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Introduction toRadiography Industrial
application& Safety Aspects
1
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O utline
ElectromagneticRadiation
General Principlesof Radiography
Sources of
Radiation – Gamma Radiography
– X-ray Radiography
• Imaging Modalities – Film Radiography – Computed Radiography – Real-Time Radiography
•Radiation Safety
•Advantages andLimitations
•Glossary of Terms
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Introduction
Radiography uses penetrating radiationthat is directed towards a component.
The component stops some of theradiation. The amount that is stoppedor absorbed is aected by materialdensity and thicness dierences.
These dierences in !absorption" canbe recorded on #lm$ or electronically.
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G eneral Principles of Radiography
Top view of developed film
X-ray film
The part is plaed !etween the
radiation soure and a piee of film"
The part will stop some of the
radiation" Thi#er and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation"
$ more e%posure
$ less e%posure
The film dar#ness
&density' will vary with
the amount of radiation
reahing the filmthrough the test o!(et"
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G eneral Principles of Radiography
The energy of the radiation aects itspenetrating power. %igher energy radiationcan penetrate thicer and more densematerials.
The radiation energy and&or e'posure timemust be controlled to properly image theregion of interest.Thin Walled Area
Low Energy Radiation High energy Radiation
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W hat is Radiation? Form of energy (e.g. Chemical, Magnetic,
Electrical, Heat, Sound, Radiation) Radiation Energy: Emitted by nucleus of
atom or orbital electron
Released in form of electromagneticwaves or particles
6
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The Electrom agnetic Spectrum
W aveform of Radiation
NONIONIZING IONIZING
Radio
Microwaves
Inrared
!isi"le light
#ltraviolet
$%rays
Ga&&a rays
7
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D ifference bet een ioni!ing and non"ioni!ing radiation
Energy le(els) Ionizing radiation has enough energy to brea
apart (ionize) material with which it comes incontact (noc o! e")
#on ionizing radiation does not
8
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Sources of Radiation Exposure
#aturally occurring sources $ ground% atmosphere%cosmic
Environmental radiation $ power plants% nuclear
ships & submarine
'edical procedures (patient) $ "ray% chemo"therapy
ccupational sources (worer) " airports% metros%industrial radiography
9
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Radiation Sources
Two of the most commonly used sourcesof radiation in industrial radiography are'-ray generators and gamma ray sources.*ndustrial radiography is often subdi(idedinto !X-ray Radiography" or !Gamma
Radiography"$ depending on the source ofradiation used.
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)R*)+RT, *F GAMMA RA,S
Electromagnetic rays lie *"rays
+aving a ,nite energy
-ble to interact with matter
illing a of cell by splitting /#- or
0y forming free radicals
11
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S+S *F GAMMA RA,S FR*M IS*T*)+S
+E,**E
/GR*01T0RE
*,0STR2
%E1/T% /RE
RESE/R%
12
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LIST *F IS*T*)+S
0.66Fission
yield~ 6
Fission30 ye
ars
Cs137
0.06
4,0.052
130
barns
Tm169
(n, )Tm170127
da ys
Tm170
1.17
1.33
37barn
s
Co59 (n, )Co60
5.27 years
Co60
0.29
6o0.613
370
barns
!r 191 (n, )
!r 192
74.4
da ys
!r 192
γ -Energy
MeV
Act.crosssecti
on
ProductionProcess
Halflife
!soo"e
13
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#"Ray
1enetrating electromagnetic waves $ cancause internal damage
2an pass through soft tissue% but not bone
riginate in outer part of atom
3sed in medical procedures (diagnostic% 24%Fluoroscopy" is an imaging techni6ue that uses *"rays to obtainreal"time moving images of the internal structures of a patient through
the use of a 7uoroscope)
Energy inversely proportional to wavelength
4he shorter the wave% the stronger the energy 14
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G am m a Radiography
Gamma rays are produced bya radioisotope.
/ radioisotope has anunstable nuclei that does notha(e enough binding energy tohold the nucleus together.
The spontaneous breadownof an atomic nucleus resultingin the release of energy andmatter is nown as radioacti(edecay.
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G am m a Radiography
$cont%&0nlie X-rays$ which areproduced by a machine$ gammarays cannot be turned o.Radioisotopes used for gammaradiography are encapsulated
to pre(ent leaage of thematerial.
The radioative .apsule/ is
attahed to a a!le to formwhat is often alled a .pigtail"/
The pigtail has a speialonnetor at the other end
that attahes to a drive a!le"
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G am m a Radiography
$cont%&/ de(ice called a !camera" is used to store$transport and e'pose the pigtail containingthe radioacti(e material. The cameracontains shielding material which reduces
the radiographer3s e'posure to radiationduring use.
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G am m a Radiography
$cont%&/ hose-lie de(icecalled a guidetube is connected
to a threaded holecalled an !e'itport" in thecamera.
The radioacti(ematerial will lea(eand return to thecamera through
this opening whenerformin an
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G am m a Radiography
$cont%&/ !dri(e cable" isconnected to the otherend of the camera. Thiscable$ controlled by the
radiographer$ is used toforce the radioacti(ematerial out into theguide tube where thegamma rays will pass
through the specimenand e'pose the recordingde(ice.
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#"ray Radiography
0nlie gamma rays$ '-rays are produced byan X-ray generator system. These systemstypically include an X-ray tube head$ a high(oltage generator$ and a control console.
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#"ray Radiography $cont%&
X-rays are produced by establishing a (ery high (oltagebetween two electrodes$ called the anode and cathode.
To pre(ent arcing$ the anode and cathode are locatedinside a (acuum tube$ which is protected by a metalhousing.
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#"ray Radiography $cont%&
The cathode contains asmall #lament much thesame as in a light bulb.
urrent is passed through
the #lament which heats it.The heat causes electronsto be stripped o.
The high (oltage causesthese !free" electrons tobe pulled toward a target
material 5usually made oftungsten6 located in theanode.
The electrons impactagainst the target. This
impact causes an energye'change which causes '-
0igh +letrial )otential
+letrons
-1
2-ray Generator
or Radioative
Soure Creates
Radiation
+%posure Reording 3evie
Radiation)enetratethe Sample
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- unit is necessary for the measurement
of any physical 6uantity.
4he International 2ommission on
Radiation 3nits and 'easurements(I2R3) reviews and updates
""""3nits of radiology
- few of the 6uantities and units that areused in the ,eld of ionizing radiation.
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT
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'ctivity $'&
*t is de#ned as the number of nuclear
transformation 5or disintegration6 per secondfor radioacti(e material.
0nit ) 7ec8uerel 5786
9 78 : 9 transformation per second
: 9 dps
;ld unit of acti(ity is urie 5i6
9 i : 9> 78
:
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Exposure (X)
It is a measure of amount of photons ("rays or gamma rays) present in a locationof interest. (1hoton Flu).
Eposure is de,ned as the amount ofcharge ( in coulomb) produced by radiationin 8 g of air.
9I 3nit : 2oulomb per g (2g)
ld unit : Roentgen (R)
8 R ; 8electrostatic unit of charge(E93)
8 cc of air at (941)
; 8?"@ 2g
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/bsorbed dose 5,6
It is the amount of energy absorbed perunit mass of matter at the point of interest.
,) absorbed dose
E) energy absorbed by material of
mass @m3
/ose of 8 Ay corresponds to energyabsorption of 8 Boule per 8 ilogram of theirradiated material.
D = E/m
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(ER) ' $(& ER'-" inetic Energy Released in the
'edium. It is a measure of amount of total energy
transferred by photons ("rays or gammarays) interacting in the medium.
erma is de,ned as the sum of the initialinetic energies of all charged particlesliberated by radiation in material of mass8 g.
3nit : Boule per g (Bg) 9I 3nit : Aray (Ay)
Chen the reference material is air% the6uantity is called air erma
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* + ITS O , '-SO R-ED D O SE
The SI unit: Gray (Gy) 1 Gy = 1 joule/kilogram
Old unit : rad (Radiation Aborbed!oe)
9 rad : 9>> ergs & gm : 9>-
A Gy
1 Gy=1"" rad(1 erg = 9>-= Boules6
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O ld . + e * nits
QuantityUnit
RelationshipOld New
Radioactivity Ci ! 1 ! " #$27 % 1#&1# Ci
'%posu(e R C ) *+ 1 C *+ &1 " 3876 R
,i( *e(-a & .y 1 ,i( *e(-a " 114 R
/ose Rad .y 1 .y " 1## Rad
'!uivalent/ose
Re- 0v 1 0v " 1## (e-s
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31
RT TECHNIQUES
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CASSETTE HOLDER
FILM SCREEN
RA'IOGRA(H)
SOURCE
WELD
JOB
I#I
&R,0 ) .,, R,0
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33
RT % TE*HNI+#E,
1 SWSI
CIRC. SEAM OF PIPES
FILM
4 PANORAMIC
CIRC. SEAM OF PIPES
FILM
3 DWDI
CIRC. SEAM OF PIPES
FILM
2 DWSI
CIRC. SEAM OF PIPES
FILM
- 'IRE*TIONAL
LONG ,EAM
FILM
RA'IOGRA(H)
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34
RT - PLANNING
CONTROL
UNIT
CONDUIT
JOB
FILM
GUIDE
TUBE
SHIELDING
SHIELDING
STAND
TROLLEY
CAMERA
CORDONNED AREA
RA'IOGRA(H)
WELD
Ope(ato(
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3
• IRI!I$% & 1' O*A+T & ,"
RA'IOGRA(H)
GAMMA RAY SOURCESGAMMA RAY SOURCES
RA'IOGRA(H)
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36
GAMMA - SOURCE PRODUCTION
RA'IOGRA(H)
IRIDIUM
192
PLATINUM
192
LOADED IN
RT CAMERA ROOM TEMP. NEUTRONS
FROM REACTORSGAMMA RAYS
IRIDIUM
191
5al lie 7 days
Non(adioactive (adioactive
Non(adioactive
disposed
RA'IOGRA(H)
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37
GAMMA - SOURCE PRODUCTION
RA'IOGRA(H)
NICKEL
6
COBALT
!9COBALT
6
LOADED IN
RT CAMERA ROOM TEMP. NEUTRONS
FROM REACTORS
GAMMA RAYS
5al lie yea(s
Non(adioactive (adioactive
Non(adioactive
disposed
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39
CAMERA SET UP
RA'IOGRA(H)
*ONTRO
L
#NIT
.A*/
0RONT
G#I'ET#.E
,O#R*E
*AMERA
#RANI#M 1 LEA'
,HIEL'ING
TI(
GA(
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Contact & /0
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'lliptical & //
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0in+le wall sin+le view
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43
ADVANTAGES OF RT
RA'IOGRA(H)
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2" RT - FILM IS A )+RMA4+4T R+C*R3 *FT+STI4G I4 T0+ F*RM *F 0AR3-R+)*RT"
5" T6*-3IM+4SI*4AL- IMAG+ *F 3+F+CT IS
MC0 +ASI+R A43 CL+AR T* I4T+R)R+T"
7" *)+RAT*R 3+)+43+4C+ IS MI4IMM AS +AC0
FILM IS 8ALIFI+3 6IT0 .)+4+TRA M+T+R/
9" +:ALATI*4 *F 6+L3 IS )*SSI;L+ AT A
3ISTA4T )LAC+ A6A, F*RM
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4
LIMITATIONS OF RT
RA'IOGRA(H)
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=" ;*T0 SRFAC+S *F T0+
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$ '/ 0UR:,C' ;N/;C,
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RADIATION SAFETY
RA'IATION ,A0ET)
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'I,(LA) RE' WARNING LIGHT AT ENTR) (OINT4
SAFE PRACTICE
RA'IATION ,A0ET)
1
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#
'I,(LA) RADIATION BOARD
AT ENTR) (OINT4
2
SAFE PRACTICE
RA'IATION ,A0ET)
R , / ; , < ; O
N
* ' ' > , ,
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1
*OR'ON % O00 ,A0E 'I,TAN*E WITH 0LAGGE' %
RO(E 0OR LO*ATION, OTHER THAN EN*LO,#RE4
"
SAFE PRACTICE
RA'IATION ,A0ET)
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2
E!A*#ATE *OR'ONNE' O00 AREA .E0ORE,TARTING O0 RA'IOGRA(H)4
#
SAFE PRACTICE
RA'IATION ,A0ET)
NO
OCCUPANCY ZONE
P i ibl di ti d
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Perm issible exposure radiation doses
3
+yes=@? mSvS#in
@?? mSv
+l!owsto hands@?? mSv
neesto feet
@?? mSv
Corers
Eecti(e dose A> mS(&yr a(eraged
o(er D years D> mS( in any single
yearE8ui(alent dose
to the lens of the eye
9D> mS(&a e'tremities 5hands
and feet6 or the sinD>> mS(&a
-pprentices andstudents of 8D " 8>
years of age Eecti(e dose
mS(&a in a year E8ui(alent dose
to the lens of the eyeD> mS(&a
e'tremities 5handsand feet6 or the sin
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Public Dose Lim its
4
+embers of the public Eecti(e dose
8 mS(&yr in special
circumstances D mS(
in a single yearpro(ided that 9mS(&yr a(eragedo(er D years is note'ceeded
E8ui(alent dose to the lens of the
eye 9D mS(&yr e'tremities 5hands
and feet6 or the sinD> mS(&yr
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Bioloical Effects of Radiation Somatic
-!ects cells originallyeposed (cancer)
-!ects blood% tissues%organs% possibly
entire body E!ects range from
slight sin reddeningto death (acute
radiation poisoning)
Genetic -!ects cells of
future generations
eep levels as lowas possible (wearlead)
Reproductive cellsmost sensitive
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Effects of ioni!in radiation is
determ ined b" Energy of radiation 'aterial irradiated
ength of eposure 4ype of e!ect /elay before e!ect seen
-bility of body to repair itself
6
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Basic Safet" #actors
eep eposures -s ow -s Reasonably-chievable (/1/R/)
4ime " eep eposure times to a minimum
/istance " Inverse s6uare law: by doublingdistance from a source% eposure is dec by afactor of @
9hielding $ wear lead$ use lead wall
7
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Radiation E'posure Eects on Personnel
?"?.
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9
International 5 .lac6 7 )ellow
#4,4 5 Magenta 7 )ellow
Radiation ,y&"ol
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$ onitorin %nstrum ents
1ersonal monitoring: Film badges% bracelet% rings
1ocet dosimeter
6#
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Basic Safet" #actors
9hielding
61
RA'IATION ,A0ET) 3
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RA'IATION ,A0ET)
UNDERSTANDING RADIATION EFFECTS
3
# ? chance o death
4= ## = ### - R
8 in a single shot 9
ocal (eddenin+ o s@in
1= #= ### - R
8 in a single shot 9
oss o e(tility
6= ##= ### - R8 in a single shot 9
RA'IATION ,A0ET)
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63
=" C*4TACT ,*R S)+R:IS*R"
5" GI:+ F*LL6I4G 3+TAILS T* S)+R:IS*R• 60+R+ 0+ 6AS STA,I4G B• 0*6 MC0 TIM+ 0+ 6AS STA,I4G B•
0*6 A43 60+4 0+ CAM+ T* 4*6 A;*T RT B
7" S)+R:IS*R 6ILL C*4SLT RS* *F 43+
9" RS* 6ILL CALCLAT+ RA3IATI*4 3*S+ R+C+I:+3 A43 C*M)AR+
IT 6IT0 A44AL 3*S+ LIMIT
@" RS* 6ILL GI:+ T0+ 3+TAILS T* S)+R:IS*R
RA'IATION ,A0ET)
INCIDENTAL EXPOSURE TO RADIATION
RA'IATION ,A0ET)
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RA'IOGRA(HER
24 (#T LIGHT 7 RO(E
34 !A*ATE THE AREA .E0ORE RT
:4 O(ERATE *AMERA
,ITE IN*HARGE
24 E,TIMATE AREA 0OR *OR'ONING
34 GI!E RT TE*HNI+#E
:4 ARRANGE ,HIEL'ING 0OR RA'IATION
R,O
24 GI!E ,A0E
(RO*E'#RE 0OR RT 34 'E,IGN EN*LO,#RE, AN' GET .AR*
A((RO!AL
:4 *O%OR'INATE WITH
A#THORITIE,
;4 E'#*ATE (ER,ONNEL A.O#T RA'IATION
RA'IATION ,A0ET)
RESPONCEBILITIES OF RADIATION PERSONNEL
RA'IATION ,A0ET)
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6
RA'IATION ,A0ET)
COMPETANT AUTHORTY FOR RADIATION SAFETY
, ' R
• :(a-es (e+ulations and
a-ends (ules
• /i(ects ,RC to i-ple-ent
the (e+ulations
•
>uAlication o codes andstanda(ds
, R C
• ,pp(oves saety
p(actices
• 0u(vey o (adiation &
wo(@ places
• Ce(tiication o (adiation pe(sonnel
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RESPECT BUT
DO NOT FEARRADIATION
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T%/F 2;0