SEVENTH EDITION
INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITYToward an Integration
WALTER MISCHELColumbia University
YUICHI SHODAUniversity of Washington
RONALD E. SMITHUniversity of Washington
WILEY
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
PREFACE AND TEXT ORGANIZATION Hi
ORIENTATION TO PERSONALITY 1
What Is Personality Psychology? 1Stable, Coherent Individual Differences 1Describing, Predicting, Understanding 2Defining Personality 3
Theory and Levels of Analysis in Personality Psychology 4Early "Big Picture" Theory 4From Grand Theories to Levels of Analysis 5
Levels of Analysis: Organization of This Book 6In Focus 1.1 The Personal Side of the Science 7The Trait-Dispositional Level 8The Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 8The Phenomenological Level 9The Behavioral-Conditioning Level 10The Social Cognitive Level 11The Biological Level 12Levels of Analysis Applied to Understand Unexpected Aggression:
The Texas Tower Killer 12Integration of Levels: The Person as a Whole 15Practical Applications: Coping and
Personal Adaptation 16Summary 17Key Terms 18
CHAPTER 2 DATA, METHODS, AND TOOLS 19
Why a Science of Personality? BeyondHindsight Understanding 19
In Focus 2.1 Gary W, the Text's C a s e -Gary's Self-Description 21
The Range of Personality-Relevant Measures 21Interviews 22Tests and Self-Reports 22In Focus 2.2 Early Personality Measurement 23Projective Measures 23Naturalistic Observation and Behavior Sampling 23Remote Behavior Sampling: Daily Life Experiences 26Physiological Functioning and Brain Imaging 27
XI
xii > Contents
Conceptual and Methodological Tools 29Constructs and Operational Definitions 29An Example: Defining the Construct of Aggression 30
Establishing Relationships Among Observations 31Correlation: What Goes with What? 31Interpreting Correlations 33,
Reliability and Validity of Observations and Measures 34Reliability: Are the Measurements Consistent? 34Validity: What Is Being Measured? 34
Content Validity 34Criterion Validity 35Construct Validity: Elaborating the Meaning
of the Construct 35The Experimental Approach 36
Independent and Dependent Variables 36Experimental and Control Groups 36Double-Blind Designs 37
Ethics in Personality Research 37Summary 39Key Terms 40
PARTI
THE TRAIT-DISPOSITIONAL LEVEL 41
P R E L U D E TO PART I: The Trait-Dispositional Level 41
CHAPTER 3 TYPES AND TRAITS 43
Types and Traits 44Types 44Traits: Individual Differences on Dimensions 44
Traits Defined 44In Focus 3.1 An Example: Type A Personality 45
Describing and Explaining 46Trait Attributions 47Gordon Allport 47Raymond B. Cattell 49Hans J. Eysenck 51
Common Features of Trait Theories 53Inferring Traits from Behavioral Signs 53Generality and Stability of Traits 54Traits and States Distinguished 54Search for Basic Traits 54Quantification 55Aggregating Across Situations to
Increase Reliability 55
Contents A jdii
Taxonomy of Human Attributes 56Psycholexical Approach 56The "Big Five" Trait Dimensions 56Factor Analysis to Find Dimensions: The NEO-PI-R 57Supportive Evidence for Five-Factor Model 60Stability of Traits over Time 61Links Between the Perceiver and Perceived:
Valid Ratings 63Personality Judgments to Predict Behavior 64In Focus 3.2 Prototypes: "Typical" People 65Interaction of Traits and Situations 66Are Traits Explanations or Summaries? 66
Summary 67Key Terms 68
CHAPTER 4 THE EXPRESSIONS OF DISPOSITIONS 69
Traits, Situations, and the Personality Paradox 70Individual Differences in Behavior Tendencies 70The Intuitive Assumption of Consistency 70The 1968 Challenge 70The Paradox Defined 71
Incorporating Situations Into Traits 71In Focus 4.1 The Person versus Situation Debate 72If. . . Then .. . Situation-Behavior Signatures 73Evidence for Signatures Indicative of
Personality Types 74Gary W s Behavioral Signatures 75Behavioral Signatures of Different Personality Types 75
The Narcissistic Signature 76The Signature of Rejection Sensitivity 77
Two Types of Consistency 78Uses of the Two Types of Consistency 78
Interactionism in Personality Psychology 80The Meaning of Person X Situation Interaction 80
An Example: Uncertainty Orientation 80Definition of Triple Typology 81
In Focus 4.2 A Triple Typology for Hostility 82Interaction as a Rule in Science 83Resolution of the Personality Paradox 83
, Summary: Expressions of Consistency inTraits-Dispositions 84
Summary 86Key Terms 86Taking Stock Part I: The Trait-Dispositional Level 87
Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 87Enduring Contributions of the
Trait-Dispositional Level 88
xiv • Contents
PART II
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC-MOTTVATIONAL LEVEL 91
P R E L U D E TO PART II: The Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 91
CHAPTER 5 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES: FREUD'S CONCEPTIONS 93
Basic Assumptions: Unconscious Mental Determinism 95The Unconscious 95The Roads to the Unconscious 96
Dreams 96Free Association 97
In Focus 5.1 Encouraging Free Association 97Psychic Structure: Anatomy of the Mind 97
The Id: At the Core 98The Pleasure Principle 98
' Sexual and Aggressive Instincts 98Primary Process Thinking 98
The Ego: Tester of Reality 99The Reality Principle 99
The Superego: High Court in Pursuit of Perfection 99Conflict, Anxiety, and Psychodynamics 100
Conflict 100Defense: Denial and Repression 101Libido 102
Neurosis 102When Defenses Fail: Neurotic Anxiety and Conflict 102
Development of Neurotic Anxiety 102The Meaning of Neurotic Acts 103
Origins of Neuroses 103The Psychopathology of Everyday Life: "Mistakes"
That Betray 104Motivational Determinism: Unconscious Causes 104
Personality Development 105Stages of Development 106
Oral 106Anal 106Phallic 106Latency 106Genital 107
In Focus 5.2 How Oral Is the Infant? 107Fixation and Regression 108Freud's Theory of Identification 108
Impact of Freud's Theories 109Image of the Person 109The Healthy Personality 110Behaviors as Symptoms 110
Summary 111Key Terms 112
Contents ^ xv
CHAPTER 6 POST-FREUDIAN PSYCHODYNAMICSAND MOTIVES 113
Toward Ego Psychology and the Self 114Anna Freud and the Ego Defense Mechanisms 114
Transformation of Motives 115Projection 116Reaction Formation 116Rationalization 117Sublimation 117
Carl Jung 118Alfred Adler 121Erich Fromm 123Erik Erikson 123
Object Relations Theory and the Self 125"Good-Bad Splitting" 126The Development of Self 127
Attachment: The Roots of Object Relations 127Attachment Theory 128Early Attachment Relations: Secure/Insecure Attachment Patterns 128Attachment in Adult Relationships 129Kohut's Theory 131
Murray, the Harvard Personologists, and Higher Motives 134Higher Order Motives 134Competence Motivation 135Need for Achievement 136In Focus 6.1 The Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT) 136Need for Power 137Need for Intimacy 138Implicit Methods for Assessing Motives 138
Summary 139Key Terms 140
CHAPTER 7 PSYCHODYNAMIC PROCESSES 141
Anxiety and Unconscious Defenses 142The Concept of Unconscious Repression 142
Repression versus Suppression 143Studying Repression 143
Perceptual Defense 144The Long History of Perceptual Defense 144Limitations of Early Laboratory Studies 145
The Cognitive Unconscious 145Experimental Evidence for Unconscious Processes 146The Repressed Memory Debate 146
Return of the Repressed 147Did It Really Happen? 147The Power of Suggestion 147
The Risk of Excessive Skepticism 148Optimistic Prospects for the Future of the Unconscious 148
xvi P- Contents
Patterns of Defense: Individual Differences in Cognitive Avoidance 148Repression-Sensitization 148In Focus 7.1 Person-Situation Interaction in Repressive Tendencies 149Selective Attention 150Blunting versus Monitoring Styles 151The Role of Control: When Don't You Want to Know? 152Matching the Medical Information to the Patient's Style 153
Personality Assessment 154The Core Beneath the Mask 154 ^Reiving on the Clinician 154Projective Methods 154The Rorschach Test 155Assessment with the TAT 156In Focus 7.2 Gary's TAT Stories 156Studying Lives in Depth 157Assessment Strategy: Diagnostic Council 157Selecting U.S. Spies: The OSS Assessment Project 158From Situational Tests to Psychodynamic Inferences 158
Treatment and Change 159Free Association and Dream Interpretation 159In Focus 7.3 Today's View of Freud's Theory of Trauma 160The Transference Relationship and Working Through 161Relational Therapy and Restoration of the Self 162Alternative Psychodynamic Interpretations of Gary W. 163
Summary 163Key Terms 164Taking Stock Part II: The Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 165
Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 165Enduring Contributions of the Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 166
PART III
THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL LEVEL 169
PRELUDE TO PART III: The Phenomenological Level 169
CHAPTER 8 PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS 171
Sources of Phenomenological Perspectives 173Allport's Functional Autonomy 173Lewin's Life Space 173Phenomenology and Existentialism: The Here and Now 176
George Kelly's Psychology of Personal Constructs 177The Person's Constructs 177A Personal Construct Conceptualization of Gary W. 179
Rationality-Emotionality 179Power and Control versus Dependence and Weakness 179Defeat-Success 179Security-Liberty 179
Contents -4 xvii
Behavioral Referents for Personal Constructs 180Exploring the Meaning Underlying Puzzling Behavior Patterns 181People as Scientists 182Constructive Alternativism: Many Ways to See 183Roles: Many Ways to Be 183People Are What They Make of Themselves: Self-Determination 184
Carl Rogers 'Sel f Theory 184Unique Experience: The Subjective World 184Self-Actualization 185The Self 185 ^In Focus 8.1 Self-Actualization as a Need (Maslow) 186Consistency and Positive Regard 187Client-Centered Therapy 189Rogers Reflects on His Own Work 190
C o m m o n Themes and Issues 191Potential for Growth and Change 191
Summary 192Key Terms 193
CHAPTER 9 THE INTERNAL VIEW 194
Exploring Internal Experience 194Why Self Matters: Consequences of Self-Discrepancies 195In Focus 9.1 Effects of Self-Discrepancy: Anorexia 198The View Through the Persons Eyes 198Uses of Self-Assessment 199The Q-Sort Technique 200Interviews 201The Semantic Differential 201Nonverbal Communication 202Studying Lives from the Inside 203
The Whole Person: Psychobiography 203Life Stories: Personal Narratives 203
Enhancing Self-Awareness: Accessing One's Experiences 204Group Experiences 204Meditation 206The Persons Experience and the Unconscious 207Accessing Painful Emotions: Hypnotic Probing 208Peering into Consciousness: Brain Images of
Subjective Experiences 209The Value of Self-Disclosure about Subjective Experiences 209In Focus 9.2 Caution: Rumination Can Increase Depression 210
Change and Well-Being 210The Meaningful Life, the Healthy Personality 210
Summary 212Key Terms 213Taking Stock Part III: The Phenomenological Level 214
Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 214Enduring Contributions of the Phenomenological Level 215
xviii •• Contents
PART IV
THE BEHAVIORAL-CONDITIONING LEVEL 217
PRELUDE TO PART IV: The Behavioral-Conditioning Level 217
CHAPTER 10 BEHAVIORAL CONCEPTIONS 220
The Behavioral Approach to Psychodynamics: Dollard and Miller 221Primary Needs and Learning 221 f
Drive 222Cue 223Response 223Reinforcement 223Conflict 223
Neurotic Conflict: The Core 225Anxiety and Repression 225Psychodynamic Behavior Theory 225
Classical Conditioning: Learning Emotional Associations 226How Classical Conditioning Works 226Higher-Order Conditioning 227In Focus 10.1 A Behavioral Challenge to the Psychodynamic
Theory of Neurosis 230From Trauma to Anxiety 231
Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning: Learning fromResponse Consequences 232
How Instrumental or Operant Conditioning Works 232Summary of Two Types of Conditioning 233
B. F. Skinner's Influence on Personality 233Importance of the Situation 234Rejection of Inferred Motives 235Identifying Stimuli (Situations) Controlling Behavior 236Conditioned Generalized Reinforcers 238Discrimination and Generalization in Everyday Life 238Shaping Behavior by Successive Approximations 240The Patterning of Outcomes: Schedules of Reinforcement 240Superstitions: Getting Reinforced into Irrationality 241Punishment 241
Summary 242Key Terms 243
CHAPTER 11 ANALYZING AND MODIFYING BEHAVIOR 244
Characteristics of Behavioral Assessments 245Case Example: Conditions "Controlling" Gary's AnxietyDirect Behavior Measurement 246
Situational Behavior Sampling 246Verbal Behavior 248
Finding Effective Rewards 248
245
Contents "4 jdx
Assessing Conditions Controlling Behavior 249Functional Analyses: Case Example 250
Changing Emotional Reactions 252Desensitization: Overcoming Anxiety 252Conditioned Aversion: Making Stimuli Unattractive 255An Example: Treating Cocaine Dependency 255
Changing Behavior 256Case Example: Hyperactivity 256In Focus 11.1 Rewards May Backfire 257Contingency Contracting 258 v-Symptom Substitution? 258Evaluating the Consequences of Behavior, Not the Person 259Does Changing Behavior Change Personality? 260Unexpected Similarities: Behavior Theory and Existentialism 261In Focus 11.2 Depression: More than Insufficient
Reinforcement 263Summary 264Key Terms 265Taking Stock Part IV: The Behavioral-Conditioning Level 266
Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 266Enduring Contributions of the Behavioral-
Conditioning Level 266
PARTV
THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEVEL 269
P R E L U D E TO PART V: The Social Cognitive Level 269
CHAPTER 12 SOCIAL COGNITIVE CONCEPTIONS 271
Development of the Social Cognitive Perspective 271Historical Roots 271Cognitive Processes Underlying Behavior 272
Observational Learning (Modeling): Albert Bandura 273Learning through Observation 273Observing Other People s Outcomes: What Happens to Them Might
Happen to You 275Rules and Symbolic Processes 275New Directions 276
Social Cognitive Person Variables 276Encodings (Construals): How Do You See It? 277Expectancies and Beliefs: What Will Happen? 278In Focus 12.1 Self-Efficacy and Its Implications 279
The Role of Self-Efficacy 279Affects: Feelings and "Hot" Reactions 280Goals and Values: What Do You Want? What Is It Worth? 280What Can You Do? Overcoming Stimulus Control 281In Focus 12.2 On the History of Person Variables 282
xx !• Contents
The Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS) 283Structure and Dynamics 283View of the Person: Gary W. 284
Assessing Person Variables and Dynamics 284Gary's Ways of Encoding Experience and Himself 285Affect and Distress Reactions 285Gary's Rejection Sensitivity Dynamics (Interpersonal Domain) 285Expectancies, Values, and Goals 286
Common Themes 287Summary 289Key Terms 290
CHAPTER 13 SOCIAL COGNITIVE PROCESSES 291
The Self 292The "I" and the "Me" 292The Self as a Basic Schema 292
Self-Schemas 293The Relational Self and Transference 293
The Relational Self 293Transference Reconsidered 294
Perceived Stability of Self and Potential for Change 295Multiple Self-Concepts: Possible Selves 296Self-Esteem and Self-Evaluation 297
Costs of Self-Esteem Pursuit 299Features and Functions of the Self: Overview 299
Causal Attributions, Helplessness, and Mastery 300Causal Attributions Influence Emotions and Outcomes 300
Pride and Shame 300Learned Helplessness and Apathy 300In Focus 13.1 The Perception of Control and Meaningfulness 301Pessimistic Explanatory Styles 303Learned Optimism 303In Focus 13.2 The Illusory Warm Glow of Optimism 304Helpless versus Mastery-Oriented Children 305Incremental versus Entity Theories: Your Own Personality Theory Matters 306
Personality Assessment 307Measuring Self-Efficacy Expectancies 308Individual Differences in If. . . then . . . Signatures 309The Implicit Association Test (IAT) 310
Personality Change and Therapy 311Social Cognitive Influences 312Cognitive Behavior Therapy 313Beck's Cognitive Therapy 314
Summary 315Key Terms 316Taking Stock Part V: The Social Cognitive Level 317
Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 317Enduring Contributions of the Social Cognitive Level 318
Contents 4 xxi
PART VI
THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL 321
PRELUDE TO PART VI: The Biological Level 321
CHAPTER 14 HEREDITY AND PERSONALITY 323
Genetic Bases of Personality 323The Human Genome: The Genetic Heritage 323The Twin Method 324Results of Twin Studies 325
The Big Five 325Temperaments 326Attitudes and Beliefs 328Aggressive and Altruistic Tendencies 328Romantic Love 329
Twins Reared Apart 329Beyond Self-Report Measures 330In Focus 14.1 Understanding Heritability and the Heritability Index 331Heredity versus Environment: Another False Dichotomy 332Summary 333
Gene-Environment Interplay 333The Unique (Nonshared) Psychological Environment of Each Family Member 334
Environmental Influences Within the Family 334Environmental Influences Outside the Family 335
Interactions Among Nature-Nurture Influences 336Genes Also Influence Environments 337Search for Specific Gene-Behavior Connections 338Causal Mechanisms: The Role of Neurotransmitter Systems 339Genetic and Environmental Influences on Person X Situation Interactions 341Social Environments Change the Expression of Genes,
the Brain, and Personality 341Stress is Bad for Your Brain 341
Summary 343Key Terms 343
CHAPTER 15 EVOLUTION, BRAIN, AND PERSONALITY 344
Evolutionary Theory and Personality 344The Evolutionary Approach 344Implications of Evolution for Personality 346
Mate Selection 346Sexual Jealousy 346Explanations Are Not Justifications 347Altruism 347
Evolutionary Theory and Inborn Constraints on LearningBiological Preparedness 348Evolution of Fears 348
347
xxii S> Contents
Specificity of Psychological Mechanisms 349The Value of Discriminativeness in Coping with Stress 350
Brain-Personality Links 350In Focus15.1 An Early Effort: Physique and Personality? 351Biological Bases ofExtraversion-Introversion (H. J. Eysenck) 352The Behavioral Inhibition and Activation Systems 354Brain Asymmetry and Emotional Reactivity 354Summary and Implications 355Sensation Seeking: A Trait with a Specific Biological Basis? 356In Focus 15.2 Testosterone and the Antisocial Personality 358
Biological Assessment and Change 359New Windows on the Brain 359Biological Therapies 361
Antidepressants 361Antipsychotics 361Tranquilizers 362Other Common Drugs 362
Summary 363Key Terms 364Taking Stock Part VI: The Biological Level of Analysis 365
Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 365Enduring Contributions of the Biological Level 365
PART VII
INTEGRATION OF LEVELS: THE PERSON AS A WHOLE 367
PRELUDE TO PART VII: The Integration of Levels 367Overview of Contributions from Each Level 367
CHAPTER 16 PERSONALITY IN THE PURSUIT OF GOALS 371
Approach-Avoidance Dispositions in Goal Pursuit 372The Biological Level: BIS and BAS 372The Trait-Dispositional Level 372The Phenomenological Level: Positive-Negative Moods 373The Social Cognitive Level: Promotion-Prevention Focus 375In Focus 16.1 Studying Promotion versus Prevention Pride 376Convergence with Evolutionary Theory 377Linking Dispositions to Situations 378Links to the Psychodynamic-Motivational and
Behavioral Levels 378The Goal Pursuit Process 380
Life Tasks, Personal Goals, and Projects 380Illustrative Processing Dynamics: Thinking about a Career 381Encoding/Appraisal of the Situation 383
Self-Relevance 383Emotional Meanings 383Biological and Trait-Dispositional Levels 384
Contents -4 xxiii
Expectancies and Beliefs 384Self-Efficacy Expectancies 384Perceived Control and Predictability 385Outcome Expectancies 385Enhancing Self-Efficacy in Goal Pursuit 385
Affects/Emotions 386"Hot" Emotions and Impulsive Reactions 386Tuning in to the Wrong Thoughts: Anxiety 386
Goals/Values, Motivations 387Goal Hierarchies 387Standards and Self-Evaluation 387Acquisition of Standards 388Bypassing Self-Standards 388Activation of Self-Standards: From Mindlessness to
Self-Focus 388Alternative Routes in Effective Goal Pursuit 389
Summary 390Key Terms 391
CHAPTER 17 SELF-REGULATION: FROM GOAL PURSUIT TOGOAL ATTAINMENT 392
Self-Regulatory Processes 393Why Self-Regulate? 393
Automaticity 393Beyond AutomatidtyP 394
Approach (Appetitive) and Avoidance (Aversive) Dilemmas 394Willpower 394Motivation and Competence 395
The Biological Level: Executive Functions 395Brain Mechanisms in Effortful Control 395Self-Report Measures 396
The Trait-Dispositional Level 396Ego Control and Ego Resilience 396
The Social Cognitive and Phenomenological Levels 398Cognitions, Emotions, and Attention in Self-Regulation 398
Emotional Regulation in Approach (Appetitive) Dilemmas 399Delay of Gratification as a Basic Human Task 399
The Goal-Directed Delay Situation 400Cooling Strategies: It's How You Think That Counts 401
Strategic Self-Distraction 401Hot and Cool Construal 402Flexible Attention 403
Emotional Regulation in Avoidance (Aversive) Dilemmas 403Cognitive Transformations to Deal with Stress 404In Focus 17.1 Cooling Unwanted Emotions: Cognitive Reappraisal is
Better Than Denying Negative Feelings 405Interaction Among Levels: Hot and Cool Systems in
Self-Regulation 405
xxiv • Contents
The Emotional (Hot) Brain/The Rational (Cool) Brain 406Bodily Changes: Emotion in Stress 406Fight or Flight Reactions 406The Hot Amygdala 407The Rational Cool Brain 408
Biosocial Model of Self-Regulation: Hot System/Cool System Interaction 408Attention Control 408
In Focus 17.2 Neural Mechanisms in Impulsive Violence 409Social Emotions Enable Self-Regulation: Links to Evolution 410
Self-Regulatory Competence 410A Stable Person Variable 410
Long-Term Stability of Self-Regulatory Competence 410Long- Term Protective Effects 411The Down-Side of Self-Regulation 412
Conclusions 413Potential for Self-Directed Change 413
In Focus 17.3 Gary W's Self-Regulatory System 414Summary 415Key Terms 416
CHAPTER 18 PERSONALITY IN ITS CONTEXT AND CULTURE 417
Personality System in Action 417Personality Dispositions and Dynamics 418Sources of System Activation 419Expressions of the System—and Their Consequences 419
Interacting Influences of Biology and Culture ~ 420Interacting Influences on Personality Development 420Biology-Trait-Socialization Interactions: Shyness 421
Gender and Sex Differences 422Overview and Issues 422
Neonatal Sex Differences 422Gender Concepts 423Expression of Gender-Relevant Behavior 423
Interactions of Biology, Sex, and Culture in Response to Threat 423In Focus 18.1 Adult Sex Differences and Their Implications 424
Men Fight or Flee: Women Tend and Befriend 425Interactions in the Genesis of Gender Roles 426
Culture and Personality 427The Link Between the Cultural and the Personal
Meaning Systems 427Culturally Specific Personality Dispositions 428
Cross-Cultural and Intracultural Differences 429Individualism versus Collectivism 429Summary: Interacting Influences of Biology—Culture
on Personality 429What Develops? The Evolving Self 430
Taking Charge: Human Agency 430The Self-Construction Process ̂ 430
Contents *4 xxv
The Self as an Active Agent 431Self-Direction/Agency 431The Relational Self 431
What Do People Need to Thrive? The View from Multiple Levels 432Potential for Change 434
The Role of Genetics 434The Role of the Brain 434
Summary 435Key Terms 436Taking Stock Part VII: The Integration of Levels 437
Prospects for Personality Psychology 437Personology Revisited 437
Glossary 439
References 455
Photo Credits 489
Name Index 490 •
Subject Index 499