i + s ” 1
l Pleistocene and Holocene Environmental Changes
eologists refer to the last two million years as the Quaternary. The Quaternary is divided into the Pleistocene (2 million -70,000 years
ago) and Holocene (70,000 years ago to the present). During this era several worldwide climatic changes called glacials and inter-glacials occurred. During the glacial periods sea levels dropped, sometimes to 700 metres below today’s levels.
Sea Level Changes A system called oxygen isotope analysis of deep sea sediments has enabled scientists to map variations in sea levels which had major repercussions on the physical geography of the archipelago. Large areas
of the shallow South China Sea and Java Sea, (Sunda Shelf), became periodically dry land. In fact large river valleys can still be observed on slrbmarine maps of the Sunda shelf. These land bridges did not extend east of Wallace’s line - the natural zoogeo-
Death and Rebirth. Aiiak Krakatau, a new vo fcano, rises from the sea where in 1883 AIt,
Rakata, popidarb know¿ as Krakatoa, explodedin a mig&
bfast. Ifölcaiiic actìvity i71 Itzdonesiu has
imreasea’ during the last t z o tnìllioji years, . and may have had a
sigti;f;ant ej4ect on tke morfa% climate.
G E O L O G Y A N D H U M A N EVOLUTION
The last two million . years are known to
geologists as the Quaternary era. Most
ofhuman prehistory falls into the geological
period known as the Pleistocene, except for
rhe last 10,000 years which are called the
Holocene or Recent.
graphical barrier which separates, because of the depth of the sea, the western part of Indonesia under Asian influence from the eastern part under Australian influence. Climate (precipitation and seasonal patterns) underwent drastic changes throughout the Quaternary, as did the natural environment (palaeogeography and vegetation).
Land Bridges and Migrations When, the seas retreated they created land bridges between mainland Southeast Asia and the western part of Indonesia. These bridges allowed animals to reach as far south in the archipelago as the island of Java. By successive steps during the Quaternary era, the mammal fauna of Java was successively enriched by new species. .The oldest fossil fauna, circa 1.8 million years old, yields only proboscidians (related to modern elephants), hippopotamus, and ~
cervids (members of the deer family), Then other herbivorous mammals and several carnivores arrived. Homo erectus (man) probably reached Java more than ?ne million years ago.
The fauna had to adapt to these peculiar geo- graphic and ecological conditions. During interglacial periods, the sea level rose and the islands of the archipelago became isolated both from the mainland as well as from each other. The fauna also developed specific characteristics, exemplifying an evolutionary phenomenon called endemism. In the mcqt extreme cases,,pigmy forms could appear. Such forms are found most commonly in eastern Indonesia, especially among animals like the proboscidians (pigmy Stegodon or elephant) of Flores and Timor.
Reconstructing Prehistoric Vegetation Patterns A useful method for reconstructing the vegetation of the past is the study of pollen grains that have become fossilised in ancient sediments. The microscopic pollen grains of each species of plant have a specific morphology which allows us to identify the plants from a particular time and region. Such studies give a good picture of the older vegetation pattern and its changes during the Quaternary. These studies also provide us with a clear picture of the climate pattern.
Humid conditions prevailed during the inter- glacials. Tropical rain forest covered the area, with
HOLOCENE
I
n r L’ ./
Schima and Altingia (shrubs), fodocarpus (firs) and Quercus (oaks).
During the glacial periods, Indonesia’s mean air temperature is believed to have dropped a few degrees Celsius, while sea temperatures, as inferred from recent studies, would have been only two degrees lower than today. This cooling, however, was enough to cause a downward shift of vegetation zones on mountains: trees like Podocarpus imbricatus, which presently grow only higher than 2,000 metres above sea level could be found at lower altitudes. But the main change during these glacials related to the precipitation pattern: the dry season was longer and more severe, and the tropical rain forest shrank, replaced in many areas by a more open monsoon-like forest with an abundance of Leguminosae, and Mimosaceae. Grass-lands developed during those drier periods and several studies even give evidence of the existence of Gramineae (grass)-dominated savanna-like environments in Kalimantan and Java. The vegetation had a mosaic-like character at such times, as rain forest galleries persisted along the rivers and also on the upper parts of the mountain slopes where the climate was constantly wet.
Palaeoenvironmental evolution was not only affected by climatic changes. Geological phenomena like volcanic eruptions also deeply changed the landscape. These eruptions periodically disturbed the vegetation and led to the colonisation of the moun- tain slopes by pioneer plants. At the same time, tectonic uplift - which has given Java its present shape - also caused great changes in the landscape. As the sea receded, large mangrove and swamp forests were created on the lowlands of Java, only to vanish as they were filled in by the products of volcanic eruptions and erosion.
The First Humans and their Environment Pithecanthropus (the scientific name given to Javanese fossil hominids) were the first humans to cross the equatorial area. As the sea levels rose and fell he became - periodically - an islander. Human evolution on Java lasted approximately one million years. These early humans had to adapt to a frequently changing environment, which is likely to have deeply influenced their subsistence and culture. How did they use the natural resources offered by the rain forest? Did they develop a unique culture in such an unusual environment? Current studies are attempting to correlate palaeoenvironmental reconstructions with other aspects of prehistoric life, including the use of stone tools; vegetal resources like bamboo; and the significance in terms of diet of wear features on the fossil teeth such as striations and enamel chips.
P R E H I S T O R Y
The Upper Pleistocene and Holocene Environmental Changes The Pleistocene-Holocene transition corresponds to the most recent major climatic change from glacial to the interglacial conditions which persist today. Pollen analysis has been widely used for research into this era and gives excellent results for such a period of changing climate; the study of pollen preserved in lake and swamp deposits, together with good chronological control of carbon 14 dating, enables scientists to put together a detailed picture of paleo- environmental evolution. The precise quantification
Stilt Roots of Mangrove m~cronata, Sungaì Sembdang, South Sumatra.
of vegetation zone shifts between higher and lower elevations indicates the magnitude of the decrease and increase in tem- peratures in Indonesia during the glacial event. The influence of man upon his environment during the later periods of prehistory is also reflected in the pollen diagrams:
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Prof. Dr. Haryati Soebadio (Chair), H.E. Minister Joop Avé, Prof. Dr. Edi Sedyawati, Soedarmadji Damais, Paul Sochaczewski, Dr. John Miksic
’ .
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lwl INDONESIAN HERITAGE
Ancient History
VOLUME EDITOR
Dr. John Miksic National Univenity of Singapore
AUTHORS Bambang Soemadio - (almarhum) University $Indonesia J.G. de Casparis - Leiden University (retired) Anne-Marie S h a h - Ecole Fmnpzise d’Extr2me Orient Françoise S h a h - Ecole Franpise d’Extrénie Orient
Dominique Grimaud-Hervé - Ecole Francaise
Harry Widianto - Centrefor Archaeology, Yogy‘rkarta H.T. Simanjuntak - National Research Centre
Peter Bellwood - Department of Prehistory
I Wayan Ardika - Drpnrtnient ofArchaeology,
Pierre-Yves Manguin - Ecole Francaise d’Extrime Orient Edi Sedyawati -Depnrtmmt of Education
R. Soekmono - Depnrtment $History2
Jacques Dumarçay - Ecole Frnn,caise d’Extrénie Orient Ph. Subroto - Department afArchaealogy,
d’Extrénie Orient
j õ r Archneology, Jakarta
nndAntbropology, Australian National University
U d ; f ~ ~ a University
and Czilture, Indoitesi~z
University of Indonesia
Garljnh Mtida University
A R C H I P E L A G O P R E S S
Mundardjito - Department ofArcbaeology,
Timbul Haryono - Departnient ofArchaeohgy,
Wahyono M. - NationalMuseum, Jakarta Jan Christie - Centre f o r SoutheastAsian Studies,
Endang Sri Hardiati - National Research Centre
Hasan M. Ambary - National Research Centre
Denys Lombard - Ecole Française d’Extlr;me Orient Henri Chambert-Loir - Ecole Francaise dExtretne Orient Bernard Arps - Department of Language and Culture,
Manu Jayaatmaja - Faculty ofLetten,
S. O. Robson - Department ofAsian Langunges and
University of Indonesia
GacljRb Mada University
University of Hull
for Archaeology, Jakarta
for Archaeology, Jakarta
Rijks Universiteit, Leiden
Gadjab Mada University
Studies, Monnrh University
* ' LAND, PEOPLE AND HISTORY
Indonesian Geography and Cultural Diversity.. . .8 Haryati Soebadio
Periods of Indonesian Prehistory .................... 1 O Barnbang Soeniadio
Archaeological Techniques ........................... . I 2 John Miksic
Development of Indonesian Scripts. ............... 1 4 J.C. de Gasparis
Indonesian Calendrical Systems ..................... 16 J.C. de Gasparis
PREHISTORY
Pleistocene and Holocene Environmental
Anne-Narie Semah ........................................................ 20
Javanese' Pleistocene Hominids.. .................. .22 Francois Semah, Dominiqzie Grimand-Herve &'Harry Lfidianto
Indonesia's Oldest Tools.. ............................. .24 Francois Semah d H.T Simanjzintak
The Hunting and Gathering Stage in Eastern Indonesia ..................................................... .26 John Niksic
Austronesian Languages and Early
Peter BellwoDd Population Movement.. ................................. .28
Early Cultivation and Domestication .............. .30 Peter Bellwood
Ceremonial Bronzes of the Pre-Classic Era.. . .32 I Wayan Ardika
Social Complexity in Late Prehistoric Java .... ..34 I Wayan Ardika
Late Prehistoric Bali ..................................... .36 I Wayan Ardika.
Late Prehistoric Culture in Sumatra ........... -38 John MikJic
INDONESIA AT THE DAWN OF HISTORY
Phases of Early Indonesian History ................. 42 Bani battg S o ein adio
Early Trade Patterns .................................... .44 JÒhn Miksic &' I LVayan Ardika
Early Indonesian Inscriptions ........................ ..46 'J. C. de Casparis
The Early Archaeology of Sriwijaya.. ............. ..4 8 Pierre-Yves iiiangziin
Adoption of Buddhism and Hinduism .................. 50 E d Sedyawati
Candi: Symbol of the Universe ....................... 52 R. Soektnono
EARLY CLASSIC PERIOD
Early Classic History ........................................... .56 John Niksic
The Oldest Buildings in Indonesia ................. .58 Jacques Dzimarçay
Temples of the Dieng Plateau ......................... 60 Jacpzies Diiniarpy d John Miksic
Early Buddhist Temples of Java ...................... 62 Jacqzies Dutnarçay
Bali During the Early Classic Period ................ 64 I LIkyzn Arnika
Borobudur and the Rise of Buddhism ............. 66 Johlt Miksic
Borobudur: Form and Symbolism ................... 68 Jacqzies Dirntarçay
Buddhism and Architectural Change ............. .70 Jacques Duntargay
Prambanan and Architecture ............................... 72 Jacques DzimarGay
Ratu Bok0 ..................................................... 74 Ph. Sztbroto
Sriwijaya's Golden Age ................................ ..76 Pierre- Yves Nanguin
LIFE IN EARLY CLASSIC INDONESIA
_'. . i . The Javanisation of Hindu and Buddhist Art...80 E d i Sedyawati
. -
Early Classic Sculpture ................................ ..82 E d i Sedyawati
The Agricultural Basis of Classic Java ................. 84 Ph. Sribroto
Patterns of Temple Distribution in Early Classical Java ............................................................. 86 Mrciidardjito
Material Aspects of Everyday Life.. ................ 88 Ti?nbul Haryowo
Javanese Gold: the Wonoboyo Hoard .......... .90 bVUhJlO?lO fi!.
The Early Indonesian Economy ........................... 92 Jan Christie
MIDDLE CLASSIC PERIOD
Bali in the Late Classic Period ..................... .I 16 I LVàyan Ardika
EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD: 1300-1600
Early Mosques and Tombs ........................... 1 20 Hasan &l. Arnbary
Palaces and Gardens ................................. ..I 22 Jacques Dzimarçay
Earlylslamic Cities 'and Commercial Life ....... 124
Forms of Early Islamic Belief and Practice ..... 126
Denys Lombard
Henri Chambert-Loir .
HERITAGE OF INDONESIAN LITERATURE
Singing Literature ......................................... 130 Bernard A r p
Interpretations of the lndian Epics in Indonesian Literature .................................. ..I32 hlanu Jayaatmaja
The Twilight of Sri wijaya. .............................. .96 Picrre- Yves ~angzi ' in
Sumatran Kingdoms After Sriwijaya ............... 98 John Miksic
Bali in the Middle Classic period .................. 1 O0 Endang Sri Hardiati
The Kingdoms of Kadiri and Singasari .......... 102 E d i Sedyawati
LATE CLASSIC PERIOD: 14TH TO 16TH CENTURIES
Kakawin Literary Forms ............................... .i 34 S O Robson
Panji Tales ................................................... 136 S O Robson
Early Islamic Literature of Indonesia .............. 138 Hen ri Cham bert-L o ir
Glossary ...................................................... 140
Bibliography ................................................ 142
Index ........................................................... 1 44
The Kingdom of Majapahit ........................... 106 Johk Miksic .
Trowulan in Literature and Archaeology ......... 108 John Miksic
Mountain Sites of Lawu and Penanggungan ............................................ I I 0 John rlliksic
Monuments of the Upper Brantas Valley ....... 1 I 2 Jacques Dumarçay
Sculpture and Reliefs of Majapahit ......... :..... 1 14 E d i Sedyawati
Photo Credits .............................................. 148
31 '8 ................................................................................... / f i l r i4 8 ;
:! , 0 Capital $ Temples i! * Towns Megaliths
:' A Mountains R Inscriptions
$1 @ Archaeological sites (Major) X Bronze d r u m s
4; Archaeological sites (Minor) 11 i $: ..-,_I.-. __ h'ofe: This leKeiia' applies to all the maps it1 tbis volume.
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