la: The Tudor monarchsOverviewSixteenth-century England and Wales experienced hugereligious, political, social and economic change. This was,to a large degree, influenced by the country's monarchs.The Tudor monarchs who ruled England and Wales from1485 to 1603 were all determined individuals who wereprepared to make enormous changes in the lives of theirpeople in order to achieve their goals. They would nothave seen this as selfish - particularly in religious matterswhere there was a strong sense from Edward VI onwardsof attempting to do the best for the English people and tosave them from etemal damnation. The monarch. it wasbelieved, was put on the throne to rule in the best interestsof their people. All of the rulers in this period shared somecommon characteristics. They were determined to rulerather than be ruled by their advisers. They were strong•minded, if not stubbom. Dynastic loyalty determinedtheir behaviour in most cases, unless (like Edward VI)religion over-ruled that. They had varying interests andpreoccupations, and religion was an important determinant
of their behaviour.
Dynasty was vital to Henry Vlll and remained so for hisheirs. This made the issue of the succession absolutelycentral to politics. The succession changed three timesunder Henry Vlll and again under Edward VI. Mary I
avoided the temptation to do this, but feared the impact
Note it downBegin your collection of index cards here using the method
on page xi. For each monarch create two cards. One will
be for their personal qualities; the other for their political .
abilities. Write their name and the years that they reigned for
on the front of the card. On the back write brief notes about
these aspects for each monarch.
This chapter also contains some complicated political,
theoretical and social concepts. The best note-taking
method to use here would be the 1:2 method (see
page x). In the left-hand column write the important
headings or points and in the right-hand column make
notes on the content that relates to them.
of Elizabeth's Protestantism. Disputed successions
brought instability among the political classes and
the ordinary people as well as for the royal family.
Succession had clear implications for the future of the
dynasty. Gender has been frequently explored in relation
to Elizabeth l, but it was also a significant point for
discussion for Mary too. She was the first queen regnant,
the first queen to rule as a monarch in her own right.
While their gender did not affect their determination or
ability to rule, it did cause more questions to be raised
about marriage and children. It could also be used to
their advantage, particularly by Elizabeth l.
This chapter explores the Tudor monarchs, their priorities,
personalities and political qualities through the following
sections:
1
2
3
Personal and political qualities looks at each of the
Tudor monarchs as rulers and people. It examines their
personal attributes and political aptitude.
Disputed successions? examines the extent to which
Tudor successions were disputed. It looks at the causes
and implications of disputed successions.
The significance of gender for Mary and Elizabeth
discusses these two reigning queens and the impact oftheir gender on their rule. It explores the theory of theking's two bodies and the reactions of different peopleto the prospect of a female 'king'.
1 Personal and political qualities
As might be expected, the personal qualities and politicalabilities of the Tudor tnonarchs were very different. Theirupbringings, interests and priorities varied greatly andthese had an impact on how the country was ruled. Theirpersonalities had an effect on how govermnent operated aswell as how they related to people around thetn, includingfuture heirs to the throne and close fatnily.
Note it downCreate a spider diagram (see page x) for the differentpolitical and personal characteristics of the monarchs.First, read the section carefully and identify commoncharacteristics. Note them on your diagram.
Paper I England, 1509-1603: authority, nation and religion
Henry Vill (1491-1547)Henry VI Il inherited the throne from his father, HenryV Il, in 1509. Henry V Ill was not originally meant toinherit the throne, but his elder brother Prince Arthurdied in 1502 shortly after Inarrying Catherine of Aragon.This Incant that Henry becarne king on his father's death.Henry VI I was not a hereditary monarch, however,and had seized the throne in 1485 after his victory overRichard Ill at the Battle of Bosworth Field. This Incantthat the Tudor dynasty was still very new. This providespart of the explanation for Henry's cornplete preoccupationwith an heir: the dynasty needed to be strongly establishedand look stable for it to continue, and avoid the fate ofRichard Ill. Henry was detertnined that his fanlily wouldcontinue to rule the country and was prepared to takeextreme tneasures in order to achieve that. He wanted toextend royal authority and power over institutions and
regions within the British Isles, and this was interwovenwith his personal and dynastic objectives.
Henry was firntly in control of his govermnent. He wasno mere figurehead but a king who was very determined
to achieve his main aims and ideals. His ministers,
Thotnas Wolsey and subsequently Thomas Cromwell, did
not rule on his behalf. They did carry out royal policy
once it was decided but Henry played a key role in the
decisions. Even when away on a royal progress Henry
kept in conununication with London, keen to be up to
date with all Inatters. Henry had a decisive influence on
important issues such as war, the Royal Suprernacy,
and the theology of his new Church of England. He did
listen to his advisors, however, and the court could make
an inopact on his decisions.
4
When young, Henry was handsome and athletic. Henry
was extremely interested in theology. He loved music,
dance, hunting and chivalric ideals. He was highly
educated and energetic — a symbol of renewal and change.
Indeed Henry's reign was to see significant religious,
political and social change. Henry was able but not as
intelligent as he believed hitnselfto be. Historian John
Guy has described him as having a 'second-rate Illind with
what looks suspiciously like an inferiority complex'. As
the years went on Henry becalne increasingly egotistical,
demanding, self-righteous and sornetimes rnorbid. He
suffered increasing ill-health and became erratic and
unpredictable. Throughout his reign Henry wanted to
conquer Inore territory, especially in France, and was
obsessed with chivalry and honour. Honour was anitnportant concept in Europe in this period, not just an
ernpty word but a concept that could start expensive wars
and battles over supremacy.
Edward VI (1537-53)Edward VI was the male heir that Henry had longed for
since his first tnarriage, born to Henry and Jane Seymour
(Henry's third wife) in 1537. He was a syrnbol of hope
and stability during his father's life and of change at
the beginning of his own reign. Edward's birth made
life at court easier for his half-sisters and put an end
to Henry's frantic search for a solution to his dynastic
problems. Inheriting the throne in 1547 at only 9 years
old, Edward laboured under heavy expectations. As he
xvas under the age of 18 years old, a regent was appointed
to govern for hirn. Initially this was Edward Seymour,
Earl of Somerset (see page 6), but after a coup in 1549,
4.
A The family of Henry Vlll, painted in about 1545. From left to right: Mary, Edward, Henry, Jane Seymour, Elizabeth. What does
this contemporary painting tell the historian about the relative importance of Henry's children? What can it say about Henry's
own image?
Theme 1 Monarchy and government, 1509—88 5
Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (c1500—52)
Edward Seymour was
born to a noble family
and from early youth was
involved in court and royal
affairs. He was a member
of the household of
Princess Mary from 1514,
aged 14. He received
titles and positions
from Henry Vlll after his
sister Jane Seymour married the King in 1536. Seymour's
nephew Edward became king on the death of Henry Vlll in
1547. Seymour became Lord Protector (a kind of regent to
Edward) and created himself Duke of Somerset in 1547.
Through political skill, manipulation and bribes, Somerset
gathered much more power and authority than was ever
intended in Henry Vlll's will. The will stipulated a Regency
Council rather than one man having such power. He was
a skilled soldier, waging a successful war against the
independent kingdom of Scotland and defending English
territories such as Boulogne-sur-Mer against the French.
During the protectorate this put an enormous financial
burden on the English nation. Somerset fell following
the rebellions of 1549, which were seen as a failure of
government despite Somerset's popularist proclamations
against enclosure. Correctly fearing a coup, Somerset
seized Edward VI and withdrew to Windsor Castle, but was
arrested by the Regency Council on 11 October 1549. He
was initially released and restored to the Privy Council in
1550 but was executed for felony in January 1552 after
plotting against his successor's rule.
John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland (1504—53)
John Dudley was the eldest
son of Edmund Dudley, a
councillor to Henry Vll who
was executed by Henry Vlll
in 1510 as a scapegoat
for his father's financial
policies. John Dudley was
restored to his estates in
1512. He was brought up
by a guardian, Sir Edward
Guildford, whose daughter Jane he married in 1525. He was
father to their 13 children and was believed to be a diligent and
highly involved parent. Dudley took part in Wolsey's diplomatic
ventures in 1521 and 1527, fought in the 1523 invasion of
France and was knighted for his actions. He was close to Henry
Vlll, being appointed as a knight of the body in 1524. Dudley
was intelligent as well as being a skilled sportsman, excelling
at archery, jousting and wrestling. Dudley was a member of
evangelical circles in the 1530s and led one of the King's
armies against the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536. He became
Viscount Lisle after the death of his stepfather in 1542. He
fought in the wars against Scotland and was Lord Admiral
in the wars against France. Dudley was one of the leading
John Dudley, Earl of Northutnberland, took over. He
took the title of Lord President of the Regency Council
to differentiate himself frorn Sornerset. Although in the
evangelical reformers at court, and this stood him in good
stead for Edward's rule. He was not an enemy of Somerset
and, indeed, was his second-in-command in Scotland. He was
involved in the brutal repression of Kett's rebellion in 1549. As
Somerset's fall was plotted, Dudley managed to consolidate his
power on the Regency Council, effectively replacing Somerset
in 1549. He took the title Lord President of the Regency Council
and repressed Somerset's attempts to re-establish his power.
He was less autocratic than Somerset and more prepared to
work with the Council. He encouraged Edward VI to take an
increasing role in government as he got older and established
practical measures to attempt to deal with the problem of
poverty. He was created Duke of Northumberland in 1551.
Northumberland promoted evangelical Protestants to positions
within the Church, and advanced the Protestant Reformation
despite its widespread unpopularity. He brought an end to
Somerset's costly wars. Northumberland played a key role in
Edward's attempt to change the succession, a role that was
to bring about his rapid fall on the accession of Mary l. His
efforts in favour of Jane Grey (his daughter-in-law) led to his trial
and execution in August 1553. Northumberland's attempts to
secure Mary's intervention in his favour (including converting
back to Catholicism) were fruitless.
was particularly the case in religious policy. During 1552,aged 15 years, Edward started to receive detailed briefingson the government's financial crisis. He began to directly
early years of Edward's reign the policies of his government participate in government from May of that year. The
were created by others, such as Lord Protector Somerset, boldest policy of Edward's reign, the attempt to change
Edward himself soon becalne involved personally. This the succession in favour ofJane Grey, has generally been
6 Paper 1 England, 1509—1603: authority, nation and religion
assumed to be Protector Northumberland's. It is irnpossible
to tell whose idea it originally was but drafts of the
docutnent show Edward's personal hand in working outthe details involved. Edward was genuinely evangelical and
his involvetnent in this is Inost likely a dennonstration of his
religious belief overcorning his dynastic loyalty.
In tertns of his personal qualities, Edward was an intelligent
and hardworking student. An archive of Edward's writingsstill survives, and demonstrates his abilities in rhetoric and
argument; Latin and Greek. He Inade thorough notes on
sermons that he heard, showing his deep personal piety
and interest in religious Inatters. Edward has been portrayed
in the past, particularly in popular culture and literature, as
a sickly child because of his early death. This was not the
case. Like his father, he was a keen sportsman and enjoyed
hunting and military displays. His illness in his last tnonths
did not define Edward as a person or ruler. His writings
also demonstrate that he was comtnitted to evangelical
Protestantism. He translated scriptural passages into French
as a gift for Protector Sotnerset in 1548 and between
December 1548 and August 1549 wrote a treatise on the
papal supremacy. He concluded that the Pope was the 'son
of the devil, a bad tnan, an Antichrist and abominable
tyrant'. Edward's governments were to illiplernent sotne of
the most radical religious changes of the sixteenth century.
The question of how Edward would have ruled had he
lived longer is an intriguing one, but irnpossible to answer.
He fell ill in late January 1553 with a chest infection
or tuberculosis. In late May his condition worsened
significantly, and he died in July.
Lady Jane Grey (1536—54)
Lady Jane Grey was of
noble birth and was a first
cousin once removed of
Edward VI. She was the
eldest daughter of Henry
Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk,
and his wife Lady Frances
Brandon. Her mother was
the youngest daughter
of Mary Tudor, Queen of
France, whose father was
Henry Vll. She received a humanist education in Latin,
Greek, Hebrew and Italian. Her father was a Protestant and
(particularly after her Protestant upbringing) she followed
in his footsteps. She was sent to live in the household of
Edward VI's uncle Thomas Seymour and Henry Vlll's widow
Catherine Parr in February 1547. She was chief mourner at
Catherine Parr's funeral in 1548. Jane was engaged to the
Mary I (1516-58)Mary had a difficult and unstable upbringing. In her earliest
years she was the heir apparent, with all the luxuries and
benefits that stich a status brought. She received a classical
humanist education and was intended to be betrothed
to a European prince. This childhood was disrupted
because of Henry V Ill's determination to produce a male
heir. Her status and future became increasingly uncertain,
especially after Henry's desire to divorce her mother,
Catherine of Aragon, becarne known. After 1531 Henry
banned Mary from seeing her mother, and declared Mary
illegitimate after he married Anne Boleyn in 1533.
Mary was removed to Hatfield to wait upon her half-sister
Elizabeth. Mary's health declined in these years, and was to
remain poor for the rest of her life. Her situation began to
ilnprove after the birth of Edward. She was reinstated in the
succession by 1544 and this was confirmed by Henry's will.
When Henry died Mary was 31 years old. Her subsequent
battles with her half-brother Edward concerning her
religion upset her greatly, and nearly brought the kingdom
to the brink of war with the Holy Roman Empire.
Mary succeeded to the throne finally at 37 years old,
overcolning Edward and Northumberland's plan to remove
her frotn the succession and place Jane Grey on the throne.
She was understandably embittered by her treatment since
childhood and (unlike Edward) was not well prepared by
her father or advisers for the role she was about to assume.
She was generous and amiable but also stubborn. During
her reign she suffered from depression, anxiety, neuralgia
Duke of Northumberland's son, Guildford Dudley, in spring
1553 and they were married in May of that year. As Edward
VI lay dying in 1553 the succession was changed by him
and Northumberland so that Jane Grey would succeed
him on the throne. This was to avoid the Catholic Mary
becoming queen. The King died on 6 July 1553 and Jane
was informed that she was queen. She was proclaimed
queen on 10 July, refusing to allow her husband to be king
and taking residence in the Tower of London. After a brief
armed struggle, however, and a popular rising in favour of
Mary, the forces of Northumberland were defeated. Mary
I entered London in procession on 3 August 1553. Jane
and Guildford Dudley were charged with high treason and
tried in London on 13 November. All of the defendants were
found guilty and sentenced to death but it was reported
that Jane's life was to be spared. If that was true, Thomas
Wyatt's rebellion changed that and Jane was beheaded on
12 February 1554.
Theme 1 Monarchy and government, 1509—88 7
and phantom pregnancies. Mary was unsurprisingly
untrusting towards other people and placed her faith
in Catholicism instead. She was an extremely devoted
Catholic throughout her life. She also tended to favour
Spaniards more than Englishmen for her closest advisers
— she had been very close to her Spanish 1110ther and she
found Spaniards more help than Englishtnen. This drove
her into a controversial and unpopular match with Philip
Il of Spain in 1554 — one that she insisted on despite her
English advisers' opinions. Religion was not the sole
focus of Mary's policy despite her infamous reputation.
She certainly was determined to restore Catholicism to
England, and in her short five years ofrule she experienced
a reasonable level of success in this. But she continued also
to reform govermnent, attctnpted to increase trade and
respond to problems like poverty.
Once Mary succeeded to the throne she was detertnined
to rule as a Inonarch rather than a consort, issuing
commands and orders with authority and deter:nination.
She was very aware of her royal status. Mary was a
dutiful monarch and was earnest about her role. She
was not temperamentally suited or intelligent enough to
understand the cotnplexities that faced her in governtnent
but she was a dedicated ruler. Mary was astute enough,
however, to realise that she needed capable advisers and
that she needed to consult and listen to them in order to
help her rule. She gathered advisers who were experienced
in government, frotn both Catholic and Protestant faiths.
Mary's reputation as a woman and ruler has suffered over
the centuries but in recent times she has been somewhat
rescued from her label 'Bloody Mary' and seen in a much
more nuanced light.
Elizabeth I (1533-1603)Elizabeth, too, suffered during the 1530s from Henry
V Ill's determination to achieve his dynastic goals. Like
Mary she was excluded from the succession after her early
life as a royal princess and termed a 'bastard'. In terms of
her political concerns Elizabeth followed her father Henry
V Ill and sister Mary I in strictly protecting her royal
prerogative. As with Mary, Elizabeth was determined
to rule England rather than letting others rule for her.
It was extremely difficult for her advisers to change her
mind. That said, she did not have as many ideological
preconceptions as Mary did. She was a moderate Protestant
but was not dogrnatic like Edward. Her own worship
included traditional elements as well as reformed ones.
The religious settlement now known as the Elizabethan
settlement was a compromise that in some ways reflected
her own religious beliefs (see page 48). Elizabeth operated
shrewdly in the field of international diplomacy. One
political weakness of Elizabeth was that she hesitated when
itnportant decisions needed to be made. This Inade life
extremely difficult för her councillors but was caused by a
cautious attitude to political and financial decisions. This
caution could on other occasions be very useful.
Elizabeth I was intelligent and hardworking. She was
educated and accomplished. She spoke French, Italian
and Spanish and read Latin. She played the virginal,
danced and hunted skilfully. Elizabeth enjoyed plays and
masques, and went on long royal progresses around her
realm. On the other hand, Elizabeth was vain and jealous
within her personal relationships. She could be sharp-
tongued and, when crossed, had an appalling temper. It
is extretnely difficult to discern Elizabeth's own ideas or
beliefs. Few writings survive that are indisputably hers,
written accounts of her by contemporaries are largely very
flattering or propagandistic and her behaviour was always
detertnined by her knowledge that she was effectively
perfortning for an audience. As such we do not know her
true attitudes on itnportant issues like that of marriage.
Elizabeth knew the power of images, and was careful to
nurture and control her own ilnage as queen of England.
2 Disputed successions?
There was only one succession in the period 1509—88
that was disputed after the death of the previous
monarch. This was the succession ofJane Grey. There
were, however, disputes about who would succeed to
the throne during the lifetime of two other monarchs.
The line of succession was changed at least three times
during the reign of Henry V Ill, as his•daughters Mary
and Elizabeth were successively bastardised and later
legitimised. Edward VI, towards the end of his short life,
also attempted to amend the succession in favour of the
Protestant Grey family. This meant removing his sisters
from the line of succession and amending the intentions of
his father Henry V Ill.
Note it downUse bullet points to take notes on this section. Think aboutthe following questions:
Why was it necessary for Henry Vlll to change the line ofsuccession?
What were Edward VI's motives for trying to change thesuccession?
How was Mary I able to triumph?
Why did Mary I not change the succession?
8 Paper 1 England, 1509—1603: authority, nation and rellglon