
NA NA
120 Ms.SharmishtaDesaiDAY-NRLM-NodleOfficer
District DAY-NRLMDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DadraNagarHaveli
NA NA
121 NileshShivajiPatelDRDA-NSAP-NodleOfficer
District NSAPDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DadraNagarHaveli
NA NA
122 Mr.SHITIZProjectOfficer,SPMRM
State SPMRM Haryana NA NA NA
123 VarunGupta ExecutiveEngineer State PMGSY Haryana NA NA NA
124 MS.SHEETALMALHOTRA
ResearchOfficer,PMAY-G
State PMAY-G Haryana NA NA NA
144
Sector Report: Rural Development
125 Mr.NaveenInfrastructureIncharge
State DAY-NRLM Haryana NA NA NA
126 Mr.Parveen FinanceManager State MGNREGS Haryana NA NA NA
127 KrishanLalAssistant-SuperintendentPension
State NSAP Haryana NA NA NA
128 NarenderKumar ADPO(HQ) DistrictMGNREGS&DAY-NRLM
Haryana Hisar NA NA
129 Dr.PriyankaSoni DM District All6 Haryana Hisar NA NA
130 Dr.RajkumarNarwalaProjectOfficer,DRDAHISAR
District MGNREGS Haryana Hisar NA NA
131 ManojKumar,HCS CEO,DRDAHisar DistrictMGNREGS,NRLM,&PMAY-G
Haryana Hisar NA NA
132 SureshKumar DistrictCoordinater District PMAY-G Haryana Hisar NA NA
133 VirenderSinghDistrictProgramManager
District DAY-NRLM Haryana Hisar NA NA
134 Dr.DalbirSinghSainiDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer
District NSAP Haryana Hisar NA NA
135 Mr.DarshanRathi DRDAOfficer District MGNREGS Haryana Rohtak NA NA
136 Sh.RSVerma,IAS DM District All6 Haryana Rohtak NA NA
137 RavinderKumar CO-MIS District MGNREGS Haryana Rohtak NA NA
138 Mr.BharhamPrakasha CEO District MGNREGS&PMAY-G Haryana Rohtak NA NA
139 Mr.Manjeet PO-MIS District PMAY-G Haryana Rohtak NA NA
140 Dr.VinodDhankarDistrictProgramManager
District DAY-NRLM Haryana Rohtak NA NA
141 Mr.RajeshMalik Assistant-DSWO District NSAP Haryana Rohtak NA NA
142 JaswinderSinghMalik ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY Haryana Ambala NA NA
143 GurudevSinghDistrictProgramOfficer
District MGNREGS Haryana Ambala NA NA
144 AshokKumar CEO District MGNREGS&PMAY-G Haryana Ambala NA NA
145 DalvinderKaurAdditionalProgramOfficer
District PMAY-G Haryana Ambala NA NA
146 GayatriDistrictProgramOfficer
District SPMRM Haryana Ambala NA NA
147 MamtaSharmaDistrictProgramOfficer
District DAY-NRLM Haryana Ambala NA NA
145
Sector Report: Rural Development
148 SurjeetKaurDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer
District NSAP Haryana Ambala NA NA
149 KanchanLata BDPOHansi BlockPMAY-G,MGNREGS&DAY-NRLM
Haryana HisarHansi-Block
NA
150 AnilKumar DEO(NRLM) Block DAY-NRLM Haryana HisarHansi-Block
NA
151 VajirSingh SDO(PWD/BR) Block PMGSY Haryana HisarHansi-Block
NA
152 JitenderMalik ÁSSTTJRY Block PMAY-G Haryana HisarHansi-Block
NA
153 Mr.JabirHooda ABPO Block MGNREGS Haryana HisarHansi-Block
NA
154 NarenderMalhotra BDPO BlockPMAY-G,MGNREGS&DAY-NRLM
Haryana HisarBarwala-Block
NA
155 AnitaRani Assistant Block DAY-NRLM Haryana HisarBarwala-Block
NA
156 VajirSingh SDO(PWD/BR) Block PMGSY Haryana HisarBarwala-Block
NA
157 Rajkumar Assistant Block PMAY-G Haryana HisarBarwala-Block
NA
158 RajpalPoonia ABPO Block MGNREGS Haryana HisarBarwala-Block
NA
159 RajPalChahal BDPO BlockPMAY-G,MGNREGS&DAY-NRLM
Haryana RohtakBlock-SAMPLA
NA
160 Robin BPM Block DAY-NRLM Haryana RohtakBlock-SAMPLA
NA
161 ArunSingmar SDO-PWD Block PMGSY Haryana RohtakBlock-SAMPLA
NA
146
Sector Report: Rural Development
162 ShreeMohinderSingh Assistant Block PMAY-G Haryana RohtakBlock-SAMPLA
NA
163 DeepakKumar ABPO Block MGNREGS Haryana RohtakBlock-SAMPLA
NA
164 RajKumarSharma BDPO BlockPMAY-G,MGNREGS&DAY-NRLM
Haryana Rohtak
BLOCK-KALANAUR
NA
165 Sandeep BPM Block DAY-NRLM Haryana Rohtak
BLOCK-KALANAUR
NA
166 VijayDalalSub-divisionalOfficer-PWD
Block PMGSY Haryana Rohtak
BLOCK-KALANAUR
NA
167 SumanJi DO-MIS Block PMAY-G Haryana Rohtak
BLOCK-KALANAUR
NA
168 AmitDangi ABPO Block MGNREGS Haryana Rohtak
BLOCK-KALANAUR
NA
169 DaljeetSingh BDPO Block PMAY-G,MGNREGS Haryana Ambala
BLOCK-Ambala-1
NA
170 Mr.Gourav BPM Block DAY-NRLM Haryana Ambala
BLOCK-Ambala-1
NA
171 SurenderSharmaAssistantSub-divisionalOfficer
Block PMGSY Haryana AmbalaBLOCK-
NA
147
Sector Report: Rural Development
Ambala-1
172 AvtarSingh Assistant Block PMAY-G Haryana Ambala
BLOCK-Ambala-1
NA
173 Balveer ABPO Block MGNREGS Haryana Ambala
BLOCK-Ambala-1
NA
174 Mr.RKChandna BDPO Block MGNREGS&PMAY-G Haryana Ambala
BLOCK-BARARA
NA
175 Niranjan BPM Block DAY-NRLM Haryana Ambala
BLOCK-BARARA
NA
176 Mr.Rajender SDO Block PMGSY Haryana Ambala
BLOCK-BARARA
NA
177 RakeshKumar BPO Block PMAY-G Haryana Ambala
BLOCK-BARARA
NA
178 Mr.Sukhvinder Assistant Block MGNREGS Haryana Ambala
BLOCK-BARARA
NA
179 GirishKumarRathi SDO Block SPMRM Haryana Ambala
BLOCK-BARARA
NA
180 Deepkumar-(Superintendent)
SPMU/STSA(StateProjectManagement
State PMAY-GHimachalPradesh
NA NA NA
148
Sector Report: Rural Development
Unit/StateTechnicalSupportAgency)
181 MinakshiStatenodalofficer-SPMRM
State SPMRMHimachalPradesh
NA NA NA
182 SandeepJishtuDirector-SEGCMGNREGS
State MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
NA NA NA
183 NeerajKapoorDPMU/Statisticalassistants
District PMAY-GHimachalPradesh
Chamba NA NA
184 ChainLalSharma DPO District MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
Chamba NA NA
185 AnitaNarulaDistrictmissionmanager
District DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
Chamba NA NA
186 NarenderJarialDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer
District NSAPHimachalPradesh
Chamba NA NA
187 SanjayKumarComputeropratorreferbySuperintendDRDA
District MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
Sirmaur NA NA
188 MaheshKumarComputeropratorReferSuperintendDRDA
District PMAY-GHimachalPradesh
Sirmaur NA NA
189 RamaLadiesSocialEducationofficer
District DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
Sirmaur NA NA
190 VivekAroraDistrictWelfareofficerSirmaur
District NSAPHimachalPradesh
Sirmaur NA NA
191 SujeevKumarJuglaniDistrictProgramOfficer
District MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
NA NA
192 KamalDevDeputyDirectorDRDA
District All6HimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
NA NA
193 TotuRamSeniorAssistantDRDA
District PMAY-GHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
NA NA
194 KhushiRam TechnicalAssistant District DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
NA NA
195 SanjeevSharmaDistrictwelfareofficer
District NSAPHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
NA NA
196 VijayKumarSocialeducation&BlockProgramofficer
Block DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
ChambaSalooni
NA
149
Sector Report: Rural Development
197 VijayKumarSocialeducation&BlockProgramofficer
Block PMAY-GHimachalPradesh
ChambaSalooni
NA
198 YogalJoshiLeadManergainblocklevel
Block MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
ChambaSalooni
NA
199 AnishRawat YoungProfessional Block DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
ChambaBatiyaat
NA
200 AnishRawat YoungProfessional Block SPMRMHimachalPradesh
ChambaBatiyaat
NA
201 GauravDhiman BDO Block All6HimachalPradesh
SirmaurPontaSahib
NA
202 RenuThakur LSEO Block DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
SirmaurPontaSahib
NA
203 DSTomar SDO Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh
SirmaurPontaSahib
NA
204 RajeshNaegiSocialEducationBlockProgramOfficer
Block PMAY-GHimachalPradesh
SirmaurPontaSahib
NA
205 RajeshNaegiSocialEducationBlockProgramOfficer
Block MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
SirmaurPontaSahib
NA
206 AnujSharma BDO Block All6HimachalPradesh
Sirmaur Nahan NA
207 BabitaChauhan LSEO Block DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
Sirmaur Nahan NA
208 DarshanLalSocialEducationPlainingofficer
Block PMAY-GHimachalPradesh
Sirmaur Nahan NA
209 AnilSharma Superintend Block MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
Sirmaur Nahan NA
210 DineshKumar BDO Block All6HimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhijri NA
211 AnupankumarBlockMissionManager
Block DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhijri NA
212 LalitKumar SDO Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhijri NA
213 DineshKumar BDO Block PMAY-GHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhijri NA
150
Sector Report: Rural Development
214 AjayPathaniaBlockPanchayatofficer
Block MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhijri NA
215 KedarNath BDO Block All6HimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhoranj
NA
216 NeenaSoniBlockMissionManager
Block DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhoranj
NA
217 SanjayGupta SDO Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhoranj
NA
218 KedarNath BDO Block PMAY-GHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhoranj
NA
219 AshokKumar Programofficer Block MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhoranj
NA
220 DeerendraPrasad ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY JharkhandHazaribagh
NA NA
221 Abhik ADF District All6 JharkhandHazaribagh
NA NA
222 Dr.BhuwneshPrasadSingh
DistrictCollector District All6 JharkhandHazaribagh
NA NA
223 AnujaRana ProjectOfficer District MGNREGS JharkhandHazaribagh
NA NA
224 UmaManto DirectorDRDA DistrictMGNREGS,PMAY-G,SPMRM
JharkhandHazaribagh
NA NA
225 ShaluPrasadMehta ProjectEconomist District PMAY-G JharkhandHazaribagh
NA NA
226 AmitKumarRuralDelopmentExpert
District SPMRM JharkhandHazaribagh
NA NA
227 GauravJaiswal DPM District DAY-NRLM JharkhandHazaribagh
NA NA
228 NiyazAhmedAssistantDirectorSocialSecurity
District NSAP JharkhandHazaribagh
NA NA
229 Charvee ADF District All6 JharkhandHazaribagh
NA NA
230 Amrendrakumar PIA District PMGSY Jharkhand Gumla NA NA
231 SmaikshakMohanti ADFDGofDRDA DistrictPMAY-G,PMGSY,SPMRM,DAY-NRLM
Jharkhand Gumla NA NA
232 SashiRanjan DistrictCollector District All6 Jharkhand Gumla NA NA
151
Sector Report: Rural Development
233 RajniKant ADOPRDA District MGNREGS Jharkhand Gumla NA NA
234 HariPrashadKeshriDeputyDistrictCommissioner
DistrictMGNREGS,PMAY-G,SPMRM
Jharkhand Gumla NA NA
235 BikasKumar DistrictCordinator District PMAY-G Jharkhand Gumla NA NA
236 BebyKumari DPMU District SPMRM Jharkhand Gumla NA NA
237 ManishaSanchaDistrictProgramManager
District DAY-NRLM Jharkhand Gumla NA NA
238 BhagiratMahtoAssistantDirectorSocialSecurity
District NSAP Jharkhand Gumla NA NA
239 GautamKrThakur MIS District MGNREGS Jharkhand Godda NA NA
240 SantoshKumarSailInchargeCumDist.Coo.NityAAYOG
DistrictAspirationDist.Fellowshipall5section
Jharkhand Godda NA NA
241 SunilKumarDeputyDistrictCommissioner
District5schemesexcludingSPMRM
Jharkhand Godda NA NA
242 SunilKUMAR DDC-CUM-DPC District MGNREGS Jharkhand Godda NA NA
243 Nalinikant AcountantDRDA District5schemesexcludingSPMRM
Jharkhand Godda NA NA
244 Kr.Sanjiv DISTCoordinator District PMAY-G Jharkhand Godda NA NA
245 Sushilkrdas DPM District DAY-NRLM Jharkhand Godda NA NA
246 AnilTuduAssistantDirectorSocialSecurity
DistrictNSAPNodalOfficeratDist.
Jharkhand Godda NA NA
247 Smt.ArunaKumari B.D.O BlockPMAY-G,MGNREGS,SPMRM,NSAP
JharkhandHazaribagh
Barhi NA
248 DeepakKumarBlockProgramManager
Block DAY-NRLM JharkhandHazaribagh
Barhi NA
249 AjayKumar BlockCo-ordinator Block PMAY-G JharkhandHazaribagh
Barhi NA
250 RajeshKumar B.P.O Block MGNREGS JharkhandHazaribagh
Barhi NA
251 Smt.KirtiBalaCakra B.D.O BlockMGNREGS,PMAY-LD,DAY-NRLM,NSAP
JharkhandHazaribagh
Barkatha
NA
252 DharmendraKumarSoha
BlockAnchorPerson Block DAY-NRLM JharkhandHazaribagh
Barkatha
NA
253 SanjoyKr.Rana BlockCo-ordinator Block PMAY-G JharkhandHazaribagh
Barkatha
NA
254 EkramHussain B.P.O Block MGNREGS JharkhandHazaribagh
Barkatha
NA
152
Sector Report: Rural Development
255 RavindraKumarGupta B.D.O BlockMGNREGS,PMAY-G,NSAP,DAY-NRLM
Jharkhand Gumla Basia NA
256 BindoKumarBPM(BlockProgrammeManager)
Block DAY-NRLM Jharkhand Gumla Basia NA
257 SurydevRam AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Jharkhand Gumla Basia NA
258 AlokKumarMishra Block-Co-ordinator Block PMAY-G Jharkhand Gumla Basia NA
259 BipinKumar B.P.O Block MGNREGS Jharkhand Gumla Basia NA
260 Sandhya B.D.O BlockMGNREGS,PMAY-G,NSAP,DAY-NRLM,SPMRM
Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA
261 RanikantMishra B.M.M.U Block DAY-NRLM Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA
262 AnjaniKumar AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA
263 KamleshBarla Block-Co-ordinator Block PMAY-G Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA
264 BebyKumarI B.P.O,MGNREGS Block MGNREGS Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA
265 GeetaDevi SPMRM,CDMU Block SPMRM Jharkhand Gumla Gumla NA
266 AshoakKumarChopra B.D.O BlockMGNREGS,PMAY-G,BDO,PMGSY
Jharkhand Godda Godda NA
267 YogendraKuamar BPM Block DAY-NRLM Jharkhand Godda Godda NA
268 RamashishRam AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Jharkhand Godda Godda NA
269 KunalKishore BC Block PMAY-G Jharkhand Godda Godda NA
270 KamalKishoreDas B.P.O Block MGNREGS Jharkhand Godda Godda NA
271 DhirajPrakash B.D.O BlockMGNREGS,PMAY-G,BDO,PMGSY
Jharkhand GoddaMAHAGAMA
NA
272 PremPrakash BPM Block DAY-NRLM Jharkhand GoddaMAHAGAMA
NA
273 RamjanamMandal AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Jharkhand GoddaMAHAGAMA
NA
274 MithunKr.Singh BC Block PMAY-G Jharkhand GoddaMAHAGAMA
NA
275 PurusottamKumar B.P.O Block MGNREGS Jharkhand GoddaMAHAGAMA
NA
276 SiddharthTripathiAdditionalSecretary,SRRD
State All6 Jharkhand NA NA NA
153
Sector Report: Rural Development
277ManishKeshri.S.VermaSubodhPaswan
MISNodalofficer,SeniorEnigineer&AsssitantEngineer
State PMGSY Jharkhand NA NA NA
278
NaveenKishanSubarno,AbhishekKr.Dipak,RanjitKr.Singh,JayprakashKushwaha,MISOfficer
Commisioner,SPMRM,CivilEngineer,RURBAN&Convergenceexpert,RURBAN.
State SPMRM Jharkhand NA NA NA
279 YatindraPrasad,Mrs.Shyama,
AdditionalSecretary,PMAY-G&FinanceManager,PMAY-G
State PMAY-G Jharkhand NA NA NA
280BishnuCharanParida,AnilKumar,AjaySrivastava,
COO,DAY-NRLM,RSETI&Supportingperson,DAY-NRLM&M&E,JharkhandStateLivelihoodPromotionSociety
State DAY-NRLM Jharkhand NA NA NA
281 PankajRanaNodalOfficer,MGNREGS
State MGNREGS Jharkhand NA NA NA
282 JayaMinz AssitantDirector, State NSAP Jharkhand NA NA NA
283 IONARSANGMA,IASDirector,DirectorateofCommunity&RuralDevelopment
State All6 Meghalaya NA NA NA
284 TenesonGiniNennong
ChiefEngineer,PWD(StateRuralRoadsDevelopmentAgency)
State PMGSY Meghalaya NA NA NA
285 ROPLANGKHARMALKIProgramManager,SPMU
State PMAY-G Meghalaya NA NA NA
286 RONALDKYNTA
ChiefOperatingOfficer-Programme,MeghalayaStateRuralLivelihoodsSociety
State DAY-NRLM Meghalaya NA NA NA
154
Sector Report: Rural Development
287 MrJ.E.MassarOfficeronSpecialDuty(OSD)-SPMRM
State SPMRM Meghalaya NA NA NA
288 IARAPHUNLINDIENGDOH
JointMissionDirector(STATERURALEMPLOYMENTSOCIETY)
State MGNREGS Meghalaya NA NA NA
289 NERIUSSAWKMIE
SeniorRuralDevelopmentOfficerCommunity&RuralDevelopment(NSAP-Nodaldepartment)
State NSAP Meghalaya NA NA NA
290 TirotLalooDPIU,ExecutiveEngineer
District PMGSY Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA
291 D.P.Kharsati
AdditionalDeputyCommissionercumplanningofficerRiBhoi
District4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA
292P.Marbaninang/S.Marbaniang
DPM/ADPM District MGNREGS Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA
293 BenteliangKharshandi
AdditionalDeputyCommissionercumProjectDirectotorDRDARibhoi
District4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA
294 N.Mawlong/KrasNongsiej
IT/Accountsofficer District PMAY-G Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA
295 TKhongshi/AndreasMymrn
DMM/DistrictfunctionalSpecialistfinancialinclusion
District DAY-NRLM Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA
296 WNongkling Accountant District NSAP Meghalaya RiBhoi NA NA
297 ParnelHynneiewta ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
NA NA
155
Sector Report: Rural Development
298 MissLajiedLangBasaiawmoit
DistrictProgramManager
District DAY-NRLM MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
NA NA
299 P.PaulSyiemiongDistrictProgramOfficer(MGNREGS)
District MGNREGS MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
NA NA
300 MrD.Hynniewta,MCSProjectDirectorDRDA&ADCEastKhasiHills
District4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
NA NA
301 MrPakmaAssistantProjectOfficer-PMAY_G
District PMAY-G MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
NA NA
302 MrPakmaAssistantProjectOfficer-NSAP
District NSAP MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
NA NA
303 APhawa&AnuMandaExecutiveEngineer&AsstExecutiveEngineer
District PMGSY MeghalayaEastjayantiHills
NA NA
304 MT.D.SUJA,MCS ADC&PDDRDA District All6 MeghalayaEastjayantiHills
NA NA
305 MissSandalimSutnaDistrictProgramManager
District MGNREGS MeghalayaEastjayantiHills
NA NA
306 SMT.ERWAMAYANONGSIEJ
DistrictProgramManager
District DAY-NRLM MeghalayaEastjayantiHills
NA NA
307 BaiaKmenlangSumerAdditionalProgrammeOfficer-PMYG
District PMAY-G MeghalayaEastjayantiHills
NA NA
308 JDianaDarmaiLowerDivisionAssistant-Nodalofficer
District NSAP MeghalayaEastjayantiHills
NA NA
309 RajaBrahma BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Meghalaya RibhoiUmsning
NA
310 WallamladSKharwanlang
CoordinatorBMMU Block DAY-NRLM Meghalaya RibhoiUmsning
NA
156
Sector Report: Rural Development
311 WerlisSumer/PynsukjaiHujon
SDO/JE Block PMGSY Meghalaya RibhoiUmling
NA
312 BantailangMarwein/EsterisusMarbeniang
TechnicalAsst(both)
Block PMAY-G Meghalaya RibhoiUmsning
NA
313MoralisaSwer/RebeccaKharbuli/RefermanLyngdoh
AdditionalProgOfficer/AdditionalProgOfficerCLIB/TechnicalAssistant
Block MGNREGS Meghalaya RibhoiUmsning
NA
314 RodrikNongrum BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Meghalaya RibhoiUmling
NA
315 ErlinaLyngdohManagerBlockMissionManagementUnit
Block DAY-NRLM Meghalaya RibhoiUmling
NA
316 RymphangKharkongor ExecutiveEngineer Block PMGSY Meghalaya RibhoiUmsning
NA
317 MeristelaSyiem DataEntryOperator Block PMAY-G Meghalaya RibhoiUmling
NA
318
OmitaSyiemlieh/BundorlinKharjana/MaryWLyngdoh/MargritaLyngdoh
APO/Rest3TechAsst
Block MGNREGS Meghalaya RibhoiUmling
NA
319 MrP.Khonglah BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
Pynursla
NA
320 WRLingdowAsstExecutiveEngineer-SDO-PMGSY
Block PMGSY MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
Pynursla
NA
321 FranCopperThapa TechnicalAssistant Block PMAY-G MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
Pynursla
NA
322 EvanpynhunLyngdohBlockProgramManager
Block MGNREGS MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
Pynursla
NA
323 MoonstarPyngropeClustercoordinator-BMMU-NRLM
Block DAY-NRLM MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
Pynursla
NA
157
Sector Report: Rural Development
324 MrMukhimBDO(BlockDevelopmentOfficer)
Block All6 MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
ShellaBholaganj
NA
325 BayahulamMakadoAsstExecutiveEngineer,PWD
Block PMGSY MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
ShellaBholaganj
NA
326 NickeyKharbuli JuniorEngineer Block PMAY-G MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
ShellaBholaganj
NA
327 PynlangShangplyangMISExecutiveNodalOfficer
Block MGNREGS MeghalayaEastKhasiHills
ShellaBholaganj
NA
328 S.MARWEIN,MCSBDO(BlockDevelopmentOfficer)
Block All6 MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills
Saipung
NA
329 KUNELANGIBHASYNNAH
AsstProgramOfficer Block DAY-NRLM MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills
Saipung
NA
330 JOHNTARIANGAsstExecutiveEngineer,PWD
Block PMGSY MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills
Saipung
NA
331SHRI.BISWAJITKHONGLAH&SHRI.OVERSEEMALANG
SectionAssistant&TechnicalAssistant
Block PMAY-G MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills
Saipung
NA
332 SMT.FELICITYSYNGKREM,
AsstionProgramofficer
Block MGNREGS MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills
Saipung
NA
333 S.MARWEIN,MCSBDO(BlockDevelopmentOfficer)
Block All6 MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills
Khleriat
NA
334 SMT.ERWAMAYANONGSIEJ
BPMcumDPM Block DAY-NRLM MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills
Khleriat
NA
335 JOHNTARIANGAsstExecutiveEngineer,PWD
Block PMGSY MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills
Khleriat
NA
158
Sector Report: Rural Development
336 MEDACHALLAM&SMT.A.NONGBRI
AssistantProgramofficer&OFFICEASST.
Block MGNREGS MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills
Khleriat
NA
337SHRI.BANJOPWARBAH,JE&SMT.RIMAYASAIOO,DEO
JuniorEngineer&DataEntryOperator
Block PMAY-G MeghalayaEastJayantiaHills
Khleriat
NA
338 SasmitaJenaMGNREGSCo-ordinator
District MGNREGS Odisha Bhadrak NA NA
339 SandipKumarMohanty ProgramOfficer District MGNREGS Odisha Bhadrak NA NA
340 MadhusudanDash PDDRDA District All6 Odisha Bhadrak NA NA
341 DebendraPandabAdditionalProgramDirector,RuralHousing
District PMAY-G Odisha Bhadrak NA NA
342 SanjayBarik DPM District DAY-NRLM Odisha Bhadrak NA NA
343 SaurendraKrBehuriDistrictSocialSecurityOfficer
District NSAP Odisha Bhadrak NA NA
344 SandhyaraniPattanaik MC,MGNREGS District MGNREGS Odisha Ganjam NA NA
345 AbhijitOfficeronSpecialDuty(OSD)
District MGNREGS Odisha Ganjam NA NA
346 B.KiranKumarComputerProgramer,
District MGNREGS Odisha Ganjam NA NA
347 SaumyaRanjanHotaAdditionalProgramDirector,RuralHousing
District PMAY-G Odisha Ganjam NA NA
348 NaveenKumarSenapati DPM District SPMRM Odisha Ganjam NA NA
349 NaveenKumarSenapati DPM-OLM District DAY-NRLM Odisha Ganjam NA NA
350 SubhranshuMaharana DSSO District NSAP Odisha Ganjam NA NA
351 SanjayKumarMishra ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY Odisha Bargarh NA NA
352 HimansuSekharPatra MC,MGNREGS District MGNREGS Odisha Bargarh NA NA
353 PrashantPriyadarshiniPanda
APD,RH District PMAY-G Odisha Bargarh NA NA
354 SankarChallan DPM District DAY-NRLM Odisha Bargarh NA NA
355 NavaSahu DSSO District NSAP Odisha Bargarh NA NA
356 ChittaranjanMonhantyAdditionalProjectDirector,Technical
District SPMRM Odisha Bargarh NA NA
159
Sector Report: Rural Development
357 ShyamsunderTudu BDO Block All6 Odisha BhadrakDhamnagar
NA
358 PitabasBiswal BPM,OLM Block DAY-NRLM Odisha BhadrakDhamnagar
NA
359 NarayanSahoo SDO Block PMGSY Odisha BhadrakDhamnagar
NA
360 PiyushaRanjanRout APO Block MGNREGS Odisha BhadrakDhamnagar
NA
361 AbinashBarik SDO Block PMGSY Odisha BhadrakChandbali
NA
362 SatyaNarayanSethi ABDO Block All6 Odisha BhadrakChandbali
NA
363 StalinNayak BPM,OLM Block DAY-NRLM Odisha BhadrakChandbali
NA
364 ManojKumarPatra BPA Block PMAY-G Odisha BhadrakChandbali
NA
365 SantoshKumarNayak MGNREGSASST Block MGNREGS Odisha BhadrakChandbali
NA
366 BimalKumarRayguru BMMU Block DAY-NRLM Odisha GanjamKhallikote
NA
367 BipracharanBehera ExecutiveEngineer Block PMGSY Odisha GanjamKhallikote
NA
368 SukantaKumarPattanaik
BPC,RH Block PMAY-G Odisha GanjamKhallikote
NA
369 AnilKumarPani APO Block MGNREGS Odisha GanjamKhallikote
NA
370 DibyajyotiMohanty ProgramExecutive Block SPMRM Odisha GanjamKhallikote
NA
371 ArchitaPanigrahi APO Block MGNREGS Odisha GanjamChhatrapur
NA
372 UmeshkumarSabatBPC,RH,BPMU,PMAY
Block PMAY-G Odisha GanjamChhatrapur
NA
373 ManiniJena BPO,NRLM Block DAY-NRLM Odisha GanjamChhatrapur
NA
374 PranatiBag BPM,OLM Block DAY-NRLM Odisha BargarhAtabira
NA
160
Sector Report: Rural Development
375 GaganBihariMishra SDO Block PMGSY Odisha BargarhAtabira
NA
376 AmiyaCharanPradhan BPC,RH Block PMAY-G Odisha BargarhAtabira
NA
377 PuspanjaliMahakud APO Block MGNREGS Odisha BargarhAtabira
NA
378 PranabKumarChand BDO Block All6 Odisha BargarhAtabira
NA
379 SankarsanBehera BDO Block All6 Odisha BargarhPadampur
NA
380 BikramKeshariBarikBPC,RH,BPMU,PMAY
Block PMAY-G Odisha BargarhPadampur
NA
381 SureshBudhia APO,MNREGA Block MGNREGS Odisha BargarhPadampur
NA
382 SatyaKumbhar BPM,NRLM Block DAY-NRLM Odisha BargarhPadampur
NA
383 HemaSharmaYoungProfessonal,RURBAN,CDMU
Block SPMRM Odisha BargarhPadampur
NA
384 LaxmanKumarSoren ExecutiveEngineer Block PMGSY Odisha BargarhPadampur
NA
385 SanjeevMathur ChiefEnginner State PMGSY Rajasthan NA NA NA
386 RameshKumar ProjectOfficer State SPMRM Rajasthan NA NA NA
387 JaypalSingh StateNodalOfficer State PMAY-G Rajasthan NA NA NA
388 Noordeen StateNodalOfficer State DAY-NRLM Rajasthan NA NA NA
389 ArbindSaksena StateNodalOfficer State MGNREGS Rajasthan NA NA NA
390 SureshGupta ProjectOfficer State NSAP Rajasthan NA NA NA
391 BalveerjiSuprintendentEngineer
District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Barmer NA NA
392 Anshudeep DM District All6 Rajasthan Barmer NA NA
393 NetSingh MISManager District MGNREGS Rajasthan Barmer NA NA
394 MohanDanRatnoo CircleOfficer District5schemesexcludingSPMRM
Rajasthan Barmer NA NA
395 RajendrasinghSupridentedEngineer
District PMAY-G Rajasthan Barmer NA NA
396 RajendrasinghSupridentedEngineer
District SPMRM Rajasthan Barmer NA NA
161
Sector Report: Rural Development
397 AnkitBhargawDistrictMissionDirector
District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Barmer NA NA
398 ManojPoorwaGola ExecutiveEngineer District MGNREGS Rajasthan Baran NA NA
399 PoonamSharmaAddItionalDistrictInformationOfficer
District ADS Rajasthan Baran NA NA
400 GendaLalGarge AssistantEngineer District MGNREGS Rajasthan Baran NA NA
401 BrajMohanBairwa CEO District5schemesexcludingSPMRM
Rajasthan Baran NA NA
402 GendaLalGarge AssistantEngineer District PMAY-G Rajasthan Baran NA NA
403 VishwarNagar DM District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Baran NA NA
404 ChandraShekharAdditionalTragryOfficer
District NSAP Rajasthan Baran NA NA
405 R.K.Jain ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY Rajasthan Baran NA NA
406 MahendraSinghSupridentedEngineer
District PMGSY Rajasthan Churu NA NA
407 MahendraSinghSuprintendentEngineer
District MGNREGS Rajasthan Churu NA NA
408 RamsaroopChauhan CEO District All6 Rajasthan Churu NA NA
409 AnupSharmaSupridentedEngineer
District PMAY-G Rajasthan Churu NA NA
410 SauravMehta DistrictManager District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Churu NA NA
411 Ramdhan NodalOfficer District NSAP Rajasthan Churu NA NA
412 SumerSingh BDO Block All6 Rajasthan BarmerSindhri
NA
413 Mahaveer Enginner Block PMGSY Rajasthan BarmerSindhri
NA
414 ParbhuSingh BPMU Block PMAY-G Rajasthan BarmerSindhri
NA
415 Ashok AreaManager Block DAY-NRLM RajasthanBalotra,Barmer
Sindhri
NA
416 JitendraChaudhary ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan BarmerSindhri
NA
417 Rajkumar BDO Block All6 Rajasthan BarmerBalotra
NA
418 Ashok AreaManager Block DAY-NRLM Rajasthan BarmerBalotra
NA
162
Sector Report: Rural Development
419 JhunjaRamChaudhary Engineer Block PMGSY Rajasthan BarmerBalotra
NA
420 ShankarLal UnitHead Block PMAY-G Rajasthan BarmerBalotra
NA
421 SanjayKumarDubey ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan BarmerBalotra
NA
422 ChandraprakashMathur
Enginner Block SPMRM Rajasthan BarmerBalotra
NA
423 MazharImam BDO Block All6 Rajasthan Baran Anta NA
424 Hariom BPM Block DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Baran Anta NA
425 ArifaKhatoon AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Rajasthan Baran Anta NA
426 GobardanBairwa APO Block PMAY-G Rajasthan Baran Anta NA
427 SaukatAli ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan Baran Anta NA
428 ChhotanLalmeena BDO Block All6 Rajasthan BaranShahabad
NA
429 Hemraj BPM Block DAY-NRLM Rajasthan BaranShahabad
NA
430 Mukesh AssistantEngineer Block PMGSY Rajasthan BaranShahabad
NA
431 VimalKumarJain BPM Block PMAY-G Rajasthan BaranShahabad
NA
432 ManoharMeena ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan BaranShahabad
NA
433 SantKumarMeena BDO Block All6 Rajasthan ChuruSardarSahar
NA
434 Sayar/RavindaKumawat
BPMU Block DAY-NRLM Rajasthan ChuruSardarSahar
NA
435 OmprakashSharma Enginner Block PMGSY Rajasthan ChuruSardarSahar
NA
436 PawanKumarparikh BPMU Block PMAY-G Rajasthan ChuruSardarSahar
NA
437 Bhawanisingh ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan ChuruSardarSahar
NA
438 DineshMishra BDO Block All6 Rajasthan ChuruRatangargh
NA
439 ShivaniBhatnagar BPMU Block DAY-NRLM Rajasthan ChuruRatangargh
NA
163
Sector Report: Rural Development
440 RitikSakla Enginner Block PMGSY Rajasthan ChuruRatangargh
NA
441 LalChandra PO Block PMAYG Rajasthan ChuruRatangargh
NA
442 RajveerSingh ProgramOfficer Block MGNREGS Rajasthan ChuruRatangargh
NA
443 Rajesh AddDirector State PMGSYTAMILNADU
NA NA NA
444 Radha AddDirector State SPMRMTAMILNADU
NA NA NA
445 Razik AddDirector State PMAY-GTAMILNADU
NA NA NA
446 Veeranan AddDirector State DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU
NA NA NA
447 Muthumeena AddDirector State MGNREGSTAMILNADU
NA NA NA
448 Subha AsstCommissioner State NSAPTAMILNADU
NA NA NA
449 Kavitha EE District PMGSYTAMILNADU
Theni NA NA
450 SankaranarayananAdditionalProgramOfficer
District MGNREGSTAMILNADU
Theni NA NA
451 Thilagavathy PD District All6TAMILNADU
Theni NA NA
452 DhandapaniAdditionalProgramDirector
District PMAY-GTAMILNADU
Theni NA NA
453 Kavitha EE District SPMRMTAMILNADU
Theni NA NA
454 Sivakumar PD District DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU
Theni NA NA
455 Kavitha DeputyThasildar District NSAPTAMILNADU
Theni NA NA
456 AngusamyAdditionalProgramOfficer
District PMGSYTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
NA NA
457 PraveenNair DistrictCollector District All6TAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
NA NA
164
Sector Report: Rural Development
458 KumarAdditionalProgramOfficer
District MGNREGSTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
NA NA
459 Prasanth PD District All6TAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
NA NA
460 SelvamAdditionalProgramOfficer
District PMAY-GTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
NA NA
461 PANDIYANAdditionalProgramOfficer
District DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
NA NA
462 RAJAN DeputyCollector District NSAPTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
NA NA
463 Sadaiyappan EE District PMGSYTAMILNADU
Salem NA NA
464 RAMAN DistrictCollector District All6TAMILNADU
Salem NA NA
465 Susilarani/SrinivasanAdditionalProgramOfficer
District MGNREGSTAMILNADU
Salem NA NA
466 ArulJothiarasan PD District All6TAMILNADU
Salem NA NA
467 PriyaAdditionalProgramOfficer
District PMAY-GTAMILNADU
Salem NA NA
468 Selvakumar PD District DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU
Salem NA NA
469 Baskaran SpDeputyCollector District NSAPTAMILNADU
Salem NA NA
470 Monikka BDO Block All6TAMILNADU
Theni Theni NA
471 Sasi DeputyBDO Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU
Theni Theni NA
472 Karthik AE Block PMGSYTAMILNADU
Theni Theni NA
473 Balakrishnan DeputyBDO Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU
Theni Theni NA
474 PalaniRaj DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU
Theni Theni NA
475 Monikka BDO Block SPMRMTAMILNADU
Theni Theni NA
165
Sector Report: Rural Development
476 ThirupathiMuthu BDO Block All6TAMILNADU
TheniPeriyakulam
NA
477 Kalaivani DeputyBDO Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU
TheniPeriyakulam
NA
478 Nagarajan AsstEngineer Block PMGSYTAMILNADU
TheniPeriyakulam
NA
479 Nagarajan AsstEngineer Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU
TheniPeriyakulam
NA
480 Chitra DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU
TheniPeriyakulam
NA
481 Thirumalaikannan BDO Block All6TAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
KILVELUR
NA
482 Rajagopal BMMU Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
KILVELUR
NA
483 Vetrivel JE Block PMGSYTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
KILVELUR
NA
484 Rajakumar DeputyBDO Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
KILVELUR
NA
485 Subramaniyan DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
KILVELUR
NA
486 Raju BDO Block All6TAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
VEDARANYAM
NA
487 Prema BMM Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
VEDARANYAM
NA
488 Manimaran/Thirunavukarasu
AE Block PMGSYTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
VEDARANYAM
NA
489 Rajakannan BDO Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
VEDARANYAM
NA
490 Tamilselvi DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU
Nagapattinam
VEDARANYAM
NA
491 Murugesan BDO Block All6TAMILNADU
SalemOMALUR
NA
166
Sector Report: Rural Development
492 Jothi BMMU Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU
SalemOMALUR
NA
493 Sankar AE Block PMGSYTAMILNADU
SalemOMALUR
NA
494 Ayyandurai DeputyBDO Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU
SalemOMALUR
NA
495 Yamuna DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU
SalemOMALUR
NA
496 Sundarraj BDO Block All6TAMILNADU
SalemATTUR
NA
497 Saritha BMMU Block DAY-NRLMTAMILNADU
SalemATTUR
NA
498 Rajkumar/Prabhavathi
AssistantEngineer Block PMGSYTAMILNADU
SalemATTUR
NA
499 Periyasamy DeputyBDO Block PMAY-GTAMILNADU
SalemATTUR
NA
500 Madeswaran DeputyBDO Block MGNREGSTAMILNADU
SalemATTUR
NA
501 SUJITKUMAR CEO State PMGSYUttarPradesh
NA NA NA
502 SUJITKUMAR MD State DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
NA NA NA
503 RAJESHKUMARGAUTAM
AE District PMGSYUttarPradesh
MAHAMAYANAGAR
NA NA
504 ASHWANIKUMARMISHRA
ProjectDirector District MGNREGSUttarPradesh
MAHAMAYANAGAR
NA NA
505 ASHWANIKUMARMISHRA
ProjectDirector District5schemesexcludingSPMRM
UttarPradesh
MAHAMAYANAGAR
NA NA
506 ASHWANIKUMARMISHRA
ProjectDirector District PMAY-GUttarPradesh
MAHAMAYANAGAR
NA NA
507 AWDHESHSINGHYADAV
DistrictMissionManager
District DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
MAHAMAYANAGAR
NA NA
167
Sector Report: Rural Development
508 SHIVKUMARDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer
District NSAPUttarPradesh
MAHAMAYANAGAR
NA NA
509 GoutamSinghYadav AEE District PMGSYUttarPradesh
Ballia NA NA
510 DevNandanDubey ProjectDirector District MGNREGS&PMAY-GUttarPradesh
Ballia NA NA
511 BadriNathSinghCommunityDevelopmentOfficer
District All6UttarPradesh
Ballia NA NA
512 DevkiNandanDubey ProjectDirector District PMAY-GUttarPradesh
Ballia NA NA
513 SashimolimishraDistrictDevelopmentOfficer
District DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
Ballia NA NA
514 VijayShankarDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer
District NSAPUttarPradesh
Ballia NA NA
515 Pardeep EE-RED District PMGSYUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
NA NA
516 Dr.DayaRamYadavDeputyCommissionerLaborEmployment
District MGNREGSUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
NA NA
517 AnayMishraProjectDirector,DRDA
District All6UttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
NA NA
518 AnayMishraProjectDirector,DRDA
District PMAY-GUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
NA NA
519 AnayMishraProjectDirector,DRDA
District SPMRMUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
NA NA
520 RamUdrejYadavDeputyCommissionerSelfEmployment
District DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
NA NA
521 NeelamSinghDistrictSocialWelfareOfficer
District NSAPUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
NA NA
522 GarrimaKhare BDO Block5schemesexcludingSPMRM
UttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
SikandraRao
NA
523 RajivGautam ADO Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
SikandraRao
NA
524 SahibSingh AsstEng Block PMGSYUttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
SikandraRao
NA
168
Sector Report: Rural Development
525 AvnishBabu Accountent Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
SikandraRao
NA
526 MohdJameel APO Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
SikandraRao
NA
527 ManojSharma BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
UttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
Hathras
NA
528 PramodKrSharma ADO Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
Hathras
NA
529 ChandraShekhar AsstEng Block PMGSYUttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
Hathras
NA
530 RamkumarGoswami APO Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
Hathras
NA
531 JitendraDixit APO Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
Hathras
NA
532 RamAshish BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
UttarPradesh
Ballia Nagra NA
533 PramodKrPandey ADOISB Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
Ballia Nagra NA
534 MdShamshad Accountant Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh
Ballia Nagra NA
535 AmitSingh APO Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh
Ballia Nagra NA
536 RajeshYadav BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
UttarPradesh
BalliaHanumanganj
NA
537 DharmendraYadav ADOISB Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
BalliaHanumanganj
NA
538 MajidAli Accountant Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh
BalliaHanumanganj
NA
539 GyanendraYadav APO Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh
BalliaHanumanganj
NA
540 PankajSharmaBlockMissionManager
Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
Karwi NA
169
Sector Report: Rural Development
541 RameshSinghBlockProgramOfficer
Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
Karwi NA
542 RajendraChauhan ComputerOperator Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
Karwi NA
543 DKAgarwal BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
UttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
Manikpur
NA
544 MuneeshJogiBlockMissionManager
Block DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
Manikpur
NA
545 SuryaPrakash ComputerOperator Block PMAY-GUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
Manikpur
NA
546 BhuwalSingh(APO) BPPO Block MGNREGSUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
Manikpur
NA
547 SushilMohan Addseceratery State DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
NA NA NA
548 MOHDASLAM Stateconsultant State MGNREGSUttarakhand
NA NA NA
549 VivekUpadhyay DeputyDirector State PMAY-GUttarakhand
NA NA NA
550 VinodGoswamiDirectorSocialwalfaredepartment
State NSAPUttarakhand
NA NA NA
551 RAVINDRASINGH DPO District MGNREGSUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
NA NA
552 DHANANJAYLINGWAL DDO District NSAPUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
NA NA
553 PrathvirajRawat AE-DMMU District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
NA NA
554 SHRIPRAKASHRAWAT PD-DRDA District PMAY-G,DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
NA NA
555 PramodGangariEE-PWDNodaldivision-PIA-PMGSY
District PMGSYUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
NA NA
556 PKPANDEY DDC District MGNREGSUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
NA NA
557 ARTISEMWALPROJECTECONIMICST
District PMAY-GUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
NA NA
558 RSBISHT ASSITENG District SPMRMUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
NA NA
170
Sector Report: Rural Development
559 MOBASIFDISTTTHEMETICEXPERT
District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
NA NA
560 HEMLATAPANDEY NODALOFFICER District NSAPUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
NA NA
561 HimanshuJoshi PD-DRDA DistrictPMAY_G,NRLMandSPMRM
Uttarakhand
USNAGAR
NA NA
562 MANGALCHANDRAJOSHI
DPO District MGNREGSUttarakhand
USNAGAR
NA NA
563 SHAILENDRASRIVASTAVA
DPMO District PMAY-GUttarakhand
USNAGAR
NA NA
564 PRAMONDKANDPAL DMMO District SPMRMUttarakhand
USNAGAR
NA NA
565 PRAMONDKANDPAL DMMO District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
USNAGAR
NA NA
566 KSRANA NODALOFFICER District NSAPUttarakhand
USNAGAR
NA NA
567 RSBARATWAL BDO Block All6Uttarakhand
CHAMOLI
KARANPRAYAG
NA
568 PRASHANTKUMAR BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
KARANPRAYAG
NA
569 ARUNKUMAR JET Block PMGSYUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
KARANPRAYAG
NA
570 KAILASH BPMU Block PMAY-GUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
KARANPRAYAG
NA
571 PANNILAL ASSITENG. Block PMGSYUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
GHAT NA
572 NCARYA ACCOUNTENT Block MGNREGSUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
KARANPRAYAG
NA
573 MANOJKUMAR ADO Block All6Uttarakhand
CHAMOLI
GHAT NA
574 SUMITRAKHANERA BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
GHAT NA
171
Sector Report: Rural Development
575 NANDANSINGHRANA ADO Block PMAY-GUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
GHAT NA
576 MOHANPRASAD DataEntryOperator Block MGNREGSUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
GHAT NA
577 SMTANITAPAWANR BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Uttarakhand
DEHRADUN
CHAKRATA
NA
578 ANKITRAWAT BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
CHAKRATA
NA
579 KULDEEPRANACOMPUTEROPPERATOR
Block PMAY-GUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
CHAKRATA
NA
580 Sandeepkaushik BPO-MGNREGS Block MGNREGSUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
CHAKRATA
NA
581 BHAGWANSINGH BDO Block5schemesexcludingPMGSY
Uttarakhand
DEHRADUN
DOIWALA
NA
582 SURAJCHAMOLI BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
DOIWALA
NA
583 KIRTANSINGHVillageDevelopmentOfficer
Block PMAY-GUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
DOIWALA
NA
584 NARENDRASINGHCHAUHAN
ADO Block MGNREGSUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
DOIWALA
NA
585 ANILSHARMAVillageDevelopmentOfficer
Block SPMRMUttarakhand
DEHRADUN
DOIWALA
NA
586 NAVINCHANDRAUPADHAYA
BDO Block5schemesexcludingPMGSY
Uttarakhand
USNAGAR
KHATIMA
NA
587 MDIQBAL BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
USNAGAR
KHATIMA
NA
588 SUNDERSINGH Accountant Block PMAY-GUttarakhand
USNAGAR
KHATIMA
NA
589 GRISHCHANDRAJOSHI BPO Block MGNREGSUttarakhand
USNAGAR
KHATIMA
NA
590 MDIQBAL CDMU Block SPMRMUttarakhand
USNAGAR
KHATIMA
NA
591 HARISHCHANDRAJOSHI
BDO Block4schemesexcludingPMGSYandSPMRM
Uttarakhand
USNAGAR
SITARGANJ
NA
592 BHAWNA BMM Block DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
USNAGAR
SITARGANJ
NA
172
Sector Report: Rural Development
593 GHANSHAYAMSINGH ACCOUNTENT Block PMAY-GUttarakhand
USNAGAR
SITARGANJ
NA
594 NEERAJJOSHI BPO Block MGNREGSUttarakhand
USNAGAR
SITARGANJ
NA
595 NirmlaDeviIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP WPSHimachalPradesh
ChambaBhattiyat
BALANA
596 SapnaDeviIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP WPSHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhijri Bhijri
597 AmreshPatelIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP DPSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DadraNagarHaveli
DadraNagarHaveli
RANDHA
598 SavitabenPatelIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP WPSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DadraNagarHaveli
DadraNagarHaveli
Dadra
599 GirdhariGopIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP DPS JharkhandHazaribagh
Barhi Karso
600 ChampamosamatIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP WPS Jharkhand Godda GoddaBariKalyani
601 JagatNathIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP DPS Assam Goalpara MatiaBakaitari
602 SurjyabanuBibiIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP WPS Assam NagaonKathiatoli
Bakulguri
603 WilfredKleinIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP DPS Meghalaya RiBhoiUmling
Belkuri
604 MrPenamChiatyandevIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP DPSAndhraPradesh
Srikakkulam
Sompeta
Korlam
605 MrGANGULLAPPAIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP IGNOAPSAndhraPradesh
ANANTAPUR
Nallamada
CHARUPALLI
606 RajammalIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP WPS TamilNadu THENI THENIPoomalaikundu
607 BaluIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP DPS TamilNadu SALEMOMALUR
MANGUPPAI
173
Sector Report: Rural Development
608 BalwanSinghIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP DPS Haryana HisarBarwala
BhaniBadshapur
609 SantoshIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP WPS Haryana RohtakSampla
Kharawad
610 RajkumarIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP DPS Rajasthan BarmerSindhri
AADEL
611 KanchanLalIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP IGNOAPS Rajasthan BaranShahabad
AAGAR
612 VIMALRAMIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP IGNOAPSUttarakhand
USNAGAR
Sitarganj
GOTHA
613 KhilafiRamIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP DPSUttarakhand
Chamoli Ghat BURA
614 SamuthiranIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP NSAP-Disability TamilNadu Theni TheniPoomalaikundu
615 MadhurjyaBorahDistrictMissionManager
District DAY-NRLM Assam Nagaon NA NA
616 BasheerKhan BDO Block BDOHimachalPradesh
ChambaBhattiyat
NA
617 YateshwarSingh Dataentryoperator Block MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
ChambaBhattiyat
NA
618 SonuVillagelevelcoordinator
Block PMAY-GHimachalPradesh
ChambaBhattiyat
NA
619 GautamSharmaDistrictNodalofficer(ADF)+DistrictProgramofficer
District
NotgivenresponsesforanyschemeandprovidedgeneralinformationaboutADFasitisrecentlyimplementedindistrict.
HimachalPradesh
Chamba NA NA
620 SitaRamIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP IGNOAPS Rajasthan Baran AntaAmlasera
621 SomaShekhar PIA District PMGSYAndhraPradesh
ANANTAPUR
NA NA
622 PrasantaKumarBarikBlockprogrammanager
Block PMAY-G Odisha BhadrakDhamnagar
NA
623 BhuralalMali DistrictManager District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Baran NA NA
174
Sector Report: Rural Development
624 ParmjeetIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP DPS Haryana Ambala BararaSubhri
625 UdayVeer ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSY Haryana Rohtak NA NA
626 HereraKhatunIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP WPS Assam Nagaon JuriaMaharipur
627 DineshBharti TrageryOfficer District NSAP Rajasthan Barmer NA NA
628 Mrs.JeevaSanthi Beneficiary GP NSAP-FamilyBenefit TamilNadu Theni TheniPoomalaikundu
629 KamalKantoGoalaDistrictMissionManager
District DAY-NRLM ASSAM Tinsukia NA NA
630 SanjayBarikDistrictProgrammanager
District DAY-NRLM Odisha Bhadrak NA NA
631 GangaRamBaspota Beneficiary GP IGNOAPS Assam Tinsukia SADIANAGAON
632 Mr.ParveenDistrictFinancemanager
District DAY-NRLM Haryana Rohtak NA NA
633 KusumaMosriat Beneficiary GP WPS JharkhandHazaribagh
Barkatha
BarkanGango
634 MurtiramChandravanshi
Beneficiary GP IGNOAPS JharkhandHazaribagh
Barhi Karso
635 VulavalapudiDevasahayam
Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSAndhraPradesh
KrishnaChandralapadu
Konayapalem
636 PatapanchulaVeeramma
Beneficiary GP WPSAndhraPradesh
KrishnaAgiripalle
Bodannapalli
637 ManshaRam Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
Bhoranj
Aghar
638 SushmaDevi Beneficiary GP WPSHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
BhijriKalwal
639 BijayKumarDasRDExecutiveEngineer
District PMGSY Odisha Bhadrak NA NA
640 VikramSinghProjectDirectorDRDA
DistrictDAY-NRLM,PMAY-G,SPMRM
Uttarakhand
Dehradun
NA NA
175
Sector Report: Rural Development
641 SankarChallanDistrictProgrammanager
District NRLM Odisha Bargarh NA NA
642 NEENADASH Beneficiary GP NSAP-FamilyBenefit Odisha BargarhATTABIRA
Janged
643 SitaRamIDIwithBeneficiaries(NSAP)
GP IGNOAPS Rajasthan Churu ChuruAjeetsar
644 JeetSinghThakur ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSYHimachalPradesh
Chamba NA NA
645 Babita Beneficiary GP WPS Haryana RohtakSampla
BhesriKurd
646 SarwanKumarAssistanceExecutiveEngineer
Block PMGSY JharkhandHazaribagh
Barhi NA
647 SarwanKumarAssistanceExecutiveEngineer
Block PMGSY JharkhandHazaribagh
Barkatha
NA
648 DAYARAMYADAVAssistantprojectdirector
District MGNREGSUttarPradesh
CHITRAKOOT
NA NA
649 SauravMathey DistrictManager District DAY-NRLM Rajasthan Churu NA NA
650 SalieshRana SDO Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh
ChambaSalooni
NA
651 NavidAnjumulHaque DistrictMISManager District MGNREGS ASSAM Goalpara NA NA
652 MrVijayKumarPDistrictProgramOfficer
District DAY-NRLMAndhraPradesh
Krishna NA NA
653 MrGururajaguptaAssistanceExecutiveEngineer
Block PMGSYAndhraPradesh
Anantapur
Nallamada
NA
654 NaveenKumarSenapati DPM-OLM District DAY-NRLM ODISHA Ganjam NA NA
655 VinodKumar ProjectEng District SPMRMHimachalPradesh
Chamba NA NA
656 RajeshKumarAPO+NodalofficerofMGNREGS
District MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
NA NA
657 NabaKrushnaJena BDO Block All6 Odisha GanjamKhalikote
NA
658 DevliChaganRadiya Beneficiary GP WPSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DNH DNHRandha
659 AlekhNayak Beneficiary GP DPS ODISHA BhadrakChandabali
Bhatapada
176
Sector Report: Rural Development
660 BelindaSohkhlet Beneficiary GP WPSMEGHALAYA
EASTKHASIHILLS
SHELLABHOLAGANJ
MAWSMAI
661 KikubhaiBeliyabhaiPatel
Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DNH NA Dadra
662 ANNPURNAGARG JOINTMAGISTRATE District DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
Ballia NA NA
663 SHALIGRAMJOSHIAssistanceExecutiveEngineer
Block PMGSYUttarPradesh
CHITRAKOOT
KARWI
NA
664 KPBINDAssistanceExecutiveEngineer
Block PMGSYUttarPradesh
CHITRAKOOT
MANIKPUR
NA
665 P.C.Kishan SpecialSecretary State All6 Rajasthan NA NA NA
666 MissLajiedLangBasaiawmoit
DistrictMissionManager
District DAY-NRLMMEGHALAYA
EASTKHASIHILLS
NA NA
667 NarinderChoudhary SDO Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh
ChambaBhattiyat
NA
668 Smt.SandalinSutngaDistrictProgramManager
District MGNREGSMEGHALAYA
EASTJAYANTIAHIILS
NA NA
669 Thilagavathy ProjectDirector District MGNREGS TamilNadu Theni NA NA
670 Sivakumar ProjectDirector District DAY-NRLM TamilNadu Theni NA NA
671 M.PUSPA Beneficiary GP NSAP-FamilyBenefit Odisha GanjamChhatrapur
Aryapalli
672 ArunKumar ProjectEconomist State All6 Haryana NA NA NA
673 SUNILKRSINGH BDO Block All6UttarPradesh
CHITRAKOOT
KARWI
NA
674 LACHMANIYA Beneficiary GP WPSUttarPradesh
CHITRAKOOT
KARWI
Agarhunda
675 RUKIDEVI Beneficiary GP WPSUttarPradesh
CHITRAKOOT
KARWI
Bankat
676 SachikantaDas JEE,RD Block PMGSY ODISHA GanjamChhatrapur
NA
677 KhushiRamSood TechnicalAssistant District DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
NA NA
177
Sector Report: Rural Development
678 SujeevKumarJuglaniDistrictProgramOfficer
District MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
NA NA
679 DalbirSinghRana ExecutiveEngineer Block PMGSYHimachalPradesh
Sirmaur Nahan NA
680 DolamaniBiswal Beneficiary GP IGNOAPS ODISHA BargarhPadmapur
Jamartala
681 PardeepSharmaAssistantExecutiveEngineer
Block PMGSYUttarPradesh
BALIAHanumanganj
NA
682 ASWANIKUMARMISHRA
ProjectDirectorDRDA
District MGNREGSUttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
NA NA
683 ShriFederickMDopth,IAS
DistrictMagistrate District All6MEGHALAYA
EASTJAYANTIAHIILS
NA NA
684 MrChinnatathaiahDistrictprogramofficer
District MGNREGSAndhraPradesh
Krishna NA NA
685 PhoidaPaulSyiemiongDistrictProgramManager
District MGNREGSMEGHALAYA
EASTKHASIHILLS
NA NA
686 VIMLA/W/OTEJPAL Beneficiary GP WPSUttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
Hathras
Koka
687 PATWARI/PUNNE Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSUttarPradesh
HathrasSikandrarao
KhijarPur
688 KIRAN/TOTARAM Beneficiary GP WPSUttarPradesh
HathrasHathras
Koka
689 PURANSINGH Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSUttarakhand
Dehradun
Doiwala
Gadool
690 SHRIPRAKASHRAWAT PD-DRDA District PMAY-GUttarakhand
CHAMOLI
NA NA
691 BahLanongFinanceandAdminofficer
State DAY-NRLMMEGHALAYA
NA NA NA
692 KAMESHWARSINGH ADO-DRDA District MGNREGSUttarPradesh
BALIA NA NA
693 MrMukhim BDO Block DAY-NRLMMEGHALAYA
EASTKHASIHILLS
ShellaBholaganj
NA
178
Sector Report: Rural Development
694 KirDkhar Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSMEGHALAYA
EASTJAYANTIAHIILS
Saipung
Pala
695 JAIRAM ADD.DIRECTOR State NSAPUttarPradesh
NA NA NA
696 MrsEGSSyamala CFO STATE MGNREGSAndhraPradesh
NA NA NA
697 SUMITRADEVI Beneficiary GP DPSUttarakhand
USNAGAR
SITARGANJ
GOTHA
698 NARAINIDEVI Beneficiary GP IGNOAPSUttarakhand
USNAGAR
KHATIMA
FULAIYA
699 WinsanPhawa Beneficiary GP DPSMEGHALAYA
EASTJAYANTIAHIILS
Khleriat
Bataw
700 SmitaDeka Financeofficer State MGNREGS ASSAM NA NA NA
701 HarendraGOP Clusterhead Block SPMRMJHARKHAND
Hazaribagh
BarhiPanchmadhaw
702 RituGupta FinancialAdvisor State MGNREGS Rajasthan NA NA NA
703 SurinderSharmaSuperintendEngineerPMGSY
District PMGSYHimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
NA NA
704 RakeshThakurChairman,ZP-Hamirpur
District All6HimachalPradesh
Hamirpur
NA NA
705 MANGALCHANDRAJOSHI
DistrictProgramOfficer
District MGNREGSUttarakhand
UDHAMSINGHNAGAR
NA NA
706 PRAMONDKANDPAL DMMO District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
UDHAMSINGHNAGAR
NA NA
707 HimanshuJoshi ProjectDirector District All6Uttarakhand
UDHAMSINGHNAGAR
NA NA
708 RajneeshSharma BDO Block All6HimachalPradesh
ChambaSalooni
NA
709 PradeepBaranwalAssistantExecutiveEngineer
Block PMGSYUttarPradesh
BALIANagara
NA
179
Sector Report: Rural Development
710 YogenderKumarDeputyDirectorCumprojectofficer
District All6HimachalPradesh
Chamba NA NA
711 ManasDebata AdditionalSecretary State MGNREGS Odisha NA NA NA
712 SudarsanParida Director State PMGSY Odisha NA NA NA
713 SanjayKumarComputeropratorreferbySuperintendDARDA
District MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
Sirmuar NA NA
714 SaravananStateProgramManager(Operations&Procurement)
State DAY-NRLM TamilNadu NA NA NA
715 KrutibasRout projectdirector District All6 Odisha Baragarh NA NA
716 MrSanjayExecutiveEngineerPMGSY
District PMGSYUttarakhand
Dehradun
NA NA
717 MrSanjayExecutiveEngineerPMGSY
Block PMGSYUttarakhand
Dehradun
Doiwala
NA
718 MrBCPantExecutiveEngineerPMGSY
Block PMGSYUttarakhand
Dehradun
Chakrata
NA
719 DeepakChauhanHeadofdepartmentSRLM
State DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
NA NA NA
720 AKHILESHSINGHADDITIONALDIRECTOR-PMAYG
State PMAY-GUttarPradesh
NA NA NA
721 RamaLadiesSocialEducationofficer
District DAY-NRLMHimachalPradesh
Sirmuar NA NA
722 DKNagEnvironmentandSocialdevelopmentofficer,HPPWD
State PMGSYHimachalPradesh
NA NA NA
723 MrSrinivasRao MandalIn-charge Block PMAY-GAndhraPradesh
KrishnaAgiripalle
NA
724 JanmjayShuklaADDITIONALCOMMISSIONER
State All6UttarPradesh
NA NA NA
725 VikramSinghProjectDirector-Ruraldevolepment
District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
Dehradun
NA NA
726 NEERAJAGUPTDeputyCommissioner
State SPMRMUttarPradesh
NA NA NA
727 DrSivaShankarPrasadDeputyCommissioner
State MGNREGSAndhraPradesh
NA NA NA
180
Sector Report: Rural Development
728 JyoyiSnkarRay BDO Block All6 Odisha GanjamGanjam
NA
729 SoumyaRanjanHotaAdditionalprojectdirector
District All6 Odisha Ganjam NA NA
730 RashmiSinghSeniorAuditOfficerFinance)
State MGNREGSJHARKHAND
NA NA NA
731 JEFFREYKHARSYNTIEW
ProgrammeManager State MGNREGSMEGHALAYA
NA NA NA
732 KalyaniGuptaDeputyDirectorSirmaur(DRDA)
District All6HimachalPradesh
Sirmaur NA NA
733 IshaThakur Jointdirector State StateNodalOfficerHimachalPradesh
NA NA NA
734 MOHDASLAMStateConsultantMGNAREGA
State MGNREGSUttarakhand
NA NA NA
735 MOHDASLAMStateConsultantMGNAREGA
State MGNREGSUttarakhand
NA NA NA
736 DeepaRajkamal
CEO(TNVRC-TamilNaduStateonGovernmentalOrganizationsandVolunteersResourceCentre)
State DAY-NRLM TamilNadu NA NA NA
737 RAMUDRAJYADAVDeputycommissioner-SE
District DAYNRLMUttarPradesh
CHITRKOOT
NA NA
738 RANDHEERSINGH youngprofessional Block SPMRMUttarPradesh
CHITRAKOOT
KARWI
NA
739 AMLANAHMAD youngprofessional Block SPMRMUttarakhand
USNAGAR
KHATIMA
NA
740 PRABHAKERBEBNI DeputyDirector State SPMRMUttarakhand
NA NA NA
741 AwadeshSinghDistrictMissionManager
District DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
Hatrash
NA
742 SmtMatsiewdorWarNongbri
DistrictMagistrate District All6MEGHALAYA
EASTKHASIHILLS
NA NA
743 MusarafHussainChoudhury
DistProjectManager District DAY-NRLM ASSAM Goalpara NA NA
181
Sector Report: Rural Development
744 MadanMohanBehera UnderSecretary State NSAP Odisha NA NA NA
745 Smt.SuprabhaRoy,ACS
AssistantDeputyCommissioner
District All6 ASSAM Goalpara NA NA
746 MrPranaySingh CDO District All6UttarPradesh
Saharanpur
NA NA
747 DevNandanDubey PD-RD District All6UttarPradesh
Ballia NA NA
748 PRAVEENKUMARLAKSHKAR
DM District All6UttarPradesh
MahamayaNagar
NA NA
749 DebiPrsadNayak CEO,MIS,MLE State DAY-NRLM ODISHA NA NA NA
750 SthitaprajnaSwainProjectManager,Communication
State DAY-NRLM ODISHA NA NA NA
751 AnilSharmaJD-StateRuralDevelopmentDepartment
State All6HimachalPradesh
NA NA NA
752
SEKuttalingamAbdulRazikRajeshRaghuramRadha
SuperintendentEngineerAdditionalDirectorExecutiveEngineerConsultantTNSRLMSeniorConsultant
State All6 TamilNadu NA NA NA
753 NanumalPaharia DM District All6 RajasthanSwaimadhopur
NA NA
754 ArvindSaxenaSuperintendentEngineer
State MGNREGS Rajasthan Jaipur Jaipur Jaipur
755 BalwantSinghIDINSAPbeneficiaries
GP NSAP-OldAgeUttarakhand
USNAGAR
SITARGANJ
GOTHA
756 KiranValand MGNREGS-Incharge District MGNREGSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DADRA&NAGARHAVELI
NA NA
757 KiranValand MGNREGS-Incharge District MGNREGSDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DADRA&NAGARHAVELI
NA NA
758 SushilKumarSwain DeputyCEO,Finance State MGNREGS ODISHA NA NA NA
759 Ms.SharmishthaDesai NRLM-Incharge District DAY-NRLMDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DADRA&NAGARHAVELI
NA NA
182
Sector Report: Rural Development
760
NileshPatel,KiranValand,Ms.SharmishthaDesai,Ms.VaishaliSolanki
DistrictIncharges District All6DADRA&NAGARHAVELI
DADRA&NAGARHAVELI
NA NA
761 MuradAliTrainingProgrameofficer
State DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
NA NA NA
762 RKsingh ExecutiveEngineer District PMGSYUttarakhand
Paurigarhwal
NA NA
763 Ms.SarmishthaDesai KMUIncharge State NSAPDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
NA NA NA
764 Ms.SarmishthaDesai FMUIncharge State DAY-NRLMDADRA&NAGARHAVELI
NA NA NA
765 KCArya Executiveengineer Block PMGSYUttarakhand
AlmoraAlmora
NA
766 Mr.HMChavdaCEO,ProjectDirector,DistrictPanchayat
District All6DADRA&NAGARHAVELI
NA NA NA
767 Dr.RousyK.Baruah
StateProjectManager-SocialMobilisation,InstitutionBuildingandCapacityBuilding,ASRLMS
State DAY-NRLM ASSAM NA NA NA
768 YOGESHKUMARDeputyCommissioner
State MGNREGSUttarPradesh
NA NA NA
769 PremKumarStateprojectmanagementofficer-finanace
State DAY-NRLMUttarPradesh
NA NA NA
770 Tarandeep TrainingCoordinator State MGNREGS Haryana NA NA NA
771 Mr.ParveenFinanceManager-State
State MGNREGS Haryana NA NA NA
772 MrUpeshChDas DM District All6 ASSAM Nagaon NA NA
773 RitaGogoi CEO,ZilaParishad District All6 ASSAM Tinsukia NA NA
774 NathumalDidel DM District All6 RajasthanBharatpur
NA NA
183
Sector Report: Rural Development
775 SriJonashBasumatary LiaisonOfficer,DRDA District All6 ASSAM Udalguri NA NA
776 NeelamsinghChauhan Youngprofessional Block SPMRMUttarPradesh
Chitrakoot
MauMustaqil
NA
777 HargobindBhattDC-StateRuralDevelopmentDepartment
State All6Uttarakhand
NA NA NA
778 SanjeevKumar Financeofficer State MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
NA NA NA
779 AshishSinghaRuralDevelopmentSpecialist
State SPMRM Odisha NA NA NA
780 SunilKumar DMM District DAY-NRLMUttarakhand
Paurigarhwal
NA NA
781 KishanLalExecutiveEngineerPMGSY
District PMGSYHimachalPradesh
Sirmaur NA NA
782 MrPlaniProjectDirectorDRDA
District All6 TamilNaduThanjavur
NA NA
783 DileepChouhanChairmanZilaParishad
District All6HimachalPradesh
Sirmaur NA NA
784 DSPathaniaChairmanZilaParishad
District All6HimachalPradesh
Chamba NA NA
785 SmtiD.Pegu,ACSJointDirectorRURALDEVELOPMENTDEPERTMENT
State MGNREGS ASSAM NA NA NA
786 MadhusudanDash PD-DRDA District All6 ODISHA Bhadrak NA NA
787 HDPandey CDO District All6Uttarakhand
Chamoli NA NA
788 AtulSaxena ITcoordinator State PMGSYUttarakhand
NA NA NA
789 HemenDas,IAS
CommissionerofPanchayatandRuralDevelopment,Guwahati
State All6 Assam NA NA NA
790 SudhanshuMohanSamal
DM District All6 ODISHA Deograh NA NA
791 KulveerSingh CEO District All6 Haryana Gurgaon NA NA
184
Sector Report: Rural Development
792 SiddharthSankarSwainProjectDirectorDRDA
District All6 ODISHA Ganjam NA NA
793 VikramSingh PD-DRDA District All6Uttarakhand
Dehradun
NA NA
794 PranatiStateRuralHousingDept.
State PMAY-G ODISHA NA NA NA
795 MrLalitJainDirector-RuralDevelopmentDept
State MGNREGSHimachalPradesh
NA NA NA
796 PankajRana StateMISofficer State MGNREGS Jharkhand NA NA NA
797
AshishSingha,SrimantKumarSamal,MadanMohanBehera,SudarsanParida,DebiPrasadNayak
RDSpecialist/StateProgOfficer/UnderSecretary/Director/CEO,MIS-MLS
State All6 Odisha NA NA NA
798 RuralSkillsDivisionTeam
MoRD National DAY-NRLM National NA NA NA
799 ZinatNiaziVicePresident,DevelopmentAlternatives(DA)
National PMAY-G National
800 SmtAlkaUpadhyayaAdditionalSecretary,MoRD
National Sector National
801 Sh.GayaPrasadDirector-General,PMAY-G
National PMAY-G National
802 MsRoopAvtarKaur Director,SPMRM National SPMRM National
803 Dr.BiswajeetBanerjee
JointSecretary,Policy,Planning&Management(PPM),MoRD
National SPMRM&Sector National
804 Mr.RaminderSinghRekhi
ResourcePerson,NRLM
National DAY-NRLM National
805 Prof.K.Raju ExProfessor,IRMA National Sector+NRLM National
806 Mr.LibyJohnsonExecutiveDirector,GramVikas,Odisha
National Sector+NRLM National
807 Ms.LeenaJohriJointSecretary,RuralLivelihoods
National Sector National
808 Dr.N.SrinivasRao EconomicAdvisor National Sector National
809 Mr.NareshSaxena ExBureaucrat National Sector National
185
Sector Report: Rural Development
810 Mr.VijayMahajan Founder,BASIX National DAY-NRLM National
811 Sh.RohitKumarJointSecretary,MGNREGS
National MGNREGS National
812 Mr.VedAryaFounderSrijan,BuddhaFellowProgramme
National Sector National
813 MsMamtaKohliDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DRID)
National Sector National
814 AnishTransformingRuralIndiaFoundation(TRIF)
National Sector National
815 Mr.DarshanParikh
OperationsDirector,CEPTResearch&DevelopmentFoundation
National SPMRM National
816 Mr.VijayMahajan Founder,BASIX National DAY-NRLM National
817 Dr.SridharanDirector–SchoolofPlanningandArchitecture,Bhopal
National SPMRM National
818 Mr.NageshSingh Ex-Officer,PMGSY National PMGSY National
819 Prof.JyothisSatyapalanHead,CentreforWageEmployment,NIRD&PR
National MGNREGS National
820 Mrs.NitaKejriwal,JointSecretary-DAY-NRLM
National DAY-NRLM National
821 Dr.AshokKumarSarkar
DivisionalChairperson,Engineering
National PMGSY National
822 Mr.I.K.Pateriya
Director(Projects),NationalRuralInfrastructureDevelopmentAgency(NRIDA),NewDelhi
National PMGSY National
186
Sector Report: Rural Development
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