Herbs and Spices
Herbs and spices
Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin
Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or other plant parts of tropical origin
While herbs and spices are mainly associated with cooking, they have been used in medicine, as natural dyes, and in the perfume and cosmetic industries
Essential Oils
Volatile substances that contribute to the essence or aroma of certain plants
Most commonly found in leaves, flowers, and fruits where they occur in specialized cells or glands
Chemically, essential oils are classified as terpenes - type of hydrocarbon
In flowers they attract pollinators
Early history of spices
Primitive people were attracted to aromas of these plants and found uses for them
Ancient Egyptians used herbs and spices extensively in medicine, cooking, embalming, and as perfumes and incense.
Ebers Papyrus dated about 3500 years ago is a scroll that lists the medical uses of many plants
Ebers Papyrus
Anise, caraway, mustard, saffron and many others
Cinnamon and cassia also mentioned in Egyptian records
These two spices, native to Southeast Asia and China, are evidence that an active spice trade was already in existence
Ancient Greek trade
During ancient Greek civilization, the spice trade was flourishing between the Mediterranean region and the Far East
Spices such as the cinnamon and cassia as well as black pepper and ginger from India
Arab merchants brought the spices by caravan from India, China, and Southeast Asia (Spice Islands in East Indies)
The Roman spice trade
Spices were even more prominent in the Roman Empire
After first century, Rome began trading directly with India by ship, breaking the centuries-old Arab monopoly
When Rome fell in 476 A.D. the spice trade virtually disappeared
Centuries elapsed before the spice trade actively resumed
Dark Ages
Exotic spices from the East were rare Europeans had to rely on native
temperate herbs and many valued for medicinal uses
Merchant travelers kept a limited supply of spices from the Arab trading centers
Crusades, beginning in 1095, increased the spices from the Near East
Marco Polo
Venice and Genoa rose in 12th and 13th century Venetian who influenced spice trade - Marco Polo Traveled to the court of Kubla Khan in China in
1271 and spent 25 years in the Orient - saw its riches and wrote about it on his return
Increased European desire for spices Lured more and more travelers eastward New overland routes were established and soon
explorers were searching for sea routes to the East
Henry the Navigator
Prince Henry of Portugal wanted to break the Venetian-Muslim trade monopoly
He established a school of navigation in 1418 to find a sea route to the Orient
His efforts laid the ground work for the Age of Exploration
Age of Exploration
In 1486 Bartholomew Dias discovered the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa, proving a sea route to India was possible
Vasco da Gama made the possibility a reality when he reached the west coast of India in 1497
Christopher Columbus
Sailed west in search of spices of the East He was convinced that he had discovered the
route to China and Japan. Christopher Columbus never found black
pepper and cinnamon, but he firmly establish Spain's claim to the New World
He did introduce many plants including yams, sweet potato, cassava, kidney beans, maize, capsicum peppers, and tobacco
Ferdinand Magellan
Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan, also sailing for Spain, led the expedition that circumnavigated the globe (1519-1522) and discovered a western route to the Spice Islands
Imperialism - Portuguese control
During the 16th century, Portugal monopolized spice trade through its outposts in India, China, Japan and the Spice Islands
The Portuguese were ruthless in their control, often enslaving native populations to labor in the plantations.
Price of spices soared throughout Europe, and the revenues brought tremendous wealth and power to Portugal
Dutch control
Dutch and English broke the Portuguese control early in the 17th century
By 1621 the Dutch forced the Portuguese from the Spice Islands
Dominant force in the East Indies, Ceylon, and the Persian Gulf spice markets
Even harsher than the Portuguese To inflate prices of nutmegs and cloves,
uprooted 75% of trees on the Spice Islands.
English control
In the later half of the 18th century the Dutch monopoly began to break down
British and French began spice plantations in their own colonies
By the end of the 18th century, 200 years of Dutch control ended
Early in 19th century the English East India Company had control over most of the spice-rich Orient
No more spice monopolies
In the 19th century spice monopolies had ended
Decentralization of the spice trade had begun and a spice monopoly would never occur again
New World Discoveries
The New World spices, introduced first to Spain, included allspice, vanilla, and several varieties of capsicum peppers such as chili peppers and paprika.
Old World Spices
* Cassia ------------------------------ bark* Cinnamon ------------------- inner bark* Cloves ---------------------- flower bud* Ginger -------------------------- rhizome* Nutmeg and mace --- seed and aril* Black Pepper ----------------------- fruit* Saffron --------------------------- stigma* Turmeric ----------------------- rhizome
Cinnamon
From bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum tree One of the oldest and most valuable spices Native to India and Sri Lanka (Ceylon) Use documented in ancient Egyptian,
Biblical, Greek, Roman, and Chinese accounts
One of the main spices sought after in the explorations of the 15th and 16th centuries
Botany of cinnamon
Two-year old stems and twigs cut and the bark removed
Outer layer of the bark is scraped away and inner bark curls into quills
Pieces and trimmings ground
Cassia
The similar spice also called cinnamon comes from several related species, but primarily Cinnamomum cassia native to Southeast Asia
Entire bark is used to make the quills In US much of cinnamon may actually
be cassia
Black and white pepper
From dried berries of Piper nigrum Vine native to India and East Indies Biting flavor of pepper due to volatile oils Strongest when first ground but the
spice loses flavor after grinding
Black pepper
Berries picked green, dried for a few days during which they turn black and shrivel
Sold whole as peppercorns or ground pepper
White pepper
Berries ripen on the vine, outer hull is removed leaving a grayish-white kernel that is ground
White pepper is slightly milder
Cloves
Native to the Moluccas (the Spice Islands) Unopened flower buds of Eugenia
caryophyllata, an evergreen tree Buds are dried and marketed as whole
cloves or ground Clove oil has been used in medicines,
disinfectants, mouthwashes, tooth pastes, soaps, and perfumes
Cloves
Nutmeg and mace
Two spices from fruit of a single plant Nutmeg tree - Myristica fragrans native to
the Spice Islands in the East Indies Apricot-like fruit with a fleshy mesocarp Inside mesocarp is an aril-covered
endocarp Aril is a thin red net-like covering around
the endocarp
Nutmeg and mace - the spices
Aril dried and ground as spice mace Stony endocarp and seed dried until the
seed rattles Seed is nutmeg - sold whole or ground Both spices have similar properties with a
strong, spicy but slightly bitter, aromatic flavor and are used in baking sweets as well as meat and vegetable dishes
Hallucinogenic properties
Both nutmeg and mace - hallucinogens. Large quantities of either spice must be
consumed. Essential oils contain hallucinogens, but
because of the toxicity of these compounds, the hallucinations are accompanied by many unpleasant side effects including nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and headaches.
Nutmeg and Mace in history
Not known to ancient western civilizations Reached Europe by the 12th century and
were two valued spices of the Middle Ages Yankee traders in the 19th century
developed a scam by producing fake wooden nutmegs which they sold as the real thing - Connecticut- "Nutmeg State"
Ginger
From the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, a small herbaceous perennial native to tropical Asia but cultivated throughout the tropics
Aroma and taste - spicy, hot, pungent, Best ginger today said to be from Jamaica Introduced into the New World by the
Spanish, so successfully that by 1547 Jamaica was exporting ginger
Ginger Rhizome
Turmeric
Also native to tropical Asia, Curcuma longa Another spice obtained from a dried
rhizome - same family as ginger Turmeric is also used as a brilliant yellow
dye to color both food and fabric Ingredient in prepared yellow mustard One of main spice in curry powder, and
often a substitute for saffron
Saffron - the world's most expensive spice
From stigmas of crocus, Crocus sativus Native to eastern Mediterranean countries
and Asia Minor Not an exotic spices from the Far East, but it
was highly desired by the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Assyria, Phoenicia, Persia, Greece, and Rome as spice and dye
Today - Spain is leading producer
Crocus flowers
Saffron harvesting
The blooming period is short, about two weeks - flowers must be picked in full bloom often just a hew hours
Three-parted stigmas carefully removed Speed important before the petals wilt Traditionally done by hand Stigmas dried by slow roasting and sold
as either saffron threads or powdered
Harvesting
Most costly spice
Stigmas from 75,000 to 100,000 flowers for one pound of the spice.
Retail price of saffron $7 to $8 per gram (over $200 per ounce)
Fakes known to include turmeric, marigold or safflower petals, or other substances.
Flavor: pungent, slightly bitter, and musky Widely used in French, Spanish, Middle
Eastern, and Indian cooking
New World Spices
Allspice -------------------------- fruit Capsicum peppers ----------- fruit Vanilla --------------------------- fruit
Capsicum peppers
Discovered by Columbus and introduced to Spain
Capsicum fruits as pungent as the Oriental black pepper
He believed that his voyage west in search of spices had been justified
Early history of Capsicum peppers
Cultivated for thousands of years in tropical America
Exact time of domestication not known Fragments of a 9000 year old chili
pepper were discovered in a Mexican cave
After their introduction to Spain, spread throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa
Botany
Fruits of genus Capsicum, several cultivated species and hundreds of varieties
Member of Solanaceae (tomato family) Fruits are berries - immature fruits green and
mature fruits vary from yellow to purple to red, from long narrow to spherical
» Capsicum annuum most widely cultivated – sweet bell peppers ---> hot peppers
» Capsicum frutescens mainly in the tropics - more fiery taste such as tabasco pepper
Capsaicin
Biting taste due to the amount of capsaicin Found in the seeds and placental area Capsaicin content is negligible in the sweet bell
peppers and high concentrations in hot chili or jalapeno peppers
Capsaicin can be tasted in concentrations as low as one part per million
Utilized as a pepper spray Used in creams for localized pain relief
Peppers and vitamin C
Excellent sources of vitamin C One pepper is more than enough to
satisfy the daily requirement Higher in peppers than in citrus fruits Vitamin C was first chemically isolated
from paprika in 1932 by Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, who won a Nobel Prize in 1937
Capsicum peppers as a spice
Sold whole, either fresh or dried Powders are prepared by grinding the
dried fruits Chili powder - a blend of spices in
addition to the ground chili peppers Used internationally
Vanilla
Only spice obtained from an orchid Vanilla planifolia, a perennial vine native
to the humid tropical rain forests of Central America and Mexico
Produces elongate pods which are processed into the vanilla beans
Processing of vanilla
Pods picked green Cure for several
months to develop characteristic vanilla flavor
Cured beans are percolated with a solution of alcohol to produce vanilla extract
Early history
An important commodity among the Aztecs before conquest
Used as flavoring, perfume, medicine, and even as a means of tribute
Used in the preparation of chocolatl Brought back to Spain, and soon its use spread
throughout Europe Today Madagascar leads the world in
cultivation of vanilla beans
Allspice
Dried berries of Pimenta dioica an evergreen tree
Long used by the Mayan civilization Discovered by Europeans in the 1570's Named for its multi-faceted flavor - similar to a
combination of cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves Never successfully cultivated outside the
Western Hemisphere
Herbs
Herbs are usually the aromatic leaves or sometimes seeds of temperate plants
Other organs may also be herbs Throughout the centuries, thousands of
plants have been used as herbs for both cooking and medicinal properties
Four well known families - mint, parsley, mustard, and lily
Mint family - Lamiaceae
Herbaceous plants and small shrubs » square stems» aromatic simple leaves with numerous oil
glands Dried leaves or distilled oils used Mediterranean region an important
center of origin for family
Mint family - Lamiaceae
spearmint peppermint marjoram oregano rosemary
sage sweet basil thyme savory
Basil Rosemary
Parsley Family - the Apiaceae
Annual, biennial, or perennial Recognized by their umbels (flat-topped
inflorescences) and compound leaves Characteristic fruit - schizocarp
» dry indehiscent fruit which splits into two one-seeded identical halves
» commercially referred to as seeds Useful parts are fruits (seeds) or dried leaves
or both
Parsley family - the Apiaceae
parsley caraway dill fennel celery
anise coriander and
cilantro cumin chervil
Dill
Mustard family - the Brassicaceae
Many vegetables: cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, brussel sprouts, turnips, and radishes
Two flavorful herbs - mustard and horseradish
Family especially abundant in the Mediterranean area
Family easily recognized by flowers with four petals arranged in a cross
Mustard
From Brassica nigra and B. alba seeds B. alba, white mustard, milder than B. nigra,
black mustard Marketed as whole and ground seeds Taste result of reactions between:
» sinigrin and myrosin in black mustard» sinalbin and myrosin in white mustard» these react to produce volatile oils - unless
acidified they quickly deteriorate
Horseradish
Use as a condiment since the Middle Ages in Denmark and Germany
Prepared from taproots Taste due to the interaction of sinigrin
and myrosin which produce volatile oil When the roots are scraped or grated the
components interact Volatile oil diffuses easily
Lily Family - the Liliaceae
Herbaceous perennials that arise from rhizomes, bulbs, or corms
A single genus, Allium from central Asia, is the source of many familiar herbs: » onions - A. cepa
» garlic - A. sativum
» leeks - A. porrum
» shallots - A. ascalonicum
» chives - A. schoenoprasum
Onions and garlic
Onions - biennial producing a single large bulb
Garlic - perennial with a composite bulb » each clove called a bulblet
Pungent flavor due to volatile sulfur compounds that are released when the tissues are cut » garlic -- allicin» onion -- lacrimatory factor
Medical use
Ebers Papyrus listed 22 uses of garlic for various ailments
In both India and China, onions and garlic used for numerous conditions
Modern research has shown these folk remedies have a sound scientific basis» sulfur compounds in garlic inhibit the growth of
disease causing bacteria & fungi» inhibit the formation of blood clots
Summary
Essential oils are volatile substances that contribute to the essence, the aroma or flavor, of herbs and spices
Desire for spices had a significant impact on world exploration, colonization, and trade
In temperate regions the use of herbs goes back to prehistoric time
Four families provide the majority of herbs in use today