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Unit 14: Groups and Group Dynamics
Structure:
14.1 Introduction
Objectives14.2 Meaning and Characteristics of Group
SAQs
14.3 The Types of Groups
14.3.1Formal Work Groups
14.3.2Informal Work Groups
SAQs
14.4 Group Characteristics
SAQs14.5 Group Decision-making
14.6.1 Advantages of Group Decision-making
SAQs
14.6 Group Dynamics
14.7.1Principles of Group Dynamics
14.7 Summary
14.8. TQs
14.9 Answers to SAQs and TQs
14.1 Introduction
The concept of a group is as old as civilisation itself. The primitive man recognised the
importance of group as a basic unit for his survival. The primates had their groups for hunting
and protecting their species from wild beasts. With the advancement of civilisation, various
racial groups developed in different parts of the hemisphere and nurtured different but distinct
cultures. If we glance at the history of various countries, it would be clear that, despite heavy
odds, the culture of different countries throve in different racial groups. The characteristics and
functions of group are surely worthy of study. This unit focuses on group dynamics and
principles of group dynamics.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
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Understanding Groups as they exit in organizations
Identify group characteristics.
Explain group dynamics and principles of group dynamics.
14.2 Meaning and Characteristics of Group
A group refers to two or more persons who interact for a common explicit purpose. A mere
collection of individuals assembled in a place - on the street, at a bus stand, or in railway
station waiting room - does not constitute a group because although people are physically
gathered together, they do not jointly pursue a common objective or share a common
feeling. Kimball Young defines a group as "two or more persons in a state of social
interaction." T.M. Newcomb feels that 'a group consists of two or more persons who share
norms about certain things with one another and whose social roles are closely interlocking.' In
the words of W.J.H. Sprott, a group is 'plurality of persons who interact with anyone else.'
Sherif and Sherif define group as a social unit which consists of a number of individuals
who stand in definite status and role relationships to one another and which possesses a set
of values or norms of its own regulating the behaviour of individual members, at least in
matters of consequence to the group.
Characteristics of a Group: The essential characteristics of a small group are: 1) two or more
people, 2) who interact with one another, 3) share some common ideology, and
4) see themselves as a group.
Characteristic 2) means that the members at least occasionally meet, talk, and do things
together. They do not all have to meet at the same time, but in order to be a group member, a
person must have occasional contact with one or more of the others.
Characteristic 3) means that the group members have something in common. They might
share a goal, such as protecting their jobs: or a concern, like security or the same prejudices
or values or they might face a common threat. Whatever its basis, the group has something
in common which gives it and its members some identity.
Characteristic 4) results from 2) and 3). People who interact with one another and who share
some common ideology are usually attracted to one another. The reinforcement they receive
from interacting with one another leads them to identify with one another and eventually to
perceive themselves as something special, as a unique group.
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The groups can provide, with or without the conscious knowledge of their members, a
means of fulfilling many of the needs of the individuals in them, such as: 1) affinitive needs
provided by the group through friendship between individuals within it 2) egoistic needs
which may be fulfilled through the development of self-esteem and status as the result of
membership in the group-through opportunity for individual contributions to group
functioning 3) some functional needs such as aid in daily activities, help in adjustment to
work routine, or even the avoidance of boredom can be met by the group 4) cognitive needs
may be satisfied by motivation.
Organizational members bring with them a variety of needs and because group formation
can fulfil many of these needs, the groups serve the following purpose. They provide:
1. An outlet for affiliation needs i.e. needs for friendship, support and love.
2. A means of developing, enhancing or confirming a sense of identity and maintaining
self-esteem. Through group membership, a person can gain status, and thereby enhance
his sense of self-esteem.
3. A means of establishing and testing reality through developing consensus among group
members, uncertain parts of social environment can be made "real" and parts of social
environment can be made "real" and "stable." Each person can validate his own
perceptions and feelings best by checking them with others.
4. A means of increasing security and sense of power of coping with a common and
powerful enemy or threat.
5. A means of getting same job done that members need to have done: Such as g athering
information or helping out when some are sick or tired or avoiding boredom and
providing stimulation to one another or bringing new members of the organisation
quickly into the informal structure.
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Self Assessment Questions I
14.3 The Types of Groups
Groups may be classified in many different ways: the basis for differentiation may be purpose
or goal extent of structuring legal organisation or setting. Classification of group is a
starting point for a better knowledge of nature and function of a group of interacting
individuals.
There are two distinct types of work groups, formal and informal. It is important, however, to
recognize that both types have certain fundamental characteristics in common. All groups:
1. have leaders
2. have followers
3. strive toward some goal or goals
4. have ideas about what it takes to achieve the goals
5. communicate expectations to members
6. Satisfy some form of member needs.
14.3.1 Formal Work Groups
In the previous chapters, the organizing function of management was identified as the
process that arranges people in an acceptable pattern so that they can perform required
activities. Organizing unites workers by means of interrelated tasks. Its goal is the creation of
behavioural relationship among persons that will best enable them to wor k together
productively and wit h maximum per sonal satisfaction.
In other words, the end goal of the manager's organizing responsibility is to create formal
work groups that are necessary to achieve the organisations goals. Formal work groups are
sub-divisions of organizations. The following are the characteristics of formal work groups:
1) they are sanctioned by some authority 2) there is a prescribed division of labour 3)
1. _____________feels that 'a group consists of two or more persons who share norms
about certain things with one another and whose social roles are closely interlocking2. People who interact with one another and who share some common ideology are
usually ___________________________________.3. Through group membership, a person can gain status, and thereby enhance his sense
of_____________________.
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individuals are assigned specific responsibilities, 4) there are stable and consistent personal
interactions, and 5) provisions are made for rewarding the group membership.
The formal work group has a designated leader who supervises group members, mediates
rewards and punishments, and is responsible for group performance to a higher authority in
the organization. Group members may or may not have a say in the objectives, rules of
behaviour, task assignments, or performance standards of the group. Examples of formal
work groups are: the professors in an academic department of a college, a surgical team in a
hospital, and the two partners in a police patrol car.
14.3.2 Informal Work Groups
Informal work groups are a component of informal organizations. Informal groups are loosely
organized groups such as bowling teams and social clubs that arise apart from the formal
organization to which members of the informal group may belong. They exist because the
formal groups established within the organization frequently fail to satisfy human needs to
a sufficient degree, and also because the organizational structure rarely anticipates everything
that must be done if the organization is to meet all of its objectives. From the perspective of
the worker, informal work groups provide a source of satisfaction for security needs, social
needs, and esteem needs.
Informal Work Groups and Security Needs: Informal groups help to support their members
and to protect them from outside pressure and authority. The group insulates the individualfrom a hostile work environment. When people first enter an organization, they may feel
considerable anxiety. Their surroundings are unfamiliar, the job is new, and the future
is uncertain. New employees often seek out an existing group to join for help in the
orientation process.
Informal Work Groups and Social Needs: Many jobs restrict communication and interaction
among workers. This makes it difficult for people to form work friendships and to satisfy
their need for companionship. People want to feel they belong, and it is easy to feel such
identification with a small social group in which relationships are based on shared interests and
values. In most offices, social groups are an inevitable occurrence. Social group members
enjoy each other's company as the work is performed. They may also eat lunch as a group, take
breaks at the same time, or share a social life outside the organization.
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Informal Work Groups and Esteem Needs: Beyond providing a sense of belonging, the informal
group can also be a source of status or prestige for its membership. This is especially true if the
group is well-known in the larger organization, if outsiders are anxious to join the group, and if
acceptance into the group is difficult to achieve. To the extent that it provides an opportunity for
assumption of leadership, the informal group is a source of egoistic need satisfaction. Finally,
the need to achieve can be partially satisfied by the informal group.
Advantages: Informal work groups increase the employee's sense of security and belonging and
often enable the work to be done more effectively. Another advantage, not previously
mentioned, is that the informal group can assist the manager in providing discipline. For
instance, group members who notice that an individual is taking advantage of a situation in a
way that could cause them all to lose a prized benefit may step in to correct the problem before
the manager is even aware that it exists. In one office, the boss has for years successfully
maintained a "no time clock" policy, in which employees are placed on their own recognizance
to work an eight-hour day. If someone comes in half an hour late, takes a long lunch, or leaves
early one day, no one says anything. Everyone expects that the person will make up the time as
he or she sees fit. This form of compromise works in this situation because the employees are
highly motivated and the office is not too large. But another reason it works is because there is a
great deal of peer pressure (informal group norms) exerted on any individual who appears to be
taking advantage of the policy.
Disadvantages: The disadvantages of informal work groups can interfere with organizationaleffectiveness to the same degree that the advantages can contribute to it. These disadvantages
arise whenever the goals of the group run counter to those of the established organization. This
problem is especially evident whenever an attempt is made to implement planned change. The
protection and social relationships provided by informal groups are often threatened by new
plans that disrupt order and stability, create new procedures and standards of production, and
interrupt the pattern of personal interactions on the job. The existence of informal groups can
block worker co-operation with planned change by encouraging outright resistance, foot-
dragging, or "malicious compliance."
In a nutshell, the informal group emerges whenever the formal group does not sufficiently
satisfy on-the-job needs. It can be beneficial or detrimental depending on the degree to which
workers agree with the policies of management. Managers should always be alert to the
formation of informal groups because they are usually an indication that employee needs are
not being met through the established structure. Although the manager should not try to
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manipulate informal groups, he or she should try to ascertain how they might have on the
organization. The best approach is to be reasonable with employees and to consider their
needs. Informal groups will emerge even where human relations are sound, but their
presence will not be as disruptive as when they exist primarily in response to management
insensitivity. One certain way to eliminate the negative consequences of informal groups is
to make the formal group more effective in meeting both the needs of workers and the goals of
the organization.
Self Assessment Questions II
14.4 Group Characteristics
Several characteristics, concerning the composition and behaviour of the informal
organization need to be noted. The informal organization has its goals, objectives, and
authority patterns and these factors may or may not coincide with those of the formal
structure. The design and actions of the informal organization have the capacity to be either
supportive or detrimental to the goals of the formal organization. Since the informal
organization exists to provide rewards, protection and preservation of other values for its
members, formal and informal organization perceive benefits from working in a unified way
with formal structure. The major elements of 'group behaviour' are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
1. Membership in the Group: Membership in the group is a selective process in which
individuals are granted membership primarily on the basis of commonality of interests
and willingness to be co-operative and to conform to the group norms. Individuals may
have overlapping memberships in a number of informal groups, depending upon the
frequency of contacts, the mutual interests shared and other factors.
2. Emergent Leadership: The informal leader specifically serves two facilitating functions:
first, he initiates action and provides direction. If there are differences of opinions on a
1. The end goal of the manage r's organizi ng responsibility is to create formal work
groups that are necessary to achieve the _______________________
2. ________________ exist because the formal groups established within the
organization frequently fail to satisfy human needs to a sufficient degree, and also
because the organizational structure rarely anticipates everything that must be done if theorganization is to meet all of its objectives.
3. Informal work groups increase the employee's _____________________________________and often enable the work to be done more effectively.
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group-related matter, the leader attempts to compromise differences of opinion and moves
the group toward accomplishing its goals. Second, he communicates the groups' beliefs
about policies, the job, the organization the supervision, and other related matters to
non-members (such as members of other groups, supervisory personnel and the union).
3. Formal Hierarchy: All groups have a certain degree of formal organization. For instance,
consultation and discussions on important issues are held with the "lieutenants". It is
through these sub-leaders that messages are communicated to the members of the
group. The individuals performing leadership roles possess prestige because of their role.
They are ranked by group members as being at a particular level in the group status
hierarchy.
4. Group Has Some Activity or Task to Perform: A group does something which may be
related to its job or unconnected with it. For example, it may go on a picnic or movie or
simply engage in a gossip session. It undertakes these tasks to serve some ends in
purpo se. It ma y provide them wit h information and further social ties, or satisfy their
social and affiliation needs or bring them protection against some type of threatening,
oppressive forces, etc.
5. Interaction: All people interact with one another. When such interaction takes place, there
is a social transaction, in which one person responds to another. According to Berne,
"people interact with each other in terms of three psychological positions or behavioural
patterns known as ego status. These ego statuses are parent, adult and child, and a normalperson operates with some or all the three. Persons interacting with a parent ego are
protective, dogmatic, evaluative and righteous. They prefer laws, rules and standards. The
adult ego state is based upon reason and seeking and processing information, and on
factual discussion. It views people as equal, worthy and reasonable human beings.
The child ego state reflects the conditions and experiences of early childhood. It is
dependent, rebellious, selfish and sometimes creative. It tends to seek approval, and
grasps for immediate satisfactions.
6. Group Norms Each informal group characteristically establishes group behaviour
standards or norms, beliefs, traditions and attitudes to which it expects its members to
conform. According to Luthens, "Norms are the ought tos of behaviour. They are
prescriptions for acceptable behaviour determined by a group, institution, or society." In
the opinion of Argyle, "Group norms are rules or guidelines of accepted behaviour which
are established by a group and used to monitor the behaviour of its members." In a very
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structured, formalised group, these norms may become institutionalised into laws or
operation laws. In other words, norm is an agreement among group membership as to
how members in the group should behave. The more an individual complies with
norms, the more one is accepting the group standards of behaviour. These standards are
designed to achieve the goals of the group and to preserve and protect its value.
i) Group Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is the degree of attraction that the group has for each
of its members. It is exemplified by such attitudes as loyalty to the group, a feeling
of responsibility for group efforts, defending against outside attractions, friendliness, and
congeniality. Cohesive work groups are powerful instruments that can be used for or
against the formal organization.
ii) Member Satisfaction: The end result of group membership is satisfaction of members. In
a survey of 37 studies, Heslin and Dumply have shown specific relationship between work
group member satisfaction and i) perceived freedom to participate, ii) perceived goal
attainment and iii) status consensus.
i) Perceived Freedom to Participate: A members' perception of freedom to
participate influences need satisfaction. Individuals who perceived them selves as
active participators reported to be more satisfied while those who perceive their
freedom to participate to be insignificant typically were least satisfied members in a
work group.
ii) Perceived Goal Attainment: A group members perception at progress towards the
achievement of desired goals is an important factor which is related to member
satisfaction. Groups which progressed towards goals attainment showed higher
levels of member satisfaction while members of groups not adequately progressing
towards the attainment of group goals showed a lower satisfaction level.
iii) Status Consensus: It is an agreement about the relative status of all group members.
When the degree of status consensus within the group is low, member satisfaction
tends to be low.
The two authors concluded that status consensus is more readily achieved in groups where: i)the group task specialist is perceived to be competent by the membership ii) a leader
emerges who plays a role that is considered an important group task, and iii) a leadership role
emerges and is filled by an individual who concentrates on co-ordinating and maintaining the
activities of the group.
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Self Assessment Questions III
14.5 Group Decision-making
Most big decisions in organizations are made by groups rather than individuals. Even if a
group of people does not formally sit together to thrash out a decision, several people usually
provide input to any major decision. In general, decision- making by groups has proved
superior to individual decision-making. Yet this generalization is not overwhelmingly true.
Many talented and imaginative individuals do not require group discussion to make an
effective decision.
Advantages of Group Decision-making
Groups often fare better than individuals in decision-making for several logical reasons. First,
a greater variety of alternatives and solutions is considered. "Too many cooks may spoil the
broth," but making broth involves a series of small decisions. Assume that your employer is
forced to relocate because your present building is to be demolished. You would want to
examine a wide variety of possibilities. If several knowledgeable people were brought
into the decision-making process, you would uncover a number of worthwhile possibilities.
Second, group decision-making is helpful in gaining acceptance and commitment. If you
and your friends were planning a vacation together, you would probably have less bickering
after the decisions were made, if it were a joint decision. If one person arbitrarily chose a
lake-side cottage, the other member of the group would probably complain vigorously about
the mosquitoes. If all agreed to the lake-side, the mosquitoes would probably be less
bothersome. People tend to accept a decision when they have contributed to its making.
Potential Problems with Group Decisions: Group decisions take longer than individual
decisions and sometimes lead to a compromise decision of little value. In deciding where to
relocate an office, one faction might endorse a move to an industrial park in suburbs.
Another faction might urge that the company stay downtown. A compromise decision might
1. ..insulate the individual from a hostile work environment.
2. .is based upon reason and seeking and processing information, and on
factual discussion.
3. Persons interacting with a .are protective, dogmatic, evaluative and
righteous.
4. ..is the degree of attraction that the group has for each of its members.
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be to stay on the edge of town which would be a poor decision in terms of attracting clerical
employees.
Grouping might be classified as a potential problem with group decision-making. So might
individual dominance- the tendency for one person in a group to dominate over the other
members.
In the process, the potential benefits of input from the other members are negated. Dominance
by one member tends to take place more frequently when peop le in the group are of
unequal rank. The person of high organizational rank often dominates because lower ranking
group members consider it politically unwise to criticize that person. If you are the head of a
group, or a high-status participant, four things can be done to circumvent the problem of
individual dominance.
Refrain from announcing your preferred solution while the group is working through theproblem.
Listen carefully to suggestions from every group member.
Encourage every group member to participate.
Demonstrate concern for achieving a high-quality solution.
Self Assessment Questions IV
14.6 Group Dynamics
Group dynamics is concerned with the interactions and forces between group members in a
social situation. When the concept is applied to the study of organizational behaviour, the
focus is on the dynamics of members of formal or informal groups in the organization,
1. Even if a group of people do not formally sit together to thrash out a decision,
2. Group decision-making is helpful in gaining _____________ and ______________.
3. ____________________take longer than individual decisions and sometimes lead to acompromise decision of little value.
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i.e., it is concerned with gaining knowledge of groups, how they develop, and their effect on
individual members and the organisations in which they function.
Thomas Harrell has defined group dynamics as an expression that describes the situation in
which people acting together in a group accomplish certain thing, either positively or
negatively in a way that cannot be explained adequately in terms of the individual acting
separately.
Dorwin Cartwright has stressed the importance of group dynamics particularly in the context
of bringing about a change. According to him, the problems of 20th century are essentially
the problems of human relations.
The word 'dynamics', is derived from a Greek word which means force. Group dynamics
refers to the forces operating in groups. Investigation of group dynamics consists of a study
of these forces such as what gives rise to them, what conditions modified them, whatconsequences they have, etc. The practical application of group dynamics consists of the
utilization of knowledge about these forces for the achievement of some purpose. Group
dynamics, is not particularly novel. It goes back at least to the outstanding work of men like
Simmel, Freud, and Cooley.
Although interest in groups has a long and respectable history, of late research centres in
several countries are carrying out substantial programmes of research designed to reveal the
nature of groups and their functioning. In this development, the name of Kurt Lewin is worth-
mentioning. Lewin became convinced of society's urgent need for a scientific approach to the
understanding of the dynamics of groups. In 1945, he established the Research Centre for
Group Dynamics to meet this need. The Centre has been devoting its efforts to improving our
scientific understanding of groups through laboratory experiments, field studies, and the use
of techniques of action research.
Various factors in the work environment affect group behaviour. The two broad aspects of
the environment which affect group behaviour are: a) the physical environment, e.g., plant,
equipment, layout, and b) the psycho-social environment, e.g., worker needs reward systems,
work group structure, supervisory practices, work group norms, worker roles and attitudes.
14.6.1 Principles of Group Dynamics
A group can work effectively only if its members stick to certain desired norms, which
Cartwright has termed principles of group dynamics. These principles are:
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i) If a group is to be used effectivel y as a mediu m of change, those who are to be
changed and those who are to wield an influence for change must have a strong sense of
belonging to the same group, i.e., the barriers between the leaders and the led should
be broken down.
ii) The more attractive a group is to its members, the greater the influence it would
exercise on its members. If attitudes, values or behaviour, are relevant as a basis of
attraction to the group, the group will wield a tremendous influence over them. If a
man joins a union mainly to keep his job and to improve his working conditions, he may
be largely influenced by the union's attempt to modify his attitudes towards national
affairs.
iii) The higher the prestige of a group member in the eyes of other members, the greater
the influence he will exercise on them.
iv) Successful efforts to change individuals or sub-parts of a group would result in making
them conform to the norms of the group.
v) Strong pressure for changes in a group can be established by creating a shared
perception by members for the need for c hange, thus making the source of pressure for
change lie within the group itself.
vi) Information relating to the need for change, plans for change, and the consequence of
change must be shared by all the members of a group.
vii) Change s in one part of a group pro duce a strain in other related parts which can be
reduced only by eliminating the change or by bringing about readjustments in the related
parts.
Cattell proposed seven theorems in his analysis of the dynamics of syntality1, which are
largely specifications of the characteristics of synergy. Briefly stated, these theorems hold
that:
1. Groups are formed to satisfy individual needs and cease to exist when they no longer
serve this purpose.
2. The total synergy of a group is the vector resultant of the attitudes of all members towardsthe group. (Synergy thus depends upon the number of persons in the group, the strength
and direction of the satisfactions each person obtains from the group, and the relation of
such satisfactions to other groups.)
1Definition: behavioral characteristics of a group perceived as parallel to or inferable from the personality
structure of an individual.
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3. Effective synergy may be directed towards goals outside the group, hence groups may
establish patterns of reaching which are subsidiary to some ultimate goal of the groups.
4. Individual group members may also use groups to achieve personal goals that is group
activities may be subsidiary to some ultimate personal goal.
5. Patterns of behaviour in group, such as loyalty and subordination are learned in
accordance with the law of effect.
6. Group memberships may overlap, but the total synergy in such overlapping groups
remains constant.
7. There exists a close parallelism between the personality traits of the group members and
syntality traits of the group.
14.7. Summary
A group refers to two or more persons who interact for a common explicit purpose.
Kimball Young defines a group as "two or more persons in a state of social interaction."
The essential characteristics of a small group are: 1) two or more people, 2) who interact
with one another, 3) share some common ideology, and 4) see themselves as a group.
Groups may be classified in many different ways: the basis for differentiation may be
purpose or goal extent of structuring legal organisation or setting.
The end goal of the manager's organizing responsibility is to create formal work groups
that are necessary to achieve the organisations goals.
Membership in the group is a selective process in which individuals are granted
membership primarily on the basis of commonality of interests and willingness to be
co-operative and to conform to the group norms.
Cohesiveness is the degree of attraction that the group has for each of its members.
Group dynamics is concerned with the interactions and forces between group members
in a social situation.
14.8 Terminal Questions
1. What is a Group? What are its basic characteristics?
2. Distinguish between formal and informal groups.
3. Enumerate the advantages and disad vantages of an informal group.
4. What are the major principles on which group dynamics function?
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14.9 Answers to SAQs and TQs
Self Assessment Questions I
1- Newcomb, 2- attracted to one another. 3- self-esteem
Self Assessment Questions II
1- Organisations goals, 2-Informal Groups, 3- sense of security and belonging
Self Assessment Questions III
1-Informal groups, 2-The adult ego state, 3-Parent ego, 4-Cohesiveness
Self Assessment Questions IV
1- Several people usually provide input to any major decision, 2- acceptance, commitment, 3-
Group decisions
Answers to TQs:
1. Refer to 14.2
2. Refer to 14.4
3. Refer to 14.4.2
4. Refer to 14.7