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even those with mental disorders-have individualpersonalities, and need individual handling in treatment.This plea was echoed elsewhere, not least in the sessionson sociological topics, where elderly peoples’ rights tobe considered as individuals rather than as classes, socialproblems, or even " quasi-minority groups " were

recalled.

Sociology and Psychology

Meetings of a third section were under the generalchairmanship of Miss E. I. BLACK (Sheffield).

Prof. RiCHARD TITMUSS drew attention to some fallaciesin ideas about the age trends in our population, and otherspeakers revealed sharp differences in the age structureof various peoples. National programmes were then

compared, and there followed a plenary session devotedto a critique of surveys. Later, home and hospital carefor the elderly in health and infirmity were discussed,together with the functions of local authorities in thissphere. Dr. V. GAUSTAD spoke of an ambitious schemenow being started in Oslo, where all medical and socialservices for the elderly are integrated through themedium of a single registration centre linked on the onehand with a geriatric hospital service and on the otherwith a health and welfare centre, through which -everyconceivable service and advice is provided.A symposium on the employment problems of older

workers and a later plenary session on employment forthe elderly left little doubt that older workers couldmake a steady and valuable contribution, and that afixed age of retirement had little to recommend it ;but there was some doubt whether old people in the maindesired to go on working past the usual age of retirement,or whether it was always good for their health to do so.Another session was devoted to education for later

maturity as practised in the U.S.A., and the section’svaluable activities were brought to a close by a dis-cussion of personal services and community activities,with an emphasis on voluntary effort.

Research Committee

The fourth section comprised the research committeeof the international association, meeting under the

principal chairmanship of Prof. A. P. THOMSON (Birm-ingham). To its daily sessions this section invited

distinguished representatives of various scientific andcultural schools not necessarily directly concerned withgerontology, to ensure the widest possible exchange ofideas. At the first full day’s session ageing in individualcells and the contributions to be expected from histo-chemistry were discussed ; at the second, discussionranged over the causes of mental inefficiency in the

elderly ; and at the third, over the genetical aspects of theageing process, where some hope for the future seems tolie in the fact that the integrity of genes themselves isnot, after all, inviolable.

Other Events

At the formal closing session Professor CowDRY waspresented with the Bobst award for his contributionsto international gerontology. During the week Prof. R. E.TUNBRIDGE, chairman of the British organising com-mittee, explained (anonymously) on the B.B.C. tele-vision programme the aims of the congress and some ofthe medical and social problems of ageing.On the opening day Government hospitality was extended

to the overseas delegates at Lancaster House ; other recep-tions included one by the Royal College of Physicians, anotherby the Corporation of the City of London in the splendidsetting of the Mansion House, and one on the closing daygiven by Lord Amulree at the House of Lords. TheTUffield Foundation held a garden party at Nuffield Lodgeto enable delegates to meet Lord Nuffield, patron of thiscongress.

INTERNATIONAL NEUROCHEMICAL

SYMPOSIUM

THE 1st International Neurochemical Symposiumwas held in Oxford on July 13-17. The formal meetings,which covered 12 review and 30 short papers, providedan occasion for interchange of information amongdistinguished specialists in the fields of morphology,pharmacology, biochemistry, and genetics bearing on themain theme of the symposium, which was chemistry illrelation to the development of the nervous system.At the same time the informal discussions whichdeveloped over meals and at other impromptu gather-ings gave ample opportunity for establishing friendlypersonal contacts and for a more uninhibited airingof ideas.

Those attending from overseas included scientists fromthe U.S.A., Canada, Germany, Belgium, Sweden, Norway,Denmark, the U.S.S.R., and Italy. The papers includedreviews covering rather wide sectors of research, andalso somewhat more specialised contributions fromworkers in particular fields. In the first category thoseby Dr. D. RICHTER (Cardiff) on the metabolism of develop-ing brain, Dr. S. S. KETY (Vashington) on the cerebralcirculation, Dr. H. WAELSCH (New York) on the blood-brain barrier, and Prof. L. S. PENROSE, F.R.s., on bio-chemical genetics were particularly impressive. Therather more individual contributions of Dr. V. HAM-BURGER (St. Louis) on experimental neuro-embryologyand Dr. SALOME WAELSCH (New York) on the relation ofgenetic factors to the development of the central nervoussystem were equally notable. The shorter contributionsof Dr. H. E. HIlVIWICH (Galesburg) and Dr. R. W. GERARD(Chicago) gained much from the clarity of their presenta-tion. Dr. Himwich dealt with the relation of certainamino-acids to the blood-brain barrier, and Dr. Gerarddescribed the anomalous phosphorylative metabolismfound in the brains of mice with a hereditary pre-disposition to fits. Sir RUDOLPH PETERS, F.R.s. (Oxford),described his recent work on fluorocitrate poisoning anddiscussed the relation of the convulsions that characterisethis condition to other types of metabolically inducedconvulsions. Mr. J. T. EAYRS, PH.D. (Birmingham),discussed the relation of hypothyroidism to the matura-tion of the cerebral cortex ; and Prof. J. ELKES

(Birmingham) discussed the development of the cholin-esterases in the rat’s brain, and the effect of some drugson the appearance of automatic behaviour patterns inthe developing animal.

Dr. 0. H. LO’WRY (St. Louis) drew a burst of admiringapplause by his description of the ingenious techniqueswhich he has developed and applied to the micro-estimation of enzymes in nervous tissue. Dr. J. FOLCH-Pr(Boston), who reviewed the chemical composition ofdeveloping brain, and Dr. W. M. SpERBT (New York),who dealt particularly with the lipids of the developingbrain, were also frequent and fruitful contributors tothe discussions.

One of the two evening sessions was devoted to film·and included some fine photographs by Mr. A. F. W.HuGHES, SC.D. (Cambridge), of nervous elements in tissue-culture, a pictorial progress-report by Dr. H. BiCEN(Birmingham) on the effect of dietary treatment on themental state of phenylketonuric children, a film by Dr.W. S. FELDBERG, on the effect of intraventricularinjections of drugs in the cat, and, finally a sound filmpresented by Prof. D. BovET (Rome) illustrating the useof the electro-encephalogram in the study of the centraleffects of drugs.

Professor Elkes and the international organising com-mittee, who, with the help of the Mental Health ResearchFund, were responsible for the arrangements, certainly

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earned the gratitude of those present at this first appear-ance of neurochemistry as the subject of an internationalsymposium.

BRITISH DIABETIC ASSOCIATION

THE association’s annual meetings are increasinglywell attended by members and others. This year the

meeting was held in London on July 16 and 17.

Insulin Zinc Suspensions

In a Banting lecture Dr. K. HALLAS-MoLLER (Copen-hagen) spoke on the Chemical and Physiological Back-ground of the New Insulin Zinc Suspensions. These,he said, contained acetate buffer to bring the pH nearto that of the body-fluids, and this allowed the additionof small amounts of zinc to precipitate the insulin andretard its action. According to the physical conditionsin which the zinc was added, either an amorphous or acrystalline insulin zinc precipitate was formed, andmoreover the size of the crystals could be varied at will.The amorphous insulin zinc suspension (’ Semilente’)had a quick action lasting some twelve to sixteen hours,whereas the crystalline form in the size employed(’Ultralente’) lasted as long as protamine zinc insulin.In the Danish trials on more than a thousand diabetics,80% were well controlled on the Lente ’ mixture con-sisting of three parts of the amorphous for quick actionand seven parts of the crystalline for prolonged action.About another 10% required more amorphous, and theremaining 10% more crystalline, zinc suspension thanin the standard 3 : 7 mixture. This was readily provided,since these three preparations could be mixed togetherwithout affecting their stability ; but they could notsafely be mixed with any of the other older commercialforms of insulin.

Turning to theoretical problems, Dr. Hallas-Mollersaid that insulin apparently existed in the p cells of thepancreas in a complex with zinc, and it was thereforeof great interest to study the mechanisms of its releaseinto the circulation. The insulin zinc suspensions sprovided a simplified system on which theories of therelease of insulin from an insoluble form could be tested.Certain agents also seemed to exert their diabetogenicaction in vivo sby virtue of their power to combine withzinc in the panereatic 3 cells. ,

The Banting lecture was followed by reports of theuse of insulin zinc suspensions in two London hospitals,in Birmingham, in Manchester, and in Dundee. An thespeakers agreed that i.z.s., which contains no added

protein, is less likely to produce local skin reactionsthan the older insulins with long action, but neverthelesssome patients are sensitive even to many times recrys-tallised unmodified insulin. Most accounts referred toincreases of dose required when patients were changedfrom their old insulin to i.z.s. ; this increase was mostnotable in transferring from protamine zinc insulin,presumably because adequate day-time control by thisinsulin is impracticable without causing hypoglycaemiaduring the night or early morning. Sometimes the doseof i.z.s. has to be increased quite dramatically if startedat the same total as that of the old insulin, and it istherefore necessary to follow such patients closely overthe period of transfer. In general these various centresreported successful results with the new insulin ; theydiffered mainly in their assessment as to whether the3:7 proportion of amorphous to crystalline i.z.s. was

hhly to be the most widely applicable.Some Other Subjects

Dr. J. D. N. NABARRO described an interesting study at1-niversity College Hospital of the use of fructose inthe treatment of diabetic ketosis. Fructose had notheen shown to have clear-cut advantages over glucose,

for more than half of the amount administered wasconverted to glucose ; but fructose without insulin C

alleviated mild ketosis.Dr. P. J. RANDLE (Cambridge) spoke on the measure-

ment of plasma-insulin activity by the rat-diaphragmmethod. Both insulin and growth-hormone appearedto be necessary for the diaphragm to take up glucose,and high figures for plasma insulin-like activity werefound in acromegalies, pituitary giants, and a pregnantdiabetic woman. -

Dr. JOHN VALLANCE-OwEN, also using the rat-dia-phragm technique, has so far confirmed the results ofBornstein and Lawrence with the alloxan-diabetichypophysectomised adrenalectomised (A.D.H.A.) rat-

namely, that the older obese diabetics had insulin-likeactivity in their plasma, whereas young patients withdiabetes coming on acutely had none. Moreover the

plasma of such young diabetics apparently inhibited theaction of insulin added in vitro.

Dr. F. V. FLYNN described two cases in which pento-suria had masqueraded as renal glyeosuria. He recom-mended the more widespread application of paperchromatography to recognise these cases.

1. Studies in the Social Services. By SHEILA FERGUSON and HILDEFITZGERALD. History of the Second World War. UnitedKingdom Civil Series, edited by Sir Keith Hancock. London :H.M. Stationery Office and Longmans, Green. 1954. Pp. 367.22s. 6d.

Public Health

Looking BackTHE history of the second world war proceeds on its

way with exemplary smoothness and expedition. As acontinuation of Prof. R. M. Titmuss’s Problems of Social- -Policy we now have a group of studies mainly concernedwith the family. 1 .

The material was collected by Mrs. Ferguson and Mrs.Fitzgerald in the course of preparation for the earlier workand was used only incidentally in its wider reference. AsProfessor Titmuss was unable to fulfil his original intentionof writing up this additional material himself, his collaboratorshave completed the task ; and very well they have done it.This volume has the same remarkable perspective and senseof continuous development as Professor Titmuss’s work, andhis inspiration is evident throughout ; but the authors havetheir individual styles and differing emphases, and the bookis easy and absorbing to read. It is in fact a series of discreteessays on subjects for the most part clearly related, but eachis complete in itself.An introductory chapter by Mrs. Gowing sets the

stage, discussing the growth of Government action andthe ups and downs of the family. We meet again the twothemes which dominated Professor Titmuss’s book andrun right through these studies-the halting pursuit ofevents by official action, and the astonishing resilience,courage, and independence of the people of this country.The next chapter deals with the Emergency Maternity

Service, primarily designed to deal with evacuees andwomen specially evacuated for their confinement, but inthe end forced to cope with the general problem of short-age of maternity accommodation. The story is repeatedof the reluctance of local authorities to provide for

anyone other than their own residents, of the attemptsto recover from those legally responsible, and of theconflict of local and national interest.The next two chapters, dealing with illegitimacy,

provide an illuminating account of the historical develop-ment of services for the unmarried mother, the situationat the outbreak of war, and the steps taken to meet theneed. These are two of the best chapters ; for this tale hasnot often been told and false impressions are rife. Thoseconcerned in the work will be startled to see what a longway they travelled during the years of war ; those on theoutskirts will be equally astonished to learn that, so farfrom revealing a period of unbridled licentiousness, theincrease in the illegitimate birth-rate concealed an actualdecline in the number of premarital conceptions for every