Information Processing Information Processing ApproachApproach
Goal = examine how children/adults operate Goal = examine how children/adults operate on/process informationon/process information
Have limited capacitiesHave limited capacities No single theoryNo single theory General approachGeneral approach Reasoning Reasoning processing abilities processing abilities More efficient processing = better reasoningMore efficient processing = better reasoning Focus on domain specific skills rather than Focus on domain specific skills rather than
general skills that apply across domainsgeneral skills that apply across domains
Models of Information Models of Information ProcessingProcessing
Atkinson & Shiffrin’s multistore modelAtkinson & Shiffrin’s multistore model– Three parts of systemThree parts of system
Sensory registerSensory register Short term memory (STM) Short term memory (STM) (book = short term store)(book = short term store)
Long term memory (LTM) Long term memory (LTM) (book = long term store)(book = long term store)
– Inborn and universalInborn and universal– Analogy = computerAnalogy = computer
Stores = hardwareStores = hardware Control processes/mental strategies = softwareControl processes/mental strategies = software
Atkinson & Shiffrin’s ModelAtkinson & Shiffrin’s Model
Sensory RegisterSensory Register– Sights/sounds represented directlySights/sounds represented directly– Limited capacityLimited capacity
Short-Term Memory (STM)Short-Term Memory (STM)– Conscious partConscious part– Limited capacityLimited capacity
7 +/- 2 units of information7 +/- 2 units of information
– Limited timeLimited time
Atkinson & Shiffrin’s ModelAtkinson & Shiffrin’s Model
Long-Term Memory (LTM)Long-Term Memory (LTM)– Unlimited capacityUnlimited capacity– Unlimited time frameUnlimited time frame– Organization and memory strategiesOrganization and memory strategies
• Figure 8.1 A schematic model of the human information processing system. ADAPTED FROM ATKINSON & SHIFFRIN, 1968.
Levels-of-Processing ModelLevels-of-Processing Model
No “containers” with fixed limitsNo “containers” with fixed limits Retention Retention depth depth
Levels-of-Processing ModelLevels-of-Processing Model
QueenQueen PlayPlay ChairChair HotHot
BreadBread ButterButter LoveLove LampLamp
WestWest ThinThin KingKing BottleBottle
BoyBoy TableTable LakeLakeCandyCandy
ColdCold GirlGirl HatHat PhotographPhotograph
EastEast NorthNorth PencilPencil BeltBelt
Levels-of-Processing ModelLevels-of-Processing Model
Shallow Shallow decays decays Deeper Deeper retained retained Problems due to distribution of Problems due to distribution of
attentionattention
Levels-of-Processing ModelLevels-of-Processing Model
STM/STS replaced by STM/STS replaced by working memoryworking memory– The conscious pool of attentional resources The conscious pool of attentional resources
from which our information-processing from which our information-processing activities draw (Baddeley, 1992)activities draw (Baddeley, 1992)
Attention depends on Attention depends on learned/automatic processeslearned/automatic processes
Operating efficiency hypothesisOperating efficiency hypothesis – Case – Case
ComparisonsComparisons
Hardware and software changeHardware and software change Levels-of-processing Levels-of-processing software software Control processes improve with ageControl processes improve with age Controversy regarding hardware…Controversy regarding hardware…
Control Processes Control Processes (Software/Strategies)(Software/Strategies)
Strategy = deliberately Strategy = deliberately implemented, goal-directed implemented, goal-directed operations used to improve task operations used to improve task performanceperformance
Increase likelihood information in Increase likelihood information in STM STM to LTM to LTM
In general, younger children = fewer In general, younger children = fewer strategies; less effectivestrategies; less effective
Control Processes Control Processes (Software/Strategies)(Software/Strategies)
Production deficiencyProduction deficiency Utilization deficiencyUtilization deficiency
Control Processes Control Processes (Software/Strategies)(Software/Strategies)
Children of all ages have a variety of Children of all ages have a variety of strategies that they choose from strategies that they choose from when solving problemswhen solving problems– not stagelikenot stagelike
RehearsalRehearsal– Rarely < 6-7 yearsRarely < 6-7 years
Control Processes Control Processes (Software/Strategies)(Software/Strategies)
OrganizationOrganization ElaborationElaboration
– Develops late, compared to other Develops late, compared to other strategiesstrategies
Retrieval of InformationRetrieval of Information RecognitionRecognition RecallRecall
– Free recall vs. cued recallFree recall vs. cued recall ReconstructionReconstruction
Fuzzy-Trace TheoryFuzzy-Trace Theory
Continuum of memory Continuum of memory representationsrepresentations– Verbatim = literalVerbatim = literal– Fuzzy (gist) = content, but not detailFuzzy (gist) = content, but not detail
Capacity vs. KnowledgeCapacity vs. Knowledge Why is the memory of older Why is the memory of older
children/adults better than that of children/adults better than that of younger children?younger children?
CapacityCapacity KnowledgeKnowledge
Capacity vs. KnowledgeCapacity vs. Knowledge
Differences in children’s and adults’ Differences in children’s and adults’ memory memory knowledge knowledge
Chi: children and adults tested on Chi: children and adults tested on memory for chess piecesmemory for chess pieces– Chess position presented for 10 secondsChess position presented for 10 seconds– Immediate recall – place pieces on blank boardImmediate recall – place pieces on blank board– Repeated recall – keep going until perfectRepeated recall – keep going until perfect– 4 lists of 10 digits were also presented4 lists of 10 digits were also presented– Children chess experts, adults novicesChildren chess experts, adults novices
Capacity vs. KnowledgeCapacity vs. Knowledge
Chi: ResultsChi: Results– Interaction between age and materialInteraction between age and material
Children outperform adults when Children outperform adults when they’re more knowledgeablethey’re more knowledgeable
Capacity vs. KnowledgeCapacity vs. Knowledge
Children in Chi’s study were 9 years Children in Chi’s study were 9 years old, what about younger children?old, what about younger children?
Problem: children’s knowledge may Problem: children’s knowledge may improve performance, but to improve performance, but to measure STM capacity, need a test measure STM capacity, need a test not influenced by differences in not influenced by differences in knowledgeknowledge
Attentional ProcessingAttentional Processing
ControlControl– Focused and sustainedFocused and sustained– Infants and preschoolers were seated at Infants and preschoolers were seated at
a table with age-appropriate toysa table with age-appropriate toys Concentrated involvementConcentrated involvement
Attentional ProcessingAttentional Processing
Patterns of AttentionPatterns of Attention– Young infants habituationYoung infants habituation– Preschoolers Preschoolers – 5-6 year olds5-6 year olds
AdaptabilityAdaptability
Attentional ProcessingAttentional Processing Patricia Miller: strategy development Patricia Miller: strategy development
follows a predictable sequencefollows a predictable sequence– Production deficiencyProduction deficiency– Control deficiencyControl deficiency– Utilization deficiencyUtilization deficiency
PlanfulnessPlanfulness
Thinking out a sequence of acts Thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time and allocating ahead of time and allocating attention accordingly to reach a goalattention accordingly to reach a goal
InfancyInfancy PreschoolPreschool
MemoryMemory
Infantile amnesiaInfantile amnesia– Nonverbal formNonverbal form– Sense of selfSense of self
Development of Scripted Development of Scripted MemoryMemory
Scripts – schemes for recurring Scripts – schemes for recurring events organized in terms of causal events organized in terms of causal and temporal sequencesand temporal sequences– Organizes worldOrganizes world– Tend to remember info consistent with Tend to remember info consistent with
scriptsscripts– Become more elaborate with ageBecome more elaborate with age
Eyewitness MemoryEyewitness Memory
Attorney:Attorney: “How did you get hurt at “How did you get hurt at naptime?”naptime?”
Child:Child: “I don’t know.”“I don’t know.”
Attorney:Attorney: “Did Sandy hurt you?”“Did Sandy hurt you?”
Child:Child: nodded yesnodded yes
Eyewitness MemoryEyewitness Memory
Older children > younger childrenOlder children > younger children Preschooler Preschooler accurate, fewer accurate, fewer
precise detailsprecise details False memories are as resistant to False memories are as resistant to
forgetting as true memories areforgetting as true memories are
Eyewitness MemoryEyewitness Memory
Leading questions suggest answersLeading questions suggest answers Even adults are susceptibleEven adults are susceptible
– Loftus – film of car crashLoftus – film of car crash Age-related changes in susceptibility Age-related changes in susceptibility
to misleading questionsto misleading questions
Eyewitness MemoryEyewitness Memory
Ages 3-12 told story with picturesAges 3-12 told story with pictures Some information presented both Some information presented both
verbally and in pictures, some verbally and in pictures, some information in pictures onlyinformation in pictures only
Story about a girl on the first day of Story about a girl on the first day of school who ate her breakfast too school who ate her breakfast too quickly and got a stomachachequickly and got a stomachache
Stomachache verbally and in Stomachache verbally and in pictures, eggs in picture onlypictures, eggs in picture only
Eyewitness MemoryEyewitness Memory
Results (% correct)Results (% correct)
3-43-4 5-65-6 7-97-9 10-1210-12
Control:Control: 8484 8787 9595 9595
Biased:Biased: 3737 5858 6767 8484
Eyewitness MemoryEyewitness Memory
Perhaps no memory distortionPerhaps no memory distortion Children are intimidated by Children are intimidated by
authority?authority? 4 and 5 year olds given same task, 4 and 5 year olds given same task,
but 7 year olds did interview second but 7 year olds did interview second dayday
Eyewitness MemoryEyewitness Memory
ResultsResultsbiased:biased: 53% correct53% correctunbiased:unbiased: 72% correct72% correct
Selected children from experiment 1 Selected children from experiment 1 who fell in 4-5 year old rangewho fell in 4-5 year old range
biased:biased: 34% correct34% correctunbiased:unbiased: 74% correct74% correct
Eyewitness MemoryEyewitness Memory
Misleading suggestions Misleading suggestions memory memory errorserrors
Children, especially young children, Children, especially young children, may be most susceptible, but it’s not may be most susceptible, but it’s not clear whyclear why
Children younger than 9/10 are far Children younger than 9/10 are far more susceptible than older children, more susceptible than older children, adolescents, and adultsadolescents, and adults
Memory for Actual EventsMemory for Actual Events
4 and 7 year olds went to a trailer 4 and 7 year olds went to a trailer where an adult interacted with them where an adult interacted with them and played gamesand played games– Simon saysSimon says– ClownClown
10-12 days later returned for a 10-12 days later returned for a memory testmemory test– Specific questionsSpecific questions– Misleading questionsMisleading questions
Memory for Actual EventsMemory for Actual Events
ResultsResults
Specific questions:Specific questions:
4-year-olds4-year-olds 79% correct79% correct
7-year-olds7-year-olds 91% correct91% correct
Misleading questions:Misleading questions:
4-year-olds4-year-olds 86% correct86% correct
7-year-olds7-year-olds 95% correct95% correct
Memory for Actual EventsMemory for Actual Events
Memory of a medical examinationMemory of a medical examination Memory: Memory:
– Free recallFree recall– Anatomically detailed dollAnatomically detailed doll– Direct and misleading questionsDirect and misleading questions
Memory for Actual EventsMemory for Actual Events
ResultsResults– Genital conditionGenital condition– Nongenital conditionNongenital condition– 3 out of 36 falsely reported in response 3 out of 36 falsely reported in response
to misleading questionsto misleading questions False reports rare, but did occurFalse reports rare, but did occur