Introduction to Psycholgy Introduction to Psycholgy
Common MisconceptionsPsychology is about giving advicePsychology is common sensePsychology is the study of mental illness
The “Truth” About PsychologyIt’s more than just giving people advice
Around 55% counsel or treat clients but also must do research
Psychology is rooted in scientific study and research
Another truth about psychologyIt is science.
Psychologists test ideas using the scientific method
Research findings don’t always confirm everyday observations
Ideas and observations must stand up to scientific scrutiny
What’s Next: Psychologists at Work
What is the science of psychology?
What are the major specialties in the field of psychology?
Where do psychologists work?
PsychologyPsychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family Tree
Separated by the basic questions about behavior that they address: How do our social networks affect
behavior?How do people sense, perceive, learn,
and think about the world?What are the sources of change and
stability in behavior across a life span?How do psychological factors affect
physical and mental health?How do our social networks affect
behavior?
How Do Our Social Networks Affect Behavior?
Social PsychologyThe study of how people’s thoughts,
feelings, and actions are affected by others
You Tube Connection
How Do Our Social Networks Affect Behavior?
What Are the Biological Foundations of Behavior?Behavioral Neuroscience
Examines how the brain and the nervous system, in addition to other biological processes, determine behavior
How Do Our Social Networks Affect Behavior?
Cross-Cultural Psychology Investigates the similarities and differences in
psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups (e.g., universal emotions)
Forensic PsychologyStudies criminal behavior and legal
systemAnalyze data to make scientific
conclusions
How Do People Sense, Perceive, Learn, and Think about the World?
Experimental Psychology Studies the processes of sensing,
perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world
SubspecialtyCognitive psychology
Studies higher mental processes such as thinking, memory, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and language
What Are the Sources of Change and Stability in Behavior Across the Life Span?
Developmental PsychologyStudies how people grow and
change from the moment of conception through death
Personality Psychology Focuses on the consistency in
people’s behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another
Health Psychology Explores the relationship
between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease
Clinical Psychology Deals with the study, diagnosis,
and treatment of psychological disorders
Counseling Psychology Deals with the study, diagnosis,
and treatment of psychological disorders. Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career-adjustment problems
Our Bodies, Our Minds
Expanding Psychology’s Frontiers
Evolutionary Psychology Considers how behavior is influenced
by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
Behavioral Genetics Seeks to understand how we might
inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences whether we actually display such traits
Expanding Psychology’s Frontiers
Clinical NeuropsychologyUnites the areas of neuroscience and clinical
psychologyFocuses on the origin of psychological disorders in
biological factors
18Figure 1 of Chapter 1
Where Psychologists WorkWhere Psychologists Work
Psychologists: A PortraitBy 2010 women will outnumber men in the fieldVast majority of psychologists in the United States
are whiteSix percent are members of racial minority groups
Limits diversity of the field
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The Education of a Psychologist
PhDDoctor of philosophy
PsyDDoctor of psychology
MA or MS Master’s degree
BA or BSBachelor’s degree
What’s Next: A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future
What are the origins of psychology?
What are the major approaches in contemporary psychology?
A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future
What are psychology’s key issues and controversies?
What is the future of psychology likely to hold?
The Roots ofThe Roots of Psychology Psychology
Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt Focused on uncovering the fundamental mental components of
perception, consciousness, thinking, emotions, and other kinds of mental states and activities
Wundt and his students used an experimental version of introspection -- the careful observation of one’s perceptions -- and outlined some pretty specific details to the method: 1. The observer must know when the experience begins
and ends. 2. The observer must maintain "strained attention." 3. The phenomenon must bear repetition. 4. And the phenomenon must be capable of variation -- i.e. experimentation.
Regarding sensations, for example, it was determined that there are seven "qualities" of sensations: The visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, cutaneous, kinesthetic, and organic.
Class Class DemonstrationDemonstration
Introspection and the Lollipop
The Roots of PsychologyFunctionalism
William James Functionalists are interested in
why and how our thoughts and feelings lead us to behave as we do.
Functionalism focuses on studying the functions/purposes that mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment. Stream of consciousness
The Roots of Psychology Gestalt Psychology
Emphasized how perception is organized “The whole is different from the sum of its parts” Two persons can be perceived, an old woman and a young
woman. As you study the picture you may be able to change your
perceptions from one figure to the other in order to appreciate the process of emerging figures and receding grounds as it occurs in your everyday life.
To arbitrarily change one's focus is an experiment in perception. Such a change in perceptual focus represents more than a trick of
the eye. The perception of a figure emerging from the ground is a
consequence of an internal choice that, although momentary, involves a complex of internal processes.
Today’s PerspectivesToday’s Perspectives
The Neuroscience Perspective: Blood, Sweat, and Fears
Neuroscience PerspectiveConsiders how people and
nonhumans function biologically
The Psychodynamic Perspective: Understanding the Inner Person
Psychodynamic PerspectiveSigmund FreudBehavior is motivated by inner
forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness or control.
The Behavioral Perspective: Observing the Outer Person
Behavioral PerspectiveJohn B. WatsonB.F. SkinnerFocuses on observable behavior
that can be measured objectively
The Cognitive Perspective: Identifying the Roots of Understanding
Cognitive PerspectiveFocuses on how
people think, understand, and know about the world Information
processing
The Humanistic Perspective: The Unique Qualities of the Human Species
Humanistic PerspectiveCarl RogersAbraham MaslowEmphasis is on free willAchieving self-fulfillment
What’s Next: Key Issues
Nature (Heredity) versus Nurture (Environment)
Conscious versus Unconscious causes of behavior
Observable Behavior versus Internal Mental Processes
Free Will versus Determinism
Individual Differences versus Universal Principles
Key Issues
Psychology’s FuturePsychology will become increasingly
specialized and new perspectives will evolve.Neuroscientific approaches will likely influence
other branches of psychology.Influence on issues of public interest will grow. Issues of diversity will become more important
to psychologists providing services and doing research.
What’s Next: Research in Psychology
What is the scientific method?How do psychologists use theory and research
to answer questions of interest?What research methods do psychologists use?How do psychologists establish cause-and-
effect relationships using experiments?
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Scientific MethodApproach used by psychologists to systematically
acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest
Four main steps1. Identifying questions of interest2. Formulating an explanation3. Carrying out research designed to support or
refute the explanation4. Communicating the findings
ScientificScientific MethodMethod
Theories: Specifying Broad Explanations
TheoriesBroad explanations and predictions
concerning phenomena of interestIn science, a theory is an explanation that
generally is accepted to be true.
Hypotheses: Crafting Testable PredictionsHypothesis
Prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested
Stems from theoriesA hypothesis is an educated guess, based on
observation. Usually, a hypothesis can be supported or refuted through experimentation or more observation. A hypothesis can be disproven, but not proven to be true.
Class Class ParticipationParticipation
Hypothesizing at the airport. Generate hypotheses when observing this couple in plane to the Bahamas
Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions
Operational Definition Translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be
measured and observed There is an old saying that you can never be too rich. When it comes to
operational definitions, you can never be too detailed. An operational definition identifies one or more specific observable conditions or events and then tells the researcher how to measure that event. Typically, there are several operational definition possibilities for variables and values. The operation chosen will often have an immediate impact on the course of the research, especially the findings.
Operational definitions must be valid -- do they measure what they are supposed to measure? It is easy to develop definitions that are easily operational, but which lack meaning and appropriateness.
Operational definitions must be reliable -- the results should be the same when done by different people or by one person at different times.
What’s Next: Descriptive Research
ResearchSystematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new
knowledge Descriptive Research
Archival Research Naturalistic Observation Survey Research Case Study
Descriptive Research
Archival ResearchExisting data, such as
census documents, college records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis. Example: Looking at college
records of students’ grades to see if there are gender differences in academic performance
Descriptive Research
Naturalistic Observation An investigator observes some naturally occurring
behavior and does not make a change in the situation Example: Sitting in on a class to see how frequently
male students speak up in class, as opposed to how frequently female students speak up
Descriptive Research
Survey Research A sample of people chosen to represent a larger
group of interest (a population) is asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes. Example: Having a sample of people (an equal number
of male and female students) fill out a questionnaire about their study habits and grades
Descriptive Research
The Case StudyAn in-depth, intensive investigation of a single
individual or a small group Often includes psychological testing
Example: Investigating an academically successful student with dyslexia to find out what specific behaviors led to his academic success. The findings of this investigation could then be used to help other students with dyslexia do better in school.
What’s Next: Correlational Research
Two sets of variables are examined to determine whether they are associated, or correlated. Variables
Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way
Correlation coefficient Positive Negative
Example: Comparing the amount of time spent studying to students’ performance on a test to see if the amount of time students studied affected their test scores
Correlation CoefficientsNumber indicates strength of relationship-1.00 to +1.00Stronger correlations indicate greater
relationship (away from 0), closer to 0 the weaker the relationship
Positive correlationAs one variable increases the other increases
Negative correlationAs one variable increases other decreases;
inverse relationship
Cautions about correlationsDoes not show cause and effect
relationshipOnly shows that variables have a
relationship, not what is the nature of that relationship
Relationship may be caused by a third variable
What’s Next: Experimental ResearchA researcher investigates the relationship
between two or more variables by deliberately changing one variable in a controlled situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation. Experimental manipulation
Experimental ResearchExperimental Groups and
Control GroupsTreatment
Manipulation implemented by the experimenter
Experimental group Receives a treatment
Control group Receives no treatment Rules out other reasons for
change
Experimental Research
Independent and Dependent Variables Independent
The condition that is manipulated by an experimenter
Dependent The variable that is measured and is expected
to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable
Confounding Problematic variables, variables that may
influence relationship-Need to control for these
Experimental ResearchRandom Assignment of
Participants To make the experiment a valid
test of the hypothesis
Random Assignment to Condition Participants are assigned to
different experimental groups or conditions on the basis of chance.
57Figure 6 of Chapter 1
Designing an ExperimentDesigning an Experiment
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Experimental ResearchSignificant Outcome
Using statistical analysis, researchers can determine whether a numeric difference is a real difference or is merely due to chance.
ReplicationRepeating experiment
Meta-analysis
Necessary Conditions for Experiments
Variables must be controlled or manipulated
Participants are randomly assigned within the study
Then and only then can it show cause and effect
Review: Controlling/ManipulatingTypes of variables
Independent (IV)Manipulated variable; effect
Dependent (DV)Variable that measures results of
having manipulated the IV; effectConfounding
Problematic variables, variables that may influence relationship
Need to control for these
Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias
Experimental Bias
Factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment Experimenter expectations
Participant expectations Placebo
Willingness to make “risky predictions”
Confirmation bias.Tendency to look for or pay attention only to
information that confirms one’s own belief.Principle of Falsifiability.
A scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to expose the theory to the possibility of disconfirmation; that is, the theory must predict not only what will happen, but also what will not happen.
Let’s Review
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See additional
What’s Next: The Ethics of Research
APA Code of Ethics
The History of EthicsTHE NUREMBERG CODE [from Trials of
War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10. Nuremberg, October 1946–April 1949. Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O, 1949–1953.]
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General PrinciplesTheir intent is to guide and inspire psychologists
toward the very highest ethical ideals of the profession.
Principle A: Beneficence and NonmaleficencePrinciple B: Fidelity and ResponsibilityPrinciple C: IntegrityPrinciple D: JusticePrinciple E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity
The Ethics of Research Types of psychological research conducted prior
to the development of Institutional Review Boards Emotions. Ax (1953) conducted a study to compare the experience of
fear and anger. In the anger condition, the experimenter criticized the participant and roughly adjusted the electrodes used for measurement; in the fear condition, the polygraph “malfunctioned” emitting sparks, and the experimenters made comments in front of the participant regarding the presence of a dangerous high voltage short circuit.
Conditioned Fear. Watson & Raynor (1920) demonstrated a conditioned emotional response (fear) by 11-month old Little Albert, an unsuspecting infant placed in Watson’s care while his mother was at work. In this study, Watson used the principles of classical conditioning described by Pavlov to demonstrate that fear can be conditioned to a previous neutral stimulus.
The Ethics of Research Types of psychological research conducted prior
to the development of Institutional Review Boards Obedience. Milgram’s (1974) experimental research
examined obedience to authority. Participants, who served as teachers in an apparent study on learning, administered “lethal” shocks to the learners based upon the command of the experimenter.
Milgrim’s
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The Ethics of ResearchInformed Consent
Participants sign a document affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve.
They are informed about any risks the experiment may hold and the fact that their participation is purely voluntary.
They also are told that they may terminate their participation at any time.
You Tube Connection
Should Animals Be Used in Should Animals Be Used in Research?Research?
Procedures that cause animals distress are permitted only when an alternative procedure is not available and when the research is justified by its prospective value.
Researchers are required to promote the psychological well-being of some research animals, such as primates.
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Social Anxiety
Symptoms of Social Anxiety
The fear of being scrutinized, judged, or embarrassed in public.
You may be afraid that people will think badly of you or that you won’t measure up in comparison to others.
And even though you probably realize that your fears of being judged are at least somewhat irrational and overblown, you still can’t help feeling anxious.
Return
Let’s look at it from different types of research
• Descriptive Research– Archival– Naturalistic Observation– Case Study– Survey
• Correlational Research• Experimental
Research
5 Minutes and 23 5 Minutes and 23 secondsseconds Paper Paper
5 Minutes and 23 seconds PaperThe Nazis are known for using human subjects in their medical experiments to research such fields as medicine and genetics. These unethical experiments were never short on subjects because the Nazis forced the prisoners in concentration camps to participate.These Nazi medical experiments usually subjected these prisoners to a great deal of pain and, in many cases, led to their deaths.
Hypothermia
To prepare the troops for the extreme cold, Nazi doctors conducted experiments on how extreme cold affected the human body and on how to resuscitate someone after someone succumbed to such temperatures. Often, the same subject would be frozen and heated over and over again during one testing session. Another experiment was to heat water to near boiling temperatures and then forcefully rrigating the body by running the water through the stomach, bladder, and intestines.
The medical field benefitted from this research but it is argued by some that the findings from these experiments should NOT be used to improve care at present because these findings came from unethical experimentation.
What is your opinion? Should we take the findings from unethical experiments to inform our work now or should we NOT because these findings came from unethical experimentation?