Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
1. ICE BLASTING
1.1 INTRODUCTION:-
Ice blasting is a simple process that uses compressed air and ice crystals,
shot through a hose and directed with a nozzle, a fine powerful mist is blasted
onto a surface, acting like a chisel to remove debris. Ice blasting is a non-
abrasive, cleaning process that uses ordinary tap water, compressed air and
electricity to create an environmentally friendly, cost effective method to
address a variety of cleaning needs.
1.2 HISTORY: -
The Department of National Defence in Canada contracted Dr. Sam Visaisouk to
determine the feasibility of ice blasting for cleaning in confined spaces such as inside ships.
The prospect of a dustless abrasive blasting process was very appealing on environmental
and worker safety compliance grounds. This effort led to the first operating commercial ice
blast machine in 1992. These ice blast machines had complex operating system controls
and required frequent defrosting as very cold air was used for fluidizing and transporting ice
particles from source to nozzle. At that time, any ice blockages were attributed to partial
melting of ice particles, which would favour agglomeration. The use of very cold fluidizing
air was deemed absolutely necessary. Periodic system defrosting was required as a result.
During this period, other methods of ice blast were introduced elsewhere. Gary
Settles of Penn State University patented a process in which a cryogenic fluid froze
atomized water in a nozzle for blasting. A French version (briefly licensed by Schlick)
utilized liquid nitrogen to freeze small water droplets to form ice particles for blasting. Both
of these processes relied on cryogenic fluid at very low temperatures and could not be
easily scaled up for robust industrial requirements.
In 1996 Sam Visaisouk took a drastic change in the method of producing and
fluidizing ice particles that resulted in patent US5, 913,711. He and Norm Fisher later
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Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
produced a working model, patents US6, 001,000 and US6, 270,394. This breakthrough
method remains the base of the state of the art ice blast systems to date till 2003.
1.3 BLASTING IN GENERAL
Blasting refers to a high-speed impact of a
projectile on a target. The projectile can be either
discrete, as in solid media blasting, or continuous,
as in water blasting. A simple impact phenomenon
involves 2 bodies. The projectile normally called
the blast media can be spherical or angular, large
or small, hard or soft, solid or liquid and projected
at a variety of speed and angle towards the target. In general the user has no choice in
terms of nature of target the user’s choice is in the media property and condition of blasting.
a) Abrasive Blasting
In applications where erosion is to be controlled, solid media of low abrasivity such as
plastic media, starch media, glass beads, etc. are used. For solid media of low abrasivity,
the impact action is mainly displacement. One aspect of solid media blasting is the
generation of dust and secondary solid waste from spent media. Therefore, abrasive
blasting is not a cleaning process.
b) Water blasting
Water Blasting is non-abrasive therefore its applications relate mainly to cleaning.
Although at very high pressures, water is used for cutting as in water jetting. For effective
cleaning, normally detergents or other cleaning chemicals are added to the water. The
impact action is primarily rinsing. In many applications the water is recycled, thereby
requiring water treatment as additional process and cost. Generally water blast uses a large
volume of water, in the range of 1000-2500 Liters per hour. The treatment cost for such a
high volume can be considerable.
c) Ice Blasting: -
Ice blast is a cleaning technology which is essentially a hybrid
between abrasive (i.e. sand) and non-abrasive (i.e. water) types. Because ice is
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Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
a phase change material, it cleans as a solid, then deforms on impact and
performs a scrubbing and rinsing action. No other blast cleaning material can
work in this fashion.
1.4 Ideal Blast - Clean but No Damage
In an ideal cleaning application, the deposit is
completely removed with no damage to the
substrate. It means that no such process should
be used which will have abrasive action on the
surface of finished components as it will
deteriorate the finished surface of the
components of which deburring is to be done.
1.5 ABOUT ICE BLASTING
1.5.1 Ice as media
Ice is a phase change media. Ice starts as a solid and changes into a liquid. Therefore it
possesses the combined characteristics of both solid and liquid blasts. Ice is not abrasive,
therefore is only marginal in erosion applications. Erosion by ice blast is a result of impact
fracture, not abrasive action. Being a phase change material, ice does not generate dust on
impact and does not require a large volume to do useful work.
1.5.2 Ice: - A phase changing media
Ice particles will change phase at
normal working temperatures, therefore are
ideally suited as a blast cleaning agent. As a
phase change solid, ice particles moving at
high speed can perform impact cleaning work
before phase change, during phase change
and after phase change.
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Fig. 2 Ideal Blasting
Fig. 3 Change of Phase
Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
1.5.3 Deburring mechanism in ice blasting:-
1. Before Phase Change - Displace
Ice particles are solids possessing momentum to displace contamination on a target.
Displacement results when ice particle momentum exceeds the inertia of the
contamination.
2. During Phase Change - Scrub
Ice particles exert a pressure against the surface as it deforms, providing a strong ice-
surface interaction whereby minute amounts of contaminations can be scrubbed away. At a
blast pressure of about 7 bar, this scrubbing pressure has been estimated to be
approximately 300 bar
3. After phase change – Flush
Ice particles melt into water to rinse away removed contamination. The conversion of kinetic
energy to pressure energy enables to flush away the scrubbed debris. This conversion
adds the features of water deburring to the process. Thus having a two in one effect at the
same cost
1.6 WORKING: -
In ice blast, ice particles are accelerated by a stream of high velocity of air to do
impact cleaning work. Ice particles are not free flowing and will pack and agglomerate when
stationary. For ice blast to work readily, ice particles must be created and consumed
continuously in a dynamic state.
An ice blast machine is ready for work within seconds of pushing the start button.
Ice particles are produced continuously at a rate of 200 pounds per hour. Using a two hose
system, ice particles are transported through a low pressure hose to the blasting nozzle
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Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
where a second higher pressure hose delivers up to 200 psi (“pounds per square inch”)
pressure to accelerate the ice particles towards the target surface. The solid ice particles
displace surface contaminants through the energy from the impact and through the lateral
deformation of the ice particles. At the heart of the ice blast technology is the scrub and
flush cleaning that takes place when the ice crystals impact onto a substrate. Ice crystals
deform to scrub on impact, and after impact melt into water to flush away debris. Ice
blasting uses up to 20 gallons per hour. Further, upon impact, the ice particles explode,
turning approximately half of its solid mass into vapour and the other half into liquid, thus
resulting in even less wastewater to contain.
1.6.1 Equipment used for Ice Blasting:-
A device that couples two commercially reliable items, the ice maker and the ejector nozzle,
forms the basis of a continuous ice blast machine. This device contains fractured chips,
receives sufficient fluidizing air form one end to balance the suction demand of the ejector
on other end to create an induced fluidized flow of the ice chips from source to nozzle.
When balanced this process operates indefinitely in a steady-state mode giving the ice
blast process unmatched long reliability as an industrial process. Figure 7 shows the
process of making ice chips, transporting them to the nozzle and ejecting them towards a
target.
A blast nozzle of the ejector design creates a vacuum which sucks the ice chips from the
ice maker to the nozzle where they are mixed with a high velocity air stream to be ejected
from the nozzle.
A method of continuously producing a stream of ice particulates comprising continuously
freezing water into a thin sheet of ice onto a surface of a rotating refrigerated element while
controlling a thickness of the sheet; continuously harvesting the self-fragmenting sheet from
the surface of the refrigerated element with a knife blade to form particles; directly
entraining the harvested particles into a stream of air with sufficient velocity to fluidize the
particles; and continuously ejecting the particles from a nozzle.
1.6.2 Refrigeration and ice making
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Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
Ice blast requires ice particles and compressed air to provide high velocity for
impact work. Equipment-wise, it requires refrigeration and ice making. These are the two
most reliable industrial components today as our entire food supply infrastructure depends
on them. They can operate reliably under harsh climatic and environmental conditions,). In
combination, they have the attributes of a robust industrial process that is reliable and cost-
effective. This is the reason why production of ice crystals by cryogenic fluids is neither cost
effective nor reliable in comparison.
1) Refrigeration and ice making: -
The most reliable ice making process is
known as “immersed cold drum"
(Figure 8). As refrigerant cools a
rotating drum surface, a thin sheet of ice
is immediately formed. Under
appropriate conditions of drum
diameter, temperature and rotational
speed, the ice sheet can be formed
with sufficient internal stress that when its
frontal edge impacts a doctor blade, the sheet fractures into small ice fragments similar to
the shattering effect of a broken stressed (safety or Pyrex) glass.
2 ) Moving the Ice particles :
Above the doctor blade is mounted a tube with a longitudinal slot over the entire
length of the blade. One end of this tube is connected to a venturi-type nozzle that draws by
vacuum the ice fragments from the tube. The other end of the tube is connected to a
compressed air source that supplies sufficient air to balance the vacuum caused by the
venturi. In this manner, ice fragments are instantly fluidized and moved to the nozzle by the
induced flow.
1.7 SALIENT FEATURES
a) No mechanical Intervention:-
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Fig. 8 Ice making process
Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
In this process design, there is no mechanical intervention within the ice particle production
area. This allows ice particles to flow with no interference. This process takes advantage of
the natural fragmentation of a stressed ice sheet to create particles and not rely on any
mechanical means to size them.
b) No dust, minimum waste:-
As ice particles disintegrate on impact, they create a blast mist, which can help to suppress
dust from the operation and to cool the environment for the workers. This is particularly
helpful in the summer. Evaporation will normally reduce the net liquid waste to about 50-70
Litres per hour.
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Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
2. BENEFITS AND COMPARISONS
2.1 Benefits
Below given are some of the benefits of ice blasting that will definitely prove
its importance in the current finishing process scenario.
Table No.1
Feature Benefits
Unique 'Displace-Scrub-Flush'-deburring
mechanism
Superior cleanliness
Non-abrasive, no damage to surface
Very efficient and effective cleaning: speed
Using only 100 litre of (normal tap) water
per hour
Minimal waste - lower waste management
costs
Minimal waste - environmental friendly
Widely available, minimal logistical costs
No generation of dust
Relative low pressure; maximum of 12 bar Safe working environment
No damage to substrate
Low maintenance costs
No certification procedures required
No use of chemicals Environmental friendly
Safe working environment
No additional costs
Very reliable Ice making process Proven reliability worldwide, used for
decades
The above statements show that ice blasting is far better process than other
deburring methods which involves the use of soaps, chemicals and water based solutions
for deburring of finished components. This means, the process of ice blasting helps the
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Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
user to get the lustrous finish that he always demands from components on which various
manufacturing and finishing operations have been performed, but is not free from burr. A
comparative study of Ice blasting process with the other blasting processes has been
explained here to stress the need of this process in the industry.
DISADVANTAGES:-
1 It is necessary that the surface temperature of the object being ice blasted is always
above 0 C as ice particles melt on impact.
2. Ice blasting will not remove deep rust or metal burrs as it is less abrasive.
2.2 COMPARISON (Ice blasting & Dry Ice Blasting): -
Table No. 2
Features Ice Blast Dry Ice Blast (CO2)
Blast Media PurchaseMinimum; less then € 1 per
hourYes: € 30-50 per hour
Logistical cost for media NoYes; 10-20% of media
purchase
Continuous operation Yes No
Waste generatedMinimum; app. 60 liter per
hourNone
Blasting temperature at
surfaceapp. +34°F/+1°C app. -100°F or -75°C
Airborne particulates Low; suppressed by mistHigh; “Explode” on
impact
Blasting in confined space YesMust have ventilation and
air monitoring
Typical max hose length 70 meters 20 meters
2.3 Problems faced with Dry Ice blasting
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a) Dry-Ice and Ice Blast are totally different technologies –
The biggest similarity of Dry-Ice Blast and Ice Blast is probably the name!
Both technologies use compressed air to move the media but they are totally distinct on all
other aspects.
b) Different cleaning mechanism, different results –
Dry Ice pellets 'explode on impact' or the dry-ice pellets change directly from
solid to gas without going through a wet liquid stage. Ice Blast is based on the Displace-
Scrub-Flush Cleaning Mechanism. The impact on the substrate is totally different resulting
in different level of cleanliness.
c) Not buying media makes the (cost) distinction -
Dry-ice pellets must be bought or produced in advanced. Depending
on the consumption of Dry-Ice pellets the cost varies between € 30-50 per hour. It requires
skilful matching of workload and media purchase to control cost because unused Dry-Ice
pellets will become useless. Ice Blast requires only normal tap water, an ideal media, which
is widely available at minimal cost in most of the world.
2.4 Comparison (Ice blasting & Water Blasting): -
Table No. 3
Features Ice Blast High Pressure Water
Blasting pressure 5-12 Bar 700 bar, up to 2000 bar
and higher
Water consumption 100 litre per hour 1000-3000 liter per hour
Waste generated Minimal; app. 60 liter per
hour
1000-3000 liter per hour
Safety requirements Normal High
Maintenance costs Low High
Recycling or Water
treatment
None / Optional Required to lower the
waste management costs
Chemical/solvents/soap
usage
None Optional
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Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
2.5 Problems faced while cleaning with water:
The number of cleaning systems in industry has increased significantly during the
last decades. Cleaning with water has been optimized with chemicals, water pressure,
water volume and better equipment. The use of chemicals has further been limited by
environmental concerns. In essence the performance has been maxed out.
a) Increasing the pressure-
High Pressure Water cleaning systems with increasing working pressures have been
developed to extend the market opportunities. More pressure means more cleaning power
but at a cost: less safe working environment, more maintenance costs and increased
indirect costs.
b) Pressures up to 2000 Bar / 37000 PSI are not an exception these days. On the other
hand using Ice Blast at 12 Bar / 180 PSI to clean grease or crude oil gives the same or
better results.
c) Consuming more and more water- Swelling the volume of water has been another
attempt to increase the performance of high pressure water cleaning. Consuming 1000
Liter per hour per nozzle (and much more) is nothing special. Waste management costs
have become a major cost and will continue to increase. In contrast Ice Blast uses 100 liter
water per hour, only 10% or less, meaning 10% or less waste management costs.Ice Blast
is a cost saver!
d) Washing parts, using chemicals -In most today's production environment washers are
still the most common method for both degreasing and cleaning parts in the manufacturing
process. Over the years many changes and additions have been made to improve their
performance: increasing the water temperature, increasing the water pressure, adding
chemicals, using more water, etc.
e) Increasing complexity means increasing cost- Manufacturers have to meet lower
and lower contamination specifications. This leads to more water and chemicals use
resulting in increasing water reprocessing costs. Trends in environmental regulations favour
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Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
lower use of both. To compromise more sophisticated water treatment systems are installed
to meet the latest standards.
3. APPLICATIONS
3.1 Scope
Ice blasting covers a wide variety of products right from environmental cleaning,
industrial cleaning, and applications as given below.
Cleaning Type
Examples of Potential Application
Competition Rationale For Adoption
Precision Cleaning
Involves removing surface contaminants and/or light deburring to defined tolerance, typically in a repetitive production setting where quality control are closely measured and monitored. Include a range of auto components(Transmission components & cases, valve bodies & housing, engine & cylinder head cast part, armatures, magnesium casting, etc.)
Water glass bead, manual labour & chemicals.
Superior cleaning , fewer rejects , dustless, highly reliable , reduced floor space environmental benige , lower maintenance, monitoring, and operating costs.
IndustrialCleaning
Manufacturing equipment, industrial plant of all kinds (petro-chemicals beverage, power station, pulp & paper, etc.) plastics molds & dunnage, turbines , yardEquipments
Water, dry ice, soda, abrasives, manual labour & chemicals.
Superior cleaning , reduced waste & cleanup, dustless, low operating costs, no damage to fiberglass or materials, simple field implementation.
Environmental Building structure, in Manual labor, Minimal waste, no
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Cleaning particular lead paintRemoval from steel bridges & asbestos abatement in building structures.
chemicals, water, dry ice, abrasives.
dust (no need for class A containment areas), improved worker health, simple implementation.
Other Nuclear decontamination, aerospace, marine, food & services.
3.1 EXAMPLE OF INDUSTRIAL CLEANING – GEAR DEBURRING
3.1.1 The process
The Gear cleaning process lifts and rotates the part as
the blast nozzle moves over the part. The gear is
being lifted and rotating. The nozzle, on the left,
directs the ice on the gear teeth. At its uppermost
position, the bottom of the gear is exposed to the blast
stream. The top and inside of the gear is cleaned
when the gear is in the lower position (Figure 9).
This two-axis lift-and-rotate movement allows the part to
be cleaned both inside and outside, Fig 9:-Gear Deburring Process
and all around in a very short time. The Blast nozzle pivots and follows the gear as it is
lifted. The gear rotates at low RPM so that it is blasted all the way around. The normal
process includes a dwell in the lift and nozzle movement so that at least two revolutions of
ice blast are concentrated on the gear teeth themselves. This insures the removal of any
chips or residue that may have been caught in the root of the gear tooth.
3.1.2 Ice Blast Gear Deburring –
The Ice Blast cleaning cell (Fig.10) is
designed in modules. The available
modules are:
a) Ice Blast lift-and-rotate unit- The Ice
Blast lift and rotate is the heart of the
process. This is where the part is cleaned.
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Fig. 10 Deburring Cell
Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
b) Clean water rinse, optional -When lower contamination requirements are needed the
rinse system is included to wash off any airborne particles which may resettle on the part
after blasting.
c) Rust preventative application - If the work part is made of steel, a rust inhibitor will
need to be applied to the part. When the gear manufacturing process includes an automatic
gear checker of the master gear variety, a separate rust preventative application booth is
added to the line after the gauging operation.
d) Hot air drying - The final module is the hot air, part dryer. This can be either
electric or steam heat. The parts emerge from the unit completely dry and clean.
Before After
Some Interesting Facts about Ice Blasting:-
1 The surface temperature of the object being ice blasted is always above 0 C as ice
particles melt on impact.
2 Ice particles produce a blast mist, which helps to suppress dust or airborne particulates to
minimize unintended dispersion.
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Fig. 11 Gear Deburring – Before / After
Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
3. In warm climates, essential complete evaporation can take place, leaving only damp
blast debris. The aspect of ice blast is of particular interest to those concerned with waste
generation & disposal, especially in the cleaning hazardous chemicals.
4. The surface cleanliness depends on the quality of water & air used.
5. The injector nozzle used in ice blast allows introduction of additives into the ice stream.
For example, disinfectant can be metered into the iced stream for cleaning of food
processing equipments.
4. CASE STUDY
This case study includes the implementation of a new technology in the manufacture of
fuel pump valve housing components at the Robert Bosch Corporation Anderson sc facility.
The process qualification include a technical evaluation of ice blast technology for deburring
and cleaning the development of a production parts approval process the development of a
continuous ice blast system and implementation. Part I provides a technical introduction to
ice blast technology. Part II describes some technical evaluation result and development of
qualified process.
4.1 Introduction
Ice blast technology is relatively new process in manufacturing. Its ability to provides
superior cleanliness has been documented in the development of a process for the
manufacture of gear in automobile industry as given in application. In search of process to
deburr / deflash and clean zinc die cast valve housing component for its fuel pump
manufacturing, Bosch decided to evaluate ice blast technology because it offered the
promise to deburr and clean while not causing any dimensional or surface quality changes.
Furthermore the environmental purity of the process was appealing.
Prototype parts were ice blasted examination and evaluation. The viability of the
process was confirmed. A continuous ice blast cleaning process developed leading to the
submission of production parts approval process document. To date over one million parts
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Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
have been processed by ice blast technology. This paper presents the entire process from
curiosity to qualification for production
4.2 PART I
4.2.1 Ice blast technology
Fundamentals of ice blast technology have been discussed in a prior part certain
aspects of ice blast impact phenomena that are relevant to this paper are presented here
for completeness.
Near room temperature ice is a phase change material. Therefore small ice particles at
high velocity can perform work in solid form as well as in liquid form. From this point of view
ice blast is a hybrid of solid media blast and water blast but without the solid waste normally
generated from solid media blast. This work done by solid ice participles is of the
displacement type. To deburr or deflash solid ice particles must have sufficient momentum
to overcome the inertia of the target material.
An intuitive and cost effective way to maximize momentum is to use ice particles that
have large average size hence large mass. The formula for the impact force confirms this
size dependence as shown in figure 12
F = R2 V 1.2 cos. θ.................................... (1)
Thus we can say that to get the desired force we should vary the angle θ and it can be
found out by
θ = cos – 1 (F / R2 V 1.2)............................. (2)
So it can be seen that optimal angel of attack is typically in the direction of the
intended displacement, seen by the cos. dependence
Thus, the work done by ice particle in liquid form is rinsing. Debris from the blast
impact action is conveniently rinsed away. As is obvious now, ice blast is more than the
combination of solid and liquid blast. This is because the impact action takes a finite time
during which ice particles deform. The deformation exerts a pressure force on the surface.
As a result, ice particles perform frictional scrubbing work on the surface during its phase
change. This phase-change is unique to ice, therefore only ice particle can provide frictional
scrubbing work without damage to the surface. The optimal angle of attack is normal to the
surface to be cleaned, as described by the following formula:
P=V1.2sinθ................................................... (3)
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However, scrubbing requires motion parallel to the surface. Optimal scrubbing
action therefore requires a slight oblique angle attack.
There is no such scrubbing action from water blast; therefore it cannot offer the
same level of cleanliness, even at much more elevated blast pressures and at much higher
volumes.
4.3 PART II
4.3.1 Deburring Evaluation
The burrs to be removed from the housing part are shown in figure 12. The burrs
from the injector pins pose a particular problem as they are nearly hidden from the line of
sight of the ice blast stream, and they are oriented perpendicular to the optimal direction for
the displacement deburrs.
Selected prototype parts were photographed before and after ice blasting. Typical
results are shown in figure 13 in the photographs. They represent large and small burrs.
The small burrs are particularly difficult to remove as they have small frontal areas and long
hinge sections. Note the deburred parts take on a clean, sparking appearance. These tests
confirmed the deburring capability of ice blast.
Figures before and after comparison of ice blasted parts containing a large and small burr
are as shown.
4.3.2 Implementation
Upon validation of deburring efficiency, a process was developed to deburr and clean
parts on a continuous basis. To meet the final QA requirement, a line consisting of an ice
blast station, rinsing station and drying station was developed. This is shown schematically
as figure 14 below.
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Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
It was
determined that the part must be ice blasted from both sides and the total ice blast
operation was 4 seconds. With fixed nozzles fanned to cover the entire height of the parts,
the parts transfer speed was 5 feet/min.. In order to track quality and provide quality
assurance, a production parts approval process was developed, as shown.
4.4 PART III
4.4.1 Comparison with alternative processes –
For fuel pump assembly three parameters are judged important in terms of
acceptability of process for deburring and cleaning of valve housing:
1) Air leak test - The pump need to be tested at desired pressure to pump the fluid but due
to presence of burr no effective cleaning is possible thus resulting in improper assembly
accusing air leaks & cavitations.
Fig. 15 Air Leakage Test Graph
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Fig. 14 Station Layout
Seminar Report on Ice Blasting
2) 14 day leak test – In this test the fuel is filled in the pump assembly and after 14 days
the volume remaining in checked for leakages. This % is less in case of pump with no
proper assembly due to presence of burr.
Fig. 16:--14 day Leak Test
5
CONCLUSIONS
Based on these results, the acid etching process produced unacceptable leak-down
results while the vibrating deburring process failed on excessive air leaks. In summary, ice
blast offers the most desirable results of the three tested processes. In practice, ice blast
offers a cleaner and offers infinitely lower chance of contamination which is a major issue
faced by many automotive component suppliers.
In a Ice blast is also used in more conventional deburring applications such as
transmission valve body parts where fine burrs from machining and milling must be
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removed.. manufacturing environment, ice blast deburring and cleaning offer the following
benefits:
1. high deburring efficiency
2. superior cleanliness
3. low waste generation
4. simple equipment requiring little maintenance
5. compact size of equipment
6. no recycling/waste water processing requirements
7. low operating cost
8. low capital cost
9. environmentally sound
The main objective of this seminar was to give others an overview of new trends in
Deburring process i.e. Ice blasting.
6. REFERENCES –
a) Books / research papers
1. Herb, Brett and Sam Visaisouk, Ice Blast Technology for Precision Cleaning,
Precision Cleaning ’96 Proceedings, Anaheim CA, May 14-16, 1999, pp172-179.
2. Herb, Brett, Cleaning Process for Enhancing the Bond Integrity of Multi-Layered
Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Tubing, U.S. Patent no. 5, 483, 563, January 9,
1999.
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3. Tonello, Tony, Ice Blast : New Technology for An Old Problem, ATCO Team
Review, Ford Motor Company, Volume, Number 1,February 2002, p6.
4. Gear Technology Magazine, Article - Cleaning gears with Ice Chips – and Nothing
Else, May-June 2002.
b) Web- sites.
1. www. powertransmission.com
2. www. geartechnology .com
3. www. howlett – research.com
4. www. iceblast .net
5. http://www.strahlverfahren.de
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