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ONTENTS
Preface
Text Credits
Testing
Assessing
and
Teaching
What
Is a Test?, 3
Assessment
and
Teaching, 4
Informal
and
Formal Assessment, 5
Formative
and
Summative Assessment, 6
Norm-Referenced
and
Criterion-Referenced Tests, 7
Approaches to
Language Testing: A Brief History, 7
Discrete-Point
and
Integrative Testing, 8
Communicative Language Testing, 10
Performance-Based Assessment, 10
Current
Issues in Classroom Testing,
New
Views on Intelligence,
Traditional
and
Alternative Assessment, 13
Computer-Based Testing, 14
Exercises 16
For
Your
Further Reading 18
2 Principles
of Language
Assessment
Practicality, 19
Reliability, 20
Student-Related Reliability,
2
Rater Reliability,
2
Test Administration Reliability,
2
Test Reliability, 22
Validity, 22
Content-Related Evidence, 22
Criterion-Related Evidence, 24
Construct-Related Evidence, 25
Consequential Validity,
6
x
xii
1
9
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v ONTENTS
Face Validity, 26
Authenticity, 28
Washback, 28
Applying Principles to the Evaluation of Classroom Tests, 30
1
Are
the
test
procedures
practical? 31
2. Is the test reliable? 31
3
Does
the procedure
demonstrate
content
validity? 32
4 Is the procedure face valid and biased for best ? 33
5 Are
the
test tasks as authentic as possible? 35
6 Does the test offer beneficial washback to the learner? 37
Exercises 38
For Your Further Reading
4
3 Designing
lassroom
Language Tests
Test Types, 43
Language
Aptitude
Tests, 43
Proficiency Tests, 44
Placement Tests, 45
Diagnostic Tests,
46
Achievement Tests, 47
Some
Practical Steps to Test Construction 48
Assessing Clear, Unambiguous Objectives, 49
Drawing Up Test Specifications, 50
Devising Test Tasks, 52
Designing Multiple-Choice Test Items, 55
1 Design each item to measure a specific objective, 56
2 State both
stem
and options as simply and directly as pOSSible, 57
4
3. Make certain
that
the intended answer is clearly the only correct
one
58
4. Use
item
indices to accept discard, or revise items, 58
Scoring, Grading, and Giving Feedback, 61
Scoring, 61
Grading,
62
Giving Feedback,
62
Exercises 64
For Your Further Reading 65
4 Standardized Testing
What Is Standardization?, 67
Advantages and Disadvantages
of
Standardized Tests, 68
Developing a Standardized Test,
69
1 Determine the purpose and objectives of the test, 70
2 Design test specifications,
70
3. Design, select, and arrange test tasks/items,
74
4
Make appropriate evaluations of different kinds of items, 78
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5. Specify scoring
procedures
and
reporting
formats,
79
6. Perform ongoing construct validation studies, 81
Standardized Language Proficiency Testing, 82
Four Standardized Language Proficiency Tests, 83
Test
of
English as a Foreign Language TOEFL@),84
Michigan English Language Assessment Battery MEIAB), 85
International English Language Testing System
lELTS),
85
Test of English for International Communication TOEIC@), 86
Exercises 87
For Your Further Reading 87
Appendix to Chapter 4:
Commercial Proficiency Tests:
Sample
Items and Tasks,
88
Test of English as a Foreign Language TOEFL , 88
Michigan English Language Assessment Battery MEIAB), 93
International English Language Testing System
lELTS),
96
Test of English for International Communication T O E I C ~ , 100
5 Standards Based
Assessment
ELD
Standards, 105
ELD
Assessment, 106
CASAS
and SCANS, 108
Teacher Standards, 109
The Consequences of
Standards-Based
and
Standardized Testing, 110
Test Bias, 111
Test-Driven Learning and Teaching, 112
Ethical Issues: Critical Language Testing, 113
Exercises 115
For Your Fur ther Reading 115
6
Assessing
Listening
Observing
the
Performance
of the
Four Skills, 117
The Importance
of Listening, 119
Basic Types of Listening, 119
Micro- and Macroskills of Listening, 121
Designing Assessment Tasks: Intensive Listening, 122
Recognizing Phonological and Morphological Elements, 123
Paraphrase Recognition, 124
Designing Assessment Tasks: Responsive Listening, 125
Designing Assessment Tasks: Selective Listening, 125
Listening Cloze, 125
Information Transfer, 127
Sentence
Repetition, 130
Designing Assessment Tasks: Extensive Listening, 130
O
T NTS V
104
116
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v CONTENTS
Dictation, 131
Communicative Stimulus-Response Tasks, 132
Authentic Listening Tasks, 135
Exercises 138
For Your
Further
Reading 139
Assessing Speaking
Basic Types
of
Speaking, 141
Micro- and Macroskills
of
Speaking, 142
Designing Assessment Tasks: Imitative Speaking, 144
PhonePass® Test, 145
Designing Assessment Tasks: Intensive Speaking, 147
Directed Response
Tasks, 147
Read-Aloud Tasks, 147
Sentence Dialogue
Completion
Tasks
and
Oral Questionnaires, 149
Picture-Cued Tasks, 151
Translation of Limited Stretches
of
Discourse), 159
Designing Assessment Tasks: Responsive Speaking, 159
Question
and
Answer, 159
Giving Instructions
and
Directions, 161
Paraphrasing, 161
Test
of
Spoken English TSE®), 162
Designing Assessment Tasks: Interactive Speaking,
167
Interview, 167
Role Play, 174
Discussions and Conversations, 175
Games, 175
Oral Proficiency Interview (OPD, 176
Designing Assessment: Extensive Speaking, 179
Oral Presentations, 179
Picture-Cued Story-Telling, 180
Retelling a Story,
News
Event, 182
Translation of
Extended
Prose), 182
Exercises 183
For Your Further Reading 184
8 Assessing Reading
Types (Genres)
of
Reading, 186
Microskills, Macroskills, and Strategies for Reading,
187
Types
of
Reading, 189
Designing Assessment Tasks: Perceptive Reading, 190
Reading Aloud, 190
Written
Response, 191
14
185
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Multiple-Choice, 191
Picture-Cued Items, 191
Designing Assessment Tasks: Selective Reading, 194
Multiple-Choice for Form-Focused Criteria), 194
Matching Tasks, 197
Editing Tasks, 198
Picture-Cued Tasks, 199
Gap-Filling Tasks, 200
Designing Assessment Tasks: Interactive Reading, 201
Cloze Tasks, 201
Impromptu
Reading Plus
Comprehension
Questions, 204
Short-Answer Tasks , 206
Editing Longer Texts), 207
Scanning, 209
Ordering Tasks, 209
Information Transfer: Reading Charts, Maps, Graphs, Diagrams, 210
Designing Assessment Tasks: Extensive Reading, 212
Skimming Tasks, 213
Summarizing and Responding, 213
Note-Taking
and
Outlining, 215
Exercises 216
For Your Further
Reading 217
9 Assessing riting
Genres of
Written
Language, 219
Types
of
Writing Performance, 220
Micro- and Macroskills
of
Writing, 220
Designing Assessment Tasks: Imitative Writing, 221
Tasks in [Hand] Writing Letters,Words, and Punctuation, 221
ONTENTS
V
2 8
Spelling Tasks and Detecting Phoneme-Grapheme
Correspondences
223
Designing Assessment Tasks: Intensive Controlled) Writing, 225
Dictation and Dicto-Comp, 225
Grammatical Transformation Tasks, 226
Picture-Cued Tasks, 226
Vocabulary Assessment Tasks, 229
Ordering Tasks, 230
Short-Answer and
Sentence
Completion Tasks, 230
Issues
in
Assessing Responsive and Extensive Writing, 231
Designing Assessment Tasks: Responsive
and
Extensive Writing, 233
Paraphrasing, 234
Guided Question and Answer, 234
Paragraph
Construction
Tasks, 235
Strategic Options, 236
Test
ofWritten
English TWE@), 237
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v CONTENTS
Scoring Methods for Responsive and Extensive Writing, 241
Holistic Scoring, 242
Primary Trait Scoring, 242
Analytic Scoring, 243
Beyond Scoring: Responding to Extensive Writing, 246
Assessing Initial Stages of the Process of Composing, 247
Assessing Later Stages of the Process of Composing, 247
Exercises 249
For Your Further Reading 250
1 Beyond Tests: Alternatives in Assessment
The Dilemma
of
Maximizing Both Practicality and Washback, 252
Performance-Based Assessment, 254
Portfolios, 256
Journals,
26
Conferences and Interviews, 264
Observations, 266
Self- and Peer-Assessments,
27
Types of
elf and
Peer-Assessment, 271
Guidelines for Self- and Peer-Assessment, 276
A Taxonomy of Self- and Peer-Assessment Tasks, 277
Exercises 279
For Your Further Reading 280
11
Grading
and
Student Evaluation
Philosophy of Grading: What Should Grades Reflect? 282
Guidelines for Selecting Grading Criteria, 284
Calculating Grades: Absolute and Relative Grading, 285
Teachers'
Perceptions of Appropriate
Grade Distributions,
289
Institutional Expectations and Constraints, 291
Cross-Cultural Factors
and
the Question
of Difficulty, 292
What Do Letter Grades Mean ?, 293
Alternatives to Letter Grading, 294
Some Principles and Guidelines for Grading and Evaluation, 299
Exercises 300
For Your Further Reading 302
Bibliography
Name
Index
Subject
Index
251
281
3 3
313
315
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PREF CE
The
field
of second
language acquisition and
pedagogy
has enjoyed a half
century
of academic prosperity,
with
exponentially increasing
numbers
of books, journals,
articles, and dissertations
now
constituting our stockpile
of
knowledge. Surveys
of
even
a subdiscipline
within
this growing field
now
require
hundreds of
biblio
graphic entries to
document the
state of
the
art.
In
this melange
of
topics and issues,
assessment remains
an
area of intense fascination. What
is
the best way to assess
learners ability?
What
are
the most
practical assessment
instruments
available? Are
current standardized tests of language proficiency accurate
and
reliable? In an
era
of
communicative language teaching,
do
our classroom tests measure up to standards
of authenticity and meaningfulness?
How can
a
teacher
design tests
that
serve
as
motivating learning experiences
rather than
anxiety-provoking threats?
ll these and many
more
questions now being addressed by teachers,
researchers, and specialists
can be overwhelming
to
the
novice language teacher,
who
is
already baffled by linguistic and psychological paradigms and
by
a multitude
of methodological options. This
book
provides
the teacher
trainee
with
a clear,
reader-friendly presentation of
the
essential foundation stones of language assess
ment, with
ample practical examples to illustrate their applicat ion in language class
rooms. It
is
a
book
that simplifies the issues
without
oversimplifying. It
doesn t
dodge
complex
questions,
and
it treats
them
in ways
that
classroom teachers
can
comprehend.
Readers do not have to
become
testing
experts
to understand
and
apply
the concepts
in this book, nor
do they
have
to become
statisticians
adept
in
manipulating mathematical equations and advanced calculus.
PURPOSE
ND
UDIENCE
This
book is
designed to offer a
comprehensive
survey of essential principles
and
tools for
second
language assessment. t has been used in
pilot
forms for teacher
training courses in
teacher
certification and in Master
of
Arts in
TESOL
programs.
s
the
third in a trilogy
of teacher
education textbooks, it is designed to follow my
other two books, Principles of anguage earning nd Teaching (Fourth Edition,
x
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PREF CE
Pearson Education, 2000) and Teaching by Principles (Second Edition, Pearson
Education, 2001). References to those
two
books are sprinkled throughout
the
cur
rent
book. In keeping
with the tone set
in the previous
two
books, this
one
features
uncomplicated
prose
and a systematic, spiraling organization. Concepts are intro
duced with
a maximum
of
practical exemplification and a minimum
of
weighty def
inition. Supportive research is acknowledged and succinctly explained without
burdening
the
reader
with ponderous
debate over minutiae.
The
testing discipline sometimes possesses an aura
of
sanctity that
can
cause
teachers to feel inadequate as they approach the task of mastering principles and
designing effective instruments. Some testing manuals ,
with
their heavy emphasis
on jargon and mathematical equations, don t help to dissipate that mystique. y the
end of anguage
Assessment: Principles
and
Classroom Practices readers will have
gained access to this not-so-frightening field. They will have a working knowledge
of
a number
of
useful fundamental principles
of
assessment and will have applied
those
principles to practical classroom contexts. They will have acquired a store
house of
useful, comprehensible tools for evaluating and designing practical, effec
tive assessment techniques for their classrooms.
PRINCIP L FE TURES
Notable features
of
this book include the following:
• clearly framed fundamental principles for evaluating and designing assess
ment procedures of
all kinds
• focus
on the most
common
pedagogical challenge: classroom-based assess
ment
• many practical examples to illustrate principles and guidelines
• concise
but
comprehensive treatment
of
assessing all four skills (listening,
speaking, reading, writing)
• in each skill, classification
of
assessment techniques that range from
con
trolled to open-ended
item
types
on
a specified
continuum of micro
and
macroskills of language
•
thorough
discussion
of
large-scale standardized tests: their
purpose,
design,
validity, and utility
• a look at testing language proficiency.
or
ability
• explanation
of what
standards-based assessment is,
why
it
is
so popular, and
what its pros and cons are
• consideration
of the
ethics
of
testing in an educational and commercial
world driven by tests
• a
comprehensive presentation of
alternatives in assessment, namely, portfo
lios, journals, conferences, observations, interviews,
and self- and peer
assessment
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PREF CE X
• systematic discussion
of
letter grading
and
overall evaluat ion
of
student
per
formance
in
a
course
• end-of-chapter exercises that suggest whole-class discussion
and
individual
pair
and
group
work
for
the teacher
education classroom
• a few suggested additional readings at
the end of
each
chapter
WORDS OF TH NKS
anguage Assessment Principles
and
Classroom Practices is
the product of
many
years
of
teaching language testing
and
assessment in
my
own classrooms.My students
have collectively taught
me
more
than
I have taught
them, which
prompts
me
to
thank them
all everywhere for these gifts of knowledge. I
am further indebted to
teachers in many countries around the world where I have offered occasional work
shops and seminars on language assessment. I have memorable impressions of such
sessions in Brazil the Dominican Republic Egypt Japan Peru Thailand Turkey
and
Yugoslavia
where
cross-cultural issues in assessment have
been
especially stimulating.
I am also grateful to my graduate assistant Amy Shipley for tracking down
research
studies
and
practical
examples
of tests
and
for
preparing
artwork for
some
of
the
figures
in
this book. I offer an appreciative
thank
you
to my
friend Maryruth
Farnsworth who
read the manuscript with an editor s eye and
artfully
pointed out
some idiosyncrasies n my writing. My gratitude extends to my staff at the American
Language Institute at San Francisco State University especially Kathy Sherak Nicole
Frantz
and
Nadya McCann who carried the ball administratively while I
completed
the bulk of writing on this project. And thanks to my colleague Pat Porter for
reading
and commenting on
an
earlier draft
of
this book.
As
always
the
embracing
support
of
faculty
and
graduate students at San Francisco State University is a con
stant source of stimulation and affirmation.
H Douglas Brown
San Francisco California
September 2003
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TEXT REDITS
x
Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following publishers and authors for per-
mission to reprint
copyrighted
material.
American Council on Teaching Foreign Languages (ACTFL), for material from
ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines:
Speaking (1986);
Oral ProfiCiency
Inventory
OPI):
Summary
Highlights.
Blackwell Publishers, for material from Brown, James
Dean
& Bailey, Kathleen M.
(1984). A categorical
instrument
for scoring second language writing skills. Language
Learning, 34,
21-42.
California Department of Education, for material from California English
Language Development
ELD) Standards:
Listening
and Speaking.
Chauncey Group International (a subsidiary
of
ETS , for material from
Test of
English
for International Communication
TOEIC®).
Educational Testing Service (ETS), for material from Test
of
English as a Foreign
Language
TOEFL®);
Test
of
Spoken
English TSE®); Test
of
Writ ten English TWE®).
English Language Institute, University of Michigan, for material from Michigan
English Language ssessment Battery MELAB).
Ordinate Corporation, for material from
PhonePass®.
Pearson Longman ESL, and Deborah Phillips, for material from Phillips, Deborah.
2001). Longman Introductory Course
for
the TOEFL®
Test. White
Plains, NY:
Pearson
Education.
Second Language Testing, Inc.
SLm,
for material from
Modern
Language ptitude
Test.
University
of
Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES), for material from
International
English
Language
Testing System.
Yasuhiro Imao, Roshan Khan, Eric Phillips, and Sheila Viotti, for unpublished material.
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CHAPTER
TESTING, ASSESSING,
AND TEACHING
If
you hear the
word
test in any classroom sening ,your th
oughts
arc nOt likely to be
positive, plcas,lllt , or :lffirming.
The
anticipation
of
a leSt is al
most
always
accompa-
nied
by
feelings
of
an
xiety
and self-doub
t d
ong
with II
fervent hope
th t
you
w ill
co
me
out
of
it
l
ve. Tests
seem
as
unavoidable as tOmorrow s sunri
se
in virrually
every
kjnd
of educational setting. Courses of study
in
every
diSCipline
are marked
by periodic (csts
-milcstom::s
of progress
or
inadequacy)-and you intense ly wish
for a mil lcuious
exempt
ion from
these
ordeals.
We
li
ve
by
tests and
sometimes
(mcl aphoricall y) die by lhem .
For a quick revisiting
of
how tests affect many learners, take the following
vocabu
lary quiz.
All tJlt:
words
are
found in standard English dictionaries,
SO
r ll
should
be
able
to
answer aU six items correctly, right?Okay, take the
quiz
and
circle
the correct definition for each word .
Circle the correct answer.
ou
have
3
minutes to complete this examination
1. polygene a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
cy
nosure
a
b
c.
d
the first stratum of lower-order protozoa containing multiple genes
a combination
of
two or more plastics to produce a highly durable
material
one of a set of cooperating genes, each producing a small
quantitative effect
any of
a number of multicellular chromosomes
an object that serves as a focal point of attention and admiration; a
center of interest or attention
a narrow opening caused by a break or fault in limestone caves
the cleavage in rock caused by glacial activity
one of a group of electrical Impulses capable of passing through
metals
1
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2 Cli PTfR
1
Testing N5eSsing and e.1c hing
3. gudgeon
4. hippogriff
5. reglet
6 Hctile
a.
b.
c.
d.
a.
b.
c.
a jail for commoners during the Middle Ages, located in the villages
of Germany and France
a strip of metal used to reinforce beams and girders in building
construction
a tool used by Alaskan Indians to carve totem poles
a small Eurasian freshwater fish
a term used in children s literature to denote colorful and descriptive
phraseology
a mythological monster having the wings, claws, and head o a
griffin and the body of a horse
ancient Egyptian cuneiform writing commonly found on the walls of
tombs
d. a skin transplant from the leg or foot to the hip
a. a narrow, flat molding
b a musical composition of regular beat and harmonic intonation
c.
an Aus tralian bird
of
the eagle family
d. a short sleeve found on women s dresses in Victorian
England
a. a short. oblong-shaped projectile used in early eighteenth-century
cannons
b. an Old English word for the leading character of a fictional
novel
c. moldable plastic; formed of a moldable substance such as clay or
earth
d. pertaining to the tendency
o
certain lower mammals to lose visual
depth perception with increasing age
Now,
how
did that make you feel? Probably just t
he
same as many learners
fee l w hen they take many multiple-choice or shall we
s y
multiple·guess?).
ti
med
, Rricky·
tests
. To add
to th
e
to
rme,llt, if this
were
a
co
m
merc
ially a
dm
ini s·
te red standardized rest ,
you
mig
ht
have
to
wait weeks before learning yo
ur
resul tS .Yo u
can
check you,. an
swers
on this qu iz now by furning to page 16. If
yO ll
correctl
y idcn
ti fied
three
or
more items , congratulations YOli jllst
excee
ded
th
e average.
Of course, this little pop quiz on obscu
re
vocabulary is not :m appropriate
example
of
classroom·based achievement tcsting,nor is it intended
to
be. It's simply
an
illustration
of how
tests make us
[eel
much of the
ti
mc. can tests be positive
expe
riences?
am
they build a
person
's confidence and
become
learn ing experi
ences?
C 1
n they bring OUi tbe best in studen
ts
The answer is a resounding yes
Tests need not be degrading, artifiCial, anxiety·provoking experiences. And
that
's
part
ly what
th is
book is
a11
about: helping
YOll
to create m
ore aut
he
nt
ic, i
nt
rinsica llr
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CHM'TfR I
Testing
Assessing, and Te
ching 3
motivating assessment
procedures
that are approp riate for their context and
designed
to
offcr constnlctive feedback
to
your
students
.
Before we look at tests and
(CSt
design in
second
language education,
we
need
to
understand three basic interrelated concepts: testing, assessment, and teaching.
Notice that
the
title
of
this book
is
Langtwge Assessmenl,
not
Language Testing.
Thcre
are
impon
'am differences
between these tWO
constructs. and an even more
important relationShip among testing, assessing, and tcaching.
WH T IS A TEST?
A test, in simple terms, is a
melhod
o
measuring a person s abillt;l knowledge, or
performance
in
a given domain.
Let 's look at
the compone
nts
of
this definition. A
test is first a method.
It
is an instrume
nt a
set of techniques, procedures,
or i lems-
th:lt reqUires performance on the part
of
the test-taker.
10
qualify as a test, the method
must be exp licit and stnlCtured: multiple-choice questions with prescribed correct
answers; a writing prompt with a searing mbric; an oral interv
i
w based on a ques
tion script and a dlecklist
of
expected n:sponses to be filled in by the administrator.
Second, a test must measure. Some tests measure
gener..
ability. while
olhers
focus on very
spec
ific
competencies or
objectives. A muJti-skili proficiency test
dctermines a
gene "AI
ability level; a quiz on recognizing
correc
t use
of
definite arti
cles measures specific knowledge. TIle
W dY the fCSuJtS or
measurements are com
mUll.icated may vary. Some tests. SUdl as a classroom-based shon-an
swer
essay test,
may earn
the
test-take r a letter grade accompanied by the instructor'S marginal com
m
ents
.
Others
, particuJarly large-scaJe standardized tests, provide a
tO tal
numerical
score, a percenlile rank, and
perhaps
some
subscores. If an instrument
does not
specify a form of reporting measurement a means for offering the test-taker some
kind of
result then
that technique cannot appropriately be defmed as a test.
Ncxt,a test measures an individual's ability, knowledge,
or
performance.Testers
need
to
understand who the test-takers are.What
is their
previous experiencc and
background? Is the test appropriately
matdl
ed
to their
abilities? How should test
takers interpret lheir scores?
A leSt measures
performance, but the
results imply
the
test·raker's ability,
or
, to
use a
concept co
mmon in the field
of
linguistic
s,
competence . Most language tests
measufC one 's ability
to
perform language. that is , to speak, write, read,
or li
sten
to
a
s
ub
set
of
language.
On
the
other
hand, it
is
not
uncommon
to
find
teStS
designed
to
tap into a test-taker's knowledge
i h2 . langlL1
ge:dcftning a vocabulary item, reciting
a granunatical rule,
or
identifying a rhetorical feature in written discourse.
Performance-based tests sample the test-taker 's actual use
of
language, but from
those samples the test administrator infers generd l competence. A test of reading
comprehension, for example, may consist of several short reading passages each fol-
lowed by a limited number
of
comprehension
questions a
small sample of a
second
language learner's
total
reading behavior. But from the results
of
that test, the
examiner may infer a certain level
of
general reading ability.
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4 w
CR
I
Tf S,ing,
Assessing,
lIId
Teaching
Finally. a
1 eSI
measures a given domain. In
the
case
of
a proficiency
CSt
,
even
though
the
actual
perfonnance
on me test involves only a sampling of skills,
that
domain
is overnU
proficiency
in
a
language-general
competence in a
ll
skills
of
a
language.
Olher
tests may have more specific criteria. A test of pronunciation might
well
e
a
tCSt
of on
ly a limited
set of phonemic
minimal pairs.A vocabulary lesl may
focus on on ly the set of words covered in a particular lesson or unit. One of the
biggest
obs
tacles
to
overcome
in
conslructing adequate tests
is
to measure the
desired criterion and
nOt
include other factors inadvertcmiy, an issue that is
addressed
in
Chapters 2 and 3.
A well-constru
cte
d test
is
an instnlment that provides an
:ICC
urate measure
of
the test-laker's ability within a particular domain. 11lt:: definition
sou
nds
fdirly
simple,
bur in
fdCt
,
constr
ucting a good te
st is
a
comp
lex task involving both science and
art .
ASSESSMENT AND TEACHING
Assessment is :1popular :lnd sometimes misunde rstood I
crm
in curren t educational
practice.
You
might e
tempted
to
t ink of
testing and assessing as synonymous
terms, but they are
nOL
Tests are prepared administr:nivc proccdu.fCS that
occu
r
at
idenrifiable times in a
curriculum when
learners
mu
ste r aJl
their
fuculti
es
to offer
peak perfornlance, knowing that
their
responses arc being measured and evaluated.
Assessment. on
the
other hand, is an ongoing process
that
encompasses a
much
wider
domain . Whenever a
student
responds
to
a questiOn, offers a
comment
,
or
tries O
ut
a new word or SlruCfure,
the
teacher subconsciously makes an assessmem
of the student
's performance.Written
work-from
a joued-down phrase to a formal
essay-is
performance that u1timatt:1)'
is
assessed by self, teacher, and possibly oth
er
.
st
ud
ents
. Reading and
li
stening activities
lI
suaUy require some
SOrt of
productive
performance that
the
teacher implicitly judges, however peripheral that judgment
may
be.
A good
teacher
never ceases
to
assess students, wh
et
her th ose assessmcnts
are incidental
or
intend cd.
Tests, then, arc a s
ub
set of assessment; they are certainly not the on ly form of
a'i$Cssment tha t a teacher can make. Tests can
be
u
seful
devices,but they are only one
among many procedures and t:lsks that teachers can ultimately
uSt:
to asscss students.
But now
, you might be thinking, if you make assessmen ts every time you
teach
so
mething in 1.11C
dassroom
,
does
all teaching involve assessment?Are teachers con·
stantly assesSing stud
ents
wi
th no
interaction that
is
assessme
nt
-free?
'nlC w r
depends
on your perspective. For optim:.l learning to take place stll
dent'i in the classroom must have
the
freedom
to expe
riment,
to tryout
their
ow
n
hypotheses about language without feeling that their ove.ra U
compe
t
ence is
being
judged in temlS of those trials and errors.
I.n
the same way that tournament tennis
pbye
rs must, before a tournament, have the freedom
to pra<.
:
tice
their skiUs with
no
implications for their final placement on th:11 day of days,
so
al
so
must learners have
3ID pIe op
portunities
to
play with language in a classroom Without being formally
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cw PTER 1 Tesling. Assessing.
and
Teaching 5
graded, Teaching sets
up
the practict: games of language learning: the opportunities
for learners to listen. think, take risks, set goals, and process feedback from the
coach- and then
recyde
through the skills that they are trying to m:lSter, (A diagram
of
the
rel:uionsh ip among testing, teaching, and assessme
nt
is found
in
Fig
ure
1.1.)
E:v
ASSESSMENT
TEACHING
Figure 1. 1. Tests assessment and teaching
At the same time,during these practice activities, teachers (and tennis coaches)
are indeed observing
snldents
' performance and making varions evaluations of cadI
learner: H
ow
did the performance compare to previolls performance? Which
aspects of the performance were better than others? Is tlle learner pedorming up
to an
c.. Cpccred
potential? H
ow
does
the performance
comp
are
to
that
of
ot
h
ers
in
the same learning communi ty? In the ideal dassroom , all these obscrv.
lIi
ons feed
intO tlle way the teacher provides instruction to each student.
Informal
and
Formal ssessment
One way to begin untangling the lex ical co
nundnml
c reated by distinguishing
among tests, assessment,and teaching is to distinguish between informal and formal
assessment.
Informal
assessment can
(:Ike
a number of forms, star ting with inci
demal , unplanned
com
ments and responses, along with
coac
hing and
ot
her
impromptu
feed
back to the student. Examples include saying kGood
you say c n or c n t? 4l think you meant to say you broke the glass,
n
ot
you
bre k
the glass
,
or putting a
on
some homework.
Informal assessment does not SLOp there. A good deal of a reacher 's informal
assessment is
embedded
in
dassroom
tasks designed to elicit performance witho
ut
recording results and making fLxed judgments about a student 's
comp
etence.
E.xamples at this end of the
continuum
are marginal comments on papers,
responding
to
a drAft of all essay, advice about
how to
bener pronounce a
wo
rd, a
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C ~ f T E l Testing Assessing mel Teaching
suggestion for a strategy for compensating for a reading difficulty, and showing how
to modify a student's note-taking to bener remember the coment
of
a lecture.
On the
other
hand,
formal assessments
arc exercises or procedures specifi
ca lly designed to tap into a storehouse
of
skills and knowledge.They are systematic,
planned sampling
tedutiqucs
constructed to give teacher and student an appraisal
of studem achievement.
To
extend the tennis analogy, formal assessments are tbe
tournament games that occur periodically in the course
of
a regimen
of
practice.
Is fonnal assessment the same as a test?
We
can say that aU tests arc form3
assessments, but not
all
fonnal assessment is testing. For example, you might use a
student's journal or portfoliO of materi31s as a formal assessment of the allainment
of certain course objectives, but it is problematic to call those two procedures
"tests M A systematic set
of
observations
of
a student's frequen<:y
of
oral participation
in class is certai
nl
y a formal assessment, but it too
is
hardly what anyone would
ca
ll
a test. Tests arc usually rel:ltively tinH -constrained (usually spa nning a class period
or
at mO
St
several hours) and draw on a limiled sample
of
behavior.
Formative and Summative Assessment
Another useful distinction to bear in mind is the func ti
on
of an assessment: How is
the procedure to
be
used? 1\vo functions are commonly identified in the literature:
formative and summative assessment. Most
of
our dassroom assessment
is forma-
tive assessment: evaluating students in the process of o n n i n tbeir competen
cies and skills with the goal of helping them to continue that growth process. The
key 0 such formation
is
lhe del ivery (by the teacher) and int
ermLtizaUon
(by the stu
dent) of appropriatc feedback
on
performance, w ith an eye toward the future can·
tinuation (o r formation)
of
learning.
For 3 pr.1clical purposes, virtually all kinds of informal assessment are (or
should
be
formative. Tbey have as their primary focus tbe ongoing development of
the learner's language.
So
wben you give a student a comment
or
a suggestion,
or
ca ll attention to an error, that feedback is offered in order to improve tbe leamer's
language ability.
Summative assessment aims to measure, or summarize, what a student has
grasped, lind typically occurs at the end of a course or unit of in str uction. A sum
mation of w hat a student has learned implies looking back :
lOd
taking stock
of
b
ow
we
ll that studem h
as
accomplished objectives, but does not necessarily point the
way
to
future progress. Final exams
in
a course and general proficiency exams arc
examplcs
of
summative assessment.
One
of the problems with prevailing attitudes toward testing is the vi w that
l l tests (quizzes, periodic review tests, midterm exams, etc.) arc summative.At var-
iOlIS points
in
your past educational c.xperiences, no doubt you've considered such
tests as summ:J.tive.You may have tbought."Whew I'm glad that 's over. Now I don 't
ha e to remember thar stuff anymore "A challenge to you as a teacher
is
to change
thai attitude among your students: Can you instill a more formative quality to what
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F
01APJ ER 1
Tes
tin
g, A55eS5iog.
and T
ea
chin8
yOllr
students
might
otherwise
vi
ew
as a summalivc test? Can you offer yO llr Stu-
dents ao opportunity to con
vert testS
into learning experiences· ? We will take lip
that
dl3.lIenge in s
ub
sequent chapters in th is book.
Norm·Referenced
and
Criterion-Referenced
Tests
Anotber dichotomy that is
important
to clarify h
ere and
th
at
aids in sorting out
ommon
terminology
in ssessment is tbe
distin tion
between norm·referenced
and criterion-referenced testing.
In
norm-referenced
tests
, each tcst-taker's score
is interpreted in relation to a mean (average score) , median (middle score) , standard
deviation
(extent of
variance in scores), and/or percentile rank.The
purpose
i.o such
tests
is
to pla
ce
tcst·takers along a mathematical
cont
inuum
in
rank order. Scores are
usually reponed back to the test-taker in the form of a numerical
score
(for
examp
le,
230
o ul
of
300) and a
percentil
e rank (such
IS
84 percent , w hi
ch
means
that
the
test-taker's
score
was
higher
than
84 percent of the
total number
of
test
lakers,but lower than 16 percent in
that
administration). Typical of norm-referen
ce
d
tests are standardized testS like the Scholastic Aptitude Test SAl
4J
or
the
Test of
English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL ), imended to be administered to large audi
ences, with resuils efficiently disseminated to tesHakers.SUdl tes ts mUSt bave fixed,
predetermined responses in a format that can be scored quickJy at minimum
expense. Money and cfiiciency are primary concernS in these tests.
Criterion-referenced tcsts , on
the
otber hand ,
arc
designed to give test-takers
feedback, usuaUy in the fonn of grades, on specific course or lesson objectives_
C
la
ssroom tests involving
lhe
srudents in only
one
class, and
connec
ted to a c
ur
ri
culum,
are
typical of criterion-referenced testing. H
ere
, mu ch lime
and
effort on the
part
of
the tea
cher
(test admin
i
stra
t
Or)
are
sometimes
required in
order
to deliver
useful,
appropriate
feedback to
studems
,
or what
O
iJ
er ( 1979. p. 52)
c lled
s t r u
lion
al
In
a c
ri
terion-referenced tcs t, the distribution
of
students ' scores lCroSS
a continuum may be of little con
ce
rn as long as
the
instrument assesses
appropriate
ohjectives. In
tm
guage
Assessme1lf
with an ludience of classroom language
teachers and teachers in training, and with its emphasis on classroom-based assess
ment
(as opposed to standardized, large-scale tcsting), c riterion-referenced testing is
of more prominent interest than norm-referenced testing.
APPROACHES
TO
LANGUAGE TESTING: A BRIEF HISTORY
Now that yOll
ha
ve a reasonably
clear
grasp of some common assessment terms,we
now
rum to one of the primary
concerns
of this book:
the
creation and use o f tests,
particularly classroom tests. A brief
history
of language testing over the past half
cent
ury w ill serve as a backdrop to an
understanding
of classroom-based t'esting.
HistOrically, language-testing trends and practices have followed
the
shifting
sa nds of reaching me thodology (for a description of these trends, see Brown,
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8 H PTfR Testing Assessing and Tei/ching
Tetlcbing by
Prlndples [hereinafter TBP Chapter
2) . For
example
, in
the
1950s,
an
era of behaviorism and special anention to contrastive analysis. testing focused on
specific language elements such as the phonological , grammatical , and lexical con·
trasts between
two
languages. In the 1970s and 1980s,
communicative
theories
of
language
brought
with them
a
more
integrative vi
ew
of
testing in
whlch
specialists
daimed that
whole
of the communicative event was
considerably greater than
the sum of
its linguistic elements& (Clark, 1983, p .
432)
. Today, tcst
designers
are still
challenged in their
quest
for more authentic, valid instruments that simulate real·
world interaction.
Discrete·Point
and
Integrative
Testing
11tis hi
sto
ri
ca
l perspective underscores
(\ 10
major approaches to language testing
that were debat.ed in the 1970s
and
early I980s. TIlcse approaches stiU prevail today,
eve
n
if
i.n
mutated
form : the
dlOice
between
di
scre
te·poi
nt
and
integr.uive testing
methods (OUCI'
, 1979).
Discrete·point tests
are
co
n
st r
u
cted
o n the
assump
tio n that
langlt:lge
can be
broken
down
into its
compone
m
parts and that those parts can be
t
ested
successfully. These components an the sk ills of UStening, speaking, reading,
and writing , and various unilS
of
language discrete points) of phonologYI
graphology, morphology, lexicon, syntax,
and
discourse . It was claimed that an
overall language
proficiency test
, then , should sample all four skills
and as
many lin
guistic
discrete points
as
pos >ible
.
Such an approach demanded a decontextuali ..a tion that often confused the
test-taker. So , as the profession emerged into an
era
of emphasizing communication,
authentiCity,
and
context, new approach
es
were sought. Oller 1979) argued that
language
competence
is a unified
set
of
interJ.Cting abilities that
canno
t
be
tested
separate
ly.
His
claim was
that communicative
competcnce is
so
global
and
requires
such
integration
hencc the term int
egrative-
testing
)
that
it
canno
t be
captured in
additive tes ts of grammar, reading, vocabulary.
and
other discrete points of language.
Othe rs among them C
. ko
, 1982. and Savignon, 1982) soon followed
in
their sup
pOrt for integrative tes ting .
What
docs
an
integrative test
look like?
Two
types
of te
sts have hi
sto
rically
been claimed
to
be examples of
integrative tests:
doze
teSls and
dictations
.
A doze
test
is
a
reading
pa
ssage
pe rhap
s
150
to
300 words) i.ll
which roughly
every sixth
0
1
seventh word has bet:n deleted; the test-taker is required to supply
words
that fit
into
those
blanks. (See
Chapter
8
for
a full di
scuss
io n
of doze
testing
.) O
ll
er
1979)
I
Frequent references
are
made
in
this book
1
companion vol um
es
by
Lhe
author.
Prin
ciples
o umguage eaming and
TeachiflE pUj )
Founh Edition, 2000) is a
basic teacher reference book
on
essential foundations
of
second language acquisition
on which pedagogical practices arc based. Teachf E
by
Pri1lclples (TEP) (Second
Edition. 200 I spells out that pedagogy in practical terms for the language teacher.
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OW TER Testing. ssessinS and Teaching 9
claimed that doze test results are good measures
of
overall proficiency. According
to
theoretical
cOnStruCLS
underlying this claim,
the
ability
to
supply
appropriate
words in blanks requires a number of abilities that lie at the bean of competence in
a language: knowledge of vocabuJary, grammatical strucrure, discourse st ructure,
reading skills and strategies,
and
an internalized
expectancy
grammar
e
nabling
onc
to predkl
an item lhat will come
next
in a seque.nce). t
was
argued that suc
cessful comple.tion of doze items taps into
ll
of
those
abilities, wl:tich were said
to
be
the
essence
of gl
oba
l language proficiency.
Dictation is a familiar language-teaching tt.'dlnique that evo lved into a testing
tec
hnique. Esscmially, learners listen to a passage of 100
to
150
words
read aloud by
an admjnistr'J.tor
or
audi
otape)
and
write
what they bear, usi
ng correct
spelli
ng
.TIle
listening portion usually has three stages: an ornl reading without' pauses; an oral
reuding witJ, long pauscs between every phrase (to give the learner
ti
me to write
down what is heard);and a third reading at normal speed to give test- takers a chance
to ch
eck
what
th
ey
wrote
. (Sec Chapt
er
6 for more discussion
of
dictation as an
assessment device.)
Sup
porte
rs arguc that dictation is an integralive test because it lapS into gram
matical and discourse
competencies
required for other modes of performance in a
language. Success
on a dictation requires careful
listening
, reproduction in writing
of what is heard, efficient shon-ter:m memory, and , to an extent,
so
me expectancy
rules
to
aid the short-term memory. Funher, dictation test resul
t s
tend to correlate
strongly
with
other tesLS of profiCiency. Dictation testing is usually classroom
centered since large-scale administration of dictations is quite impractical from a
scoring standpoint. Reliability
of
scoring criteria for dictation tests can be improved
by designing mUltiple-choice or exact-word cloze test scoring.
Iwponents of integrative test
methods soon centered their
arguments on what
became known as the unitary trait hypothesis, which suggestt':d an indivisible
view
of
language proficiency: that vocabulary, grammar, phonology, the o u r s k i l l s
and other discrete
points
of language couJd
not
be disemangJcd from each other in
language performance . The unitary trait hypothcsis contended that there is a gen
era l factor of language proficiency such that all the discrete pOillLS do ot add up
to
that whole.
Ot hers argued strongly against the
un
itary trait pOSition. In a study of
st
udents
in Braz
il
and
the
Philippines, Farhady (1982) found signlfic:
mt
and widely varying
differences in performance on an ESt proficiency test, dcpt':nding on subjects' native
countr
y, maj
or
field
of
study,and graduate versus undergraduate statu
s.
For
examp
le,
Brazilians scored very low in listening comprehensi
on
and reillti\'ely high in reading
comprehension. Filipinos, whose scores on five of the six componenLS of the test
were conS
id
erably higher than Bra:dlians' scores,
were
actual ly l
ower
than Brazilians
in
re3ding
comprehension
scores. Farhady's
contentions
were
supported
in
other
research that seriously
questioned
the unitary trait hypothesis. Finally, in the face of
the
evidence, O
ller
retreated from his earlier stand and admitted that
the
unit3ry
tro.it
hypothesiS was w r o (1983 , p . 352).
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10 CWoPTfR Testing. A 5 ~ ; n g .
and eaching
Communicative Language Testing
By lhe mid-1980s, the language-testing field had aba nd
oned
argumentS abom the
unilary trait h
ypo
thesis and had begun to focus on designing
co
mmunicative
languagNesting tasks. Bachman and Palmer (1996, p .
9)
include among Kunda·
menia l- principles of language testing the need for a correspondence between lan·
guage leSt performance and language use: ln order for a particular language test to
be useful
fo
r itS intended purposes , test performance must correspo
nd
in demon
stl 'Jb
le ways
to
language use in non-t
eS
t situation
s.
The
prob
lem that language
assessment expens faced was that tasks tended to
be
artificial, contrived, and
unlike ly to mirror language use in real life. As Wei r ( 1990, p. 6) noted, Integrative
tests such ;IS doze only tell us about a candidate's linguistic competence. llley do
not te
ll
us anything directl y about a student 's performance ability.
And
so
a qu
es
t for aUlhenticity was launched , as test d
eS
igne rs
centere
d on
comm
unicative
pe
rforman
ce
. FoU
ow
ing Canale and Swain 's ( 1
98
0) model
of
com·
lUunicative
co
mp
ete
nce . Baclunan ( I O proposed a model of language compe
tence
co
nsistin g of organizational and pragmatic
compete
nce, respectively
subdiv
id
ed into grammatical and textual components, and into
iIl
ocu tionary and
sociolinguistic components , (Further discussion of both Cam le and Swain's and
Bachman's mode ls can be found in T Chapte r 9.) Bachman and Palmer 1996.
pp.700 also e
mph
asized the importance
of
strategic competence the ab ility to
emplo)'
co
mmunicative strategies to compensa te for breakdowns as well as [
enh
ance
the rhetorical eff
ect
of utterances) in the
pr
ocess of communi
ca
tion. All
element
s of the model , especia lly pr
.l
gmatic and strategic abilities,
needed to
be
included in the
co
nstructs of language te
st
ing and in the ac tual perf
or
mance
required of test·rakers.
Communicative testing presented challenges to test deSigners, as we will see in
subsequent chapters of this book. Test constructors began to identify the kinds of
real·world tasks that language learners were caJled
upon
to perform. t
was
dear that
the contextS for those tasks were extraordimlrily w idely varied and that
the
sa
m-
pling
of
tasks for anyone assessment procedure needed to be validated by what lan
guage users actually do wi th language .Weir (1990, p. II ) reminded his readers that
measure language proficiency
. . .
account must now be taken of: where, when ,
how, with who
lll
,and why language is
10
be used ,and on what IOp ics ,and with what
eff
ec
t . And the assessment ficJd became more and more concerned with the
:
tlI
the
nt
idty of
tasks and the genuineness
of
l
ex
ts. (See Skehan , 1988. 1989, for a
survey
of co
mmunicative testing research.)
Performance-Based Assessment
In language
co
urses and progr.tms around the wo rld, test deSigners are now tackling
this new and more s[udent-centercd agenda (Ald
erso
n. 200 1, 2 02). Instead of just
offering p:aper-and-pencil selective response test's of a pletho ra of separate items,
perfomlance·ba.sed assessment of language typically involves o ral production,
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CHAf'TCR1 Tesfing,
A5S1 S5ing.
and Teachin 11
written
produ
ction, open-ended responses, integrat
ed
performance (across
sk ill
areas), group perfonllance, and o
ther
interactive tasks.
To be
sure, such assessment
is ti.me-coosuming and therefore expensive,hut th
ose
extra efforts are paying off in
the form ofmore direct testing because st
uden
ts are assessed as th
ey
perform actual
or simulat
ed
real-world tasks. n technical terms, higher
co
mcm validity (see
Chapter 2 for an explana
ti
on)
is
achieved btcausc:: learne rs arc measured in the
process of perfornling the targeted linguistic acts.
to an English language-teaching
co
ntext, performance-based assessmem means
that you m
ay
have a difficu
lt
time diStingu
is
hing between formal and informal
assessment .
f
you rely a little less
on
forma
ll
y
st
ru
ct
ured tests and a little more on
evaluation w hile students are performing va
ri
ous tasks , you will be taking
so
me
steps
tow
ard m
eetin
g the goals of performanc
e-
based testing. (Sec C
hapt
er 10 for a
funher
di
sc
ussion of pe
rfor
mance·based assessme
nt
.)
A dl3racteristi - of many but not all) performance-based language assessments
is
lhe
pre
sen
ce
of interactive tasks.
In
such cases,
th
e assessments involve l
ea
rne rs
in acttla
ll
y performing the behavior that we want
to
me:lSure. In interac
ti
ve tasks,
test
-ta
kers arc measured in the act of speaking, requesting, responding, or in co m
bining listening and speaking, and in integrating reading and writing. Paper-and
pencil tests certainly do nOI e
li
cit such communicative perform'
lO
ce .
A prime
examp
lc of an
int
e ractive language assessmclll procedure is an oral
intcn 'iew.
TI
le test-taker
is
required to
li
sten accurately
1
someone else and
to
respond appropriately. f care is taken in the test design process, language elicited
and volunteered by the st'Udent
can
be persona
li
zed and mC'J.ningful , and tasks can
approadl
the a
uth
e
nt
icity
of
real-life language use (see Chapter 7) .
CURRENT ISSUES
IN CIASS
RooM TESTING
The design of communicative, performance-based assessment rubrics continues to
challe
ng
e bo
th
assessment experts and classroom teachers. Such efforts to improve
variolls facets of classroom testing are accompanied by some
st
imulating issucs , aU
of which are helping to shape
our
current understand ing
of
effec ti ve assessment.
t et's look at three such issue
s:
the effect of new theo
ri
es of inte
lli
gence on the
testing industry;
th
e advent of what has come to be
ca
lled alternativ assessment;
and the increasing popularity
of comput
er-based tes tin
g.
New
Views o n Intelligence
in te lligence was
once
viewed stric
tl
y as
the
ability
to
perform (a) linguistic and (b)
logical·mathema tica l problem solving. This &Q (inte
lli
gence quo ti
ent)
concept of
intelligence: bas permeated the Western wo rld and
it
s way
of
testing f
or
almost a
cen
tury. Since MmarLness·
in
general
is
measured by timed, discrete-point teSts
co
n
Sisting of a h ierMChy of separate items,why shou ldn't evCJ )' fie ld of sttldy be so mea
sured? For many we have
li
ved in a world of standardized, norm-referenced
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2 cw.rnlf
Tes/ing. Assessing.
and eaching
tests that are timed in a multip le-ch
oice
fonnat consiSting of a multiplicity of logic
constr.tined items, many of which are inauthentic .
However, research on intelligence by p t)'chologists like Howard Gardner.
Robert Sternberg, and Daniel Goleman has begun
to
[urn
the
psychometric wo rld
upside
down
. Gardner
1983
, 1999),
fo
r
example
,
extended
the traditional view
of
intelligence to seven different components.
He
accepted
the u-aditional
co
ncep tu
alizations
of
linguistic intelligence and logical·mathematical intelligence on which
standardized IQ tests are based, but he induded five o
ther
"frames of
m i n
in his
theory
of multiple intelligences:
• spatial intelligence the ability to fLOd your way around an enVironment, to
form menta l images of reality)
• musical intclligence
t
he ability to perceive and create pitch and rhythmiC
patterns)
bodily
k
inesrhetic intelligence (fine mot
or
move
ment
, athletic prowess)
• inte rperson:1I intelligence
the
ability to understand others and
how
they
feel ,
and
to
interac t effectively
with them)
• intrapersonal intelligence
the
ability to
lUl
de rsland oneself and
to
develop a
sense of self-identity)
R
aben
Ste
rnb
erg
0988
, 1997)
also charted
new territ
ory
in intelligence re
search in recognizing creative thinking and manipulative su-ategies as
pan
of intel·
Iigen
ce
. All · sman- peop le aren 't necessarily
adept
at fast, reactive thinking. They
may be vcry innovative in being able
to
think beyond
the
normal limits imposed by
existing tests, but they may
need
a good deal of processing time to enact this cre·
ativity. Other fo rms
of
smartness are found in those who know how to manipulate
their environme
nt
, namely,
other people
. Debaters , politicians, successful salesper·
sons, smooth talke rs, and co n artists are all
smart
in their manipulative ability to per
suade others to think
their
way, vote for them , make a purchase, or do something
they might not otherwise do .
More recently, Daniel Goleman'S (1995) co n
ce
pt (emotional quotient)
bas
sp
urred us
to underscore the
importance
of the emotion
s in our cognitive pro
cessing.
Those
who manage their emotions-especially emotions
that
can be detri
mental
t
nd to be more capable of fu lly intelligent processing . Anger, grief,
resentment, se
lf d
oubt , and
other
feel ings can easily impair peak performance in
everyday tasks as well as highcr-order
prob
l
em so
lvi
ng
.
These new conceptualizations of intelligence have
not
been univ
ers
ally
accepted
by the academic co mmunity (see White, 1998, for example). Nevertheless,
th eir intuitive appeal infused the decade of the 1990s with a sense of both freedom
and responsibility
in
our testing agenda. Coupled with parallel educational reforms
at
the
time
Armsuong
, 1994),
the
y
helped to
free us from relying exclusively on
•
I
For a summary of Gardner's theory of intelligence, see Brown 2000
.
pp .
100-102)
.
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O«PTER
I
Testing, 'S5eS5inS.
and
Tea
chin
3
timed , discrete-point, analytical tests in measuring language. We were prodded to
cautiously combat the potential tyranny of objectivity"and its accompanying imper
SOllal approach. But
we
also assumed the responsibility for tapping into whole lan
guage skiUs, learning processes. and the ab
ili
ty to negotiate mean ing. Our dlallenge
was
to test interpersonal. creative.
comm
unicative, interactive sk
ill
s,
and
in
do
ing
so
to place
some
trust in our subjectivity
and
intuition.
Traditional
and Alternative
" Assessment
lmpli
ed
in
some of
the
ear
lier description
of
performance-based
dassroom
assess
ment is a trend to supplement traditional test deSigns willi alternatives that are more
a
mb
eoric in th
eir
elicitation
of
meaningful
com
munica
tion
. Table 1. I highlights dif·
f
erences between
the
two approac
hes (adapt
ed
from Armstrong, 1994,
and
Bailey,
1998,
p
207).
Two caveats need to be stated here. First,
the concep
ts in Table
1.1
repre
se
nt
some
ove rgeneralizations
and
should therefore
be
considered with
ca
ution.
It is dif-
ficult, in fact,
0
dr.tw a clear line
of
distincti
on
between what Armstrong ( 1
994) and
BaiJcy (1998) have ca
U<. d
traditional and alternative asseSSmenl. Many forms
of
assessment fa
ll n betwec
n the
two
,
and some
combine the
best of bo
th .
Second, it
is obv
ious that
the
table shows a bias toward alternativc assessm
ent
,
and
one
should not
be
mi sled into thinking that everything
on the
left-h
and
si
de is
tainted while
the
list on the righr-hand side offers salvation to
lhe fi
eld
of
language
assessment
As
Brown
and
Hudson (1998) ap tly
po
inted
Ollt
.
the
assessment tradi
ti
ons
av:
liI
able to us should
be
valued
and
utilized for the fu nctions that th
ey
pro
vide.
At
the same time,
we
might all
be
stimulated to l
oo
k at
the
right-
hand
list
and
ask
ourse
lves if,
among
th
ose
concepts. there
are
alternatives
to
assessment that
we
can
construct
ively use n our classrooms.
It should be n
oted
here thal
cons
id
erab
ly more time and higher institutional
budgelS
are
required to administer and
score
assessments Illat
pre
supp
ose
more
Table 1.
, . Traditional
and alternative assessment
Traditiona l Assessment
One-shot , standardized exams
Timed, multiple-choi ce form al
Decontextualized test items
Scores suffice for feedba ck
Norm-referenced scores
focus on the "right answer
Su
mmative
Oriented to product
Non-interactive performance
Fosters extrinsic motivation
Alternative Assessment
Co
ntinuous ong-term assessment
Untimed, free-respon
se
fo rmat
Contextu
ali
zed commun icative
ta
sks
Ind ivi
dualized feedback and washback
Criterion-referenced scores
Open-ended, crea
ti
ve answers
Formative
Orie
nt
ed
to
process
Interactive performance
Fosters
int rinsic motivat ion
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4 CH PTffl I T
esting
Assessing and Te
ching
subjective evaluation,more individualization, and morc interaction
in
the process of
offering feedback . The: payoff for the latter.
how
ever. co mes
with
more useful feed
back to students , the potcntial Jor intrinsic motivation, and ultimately a more
complete descript
i
on of
a
student
's abil ity. See Chapler 10 or a
complete
[fCatment
of
alternatives
in
assessment.
ore
and
more
educators :lnd adVOC ttes
for
educa-
tional reform arc
arguing
for a de-emphasis on large-scale
standardized
te stS in favor
of buildi
ng
budgets that will offer the kind of comcxtlmlizcd, communicative
performance-based assessment that
w
ill bener facitit:
ue
learning in our schools. On
Chapter 4 , i
ssues
surrounding s t
andard
i
zed testing
are
addressed
at
length
.)
compute r-Ba
se
d
Testing
Recen t years have seen a burgeoning of assess
mcm
in wh ich the lCS t-t
ake
r performs
respon
ses
on a
co
m puter. Some
co
mp ut er-bascd rests (a l
so
know
n as "
co
mp Ul er
ass i
sted
" Or
w e b b s e d
tests) are sma
ll
·
scale
"
home
-
grow
n"
tes
ts ava
il
lible
on
we
I -
si tes . Others arc
standardjzed
, largc-scale
tests
in which thousands
Or
even t
ens
of
thousands
of
test-t'akers are invo h'
cd
. S
tudents
receive pro
mpts or
probes ,
as they
are sometimes
referred
to) in thc form of
spoken
or wriHen stimu li from ti
le
com
put
e rized test
and
are requ ired to
type
or in some
cases
, spcak) their responses .
A1m
os t a ll
comp
uter-based tcst items have fIXed , closed-end
ed
responscs;
however
,
tests like the Test of English as a Foreign Language
fOEFL offer
a written essay
sec tion
that
must be scored
by
hUUlans
as
opposed to
automatic
, e lectronic, o r
machine scoring).
As
this
book goes to press , the deSigners of the TOEFL are on the
verge of offering a spoken Eng li
sh
section .
A
specific
type
of
computer-based tcst , a com
pu
ter -ada pti
ve
test, has been
available for
man
y yea
rs but has
recently
gainel1
momentum
.
In
a
computer-adaptive
lest CAn ,
each test-taker
receives
a
se
t of
questions
that
meet the test
specifica·
tions
and
that arc gencraJJy
appropriate
for h is
or her
performance levd . Th e CAT
starts
with questions o f moderate difficul
ry
.As test-
taker
s answer
eadl
question, the
computer
scores
th e
questi
o n and u
ses
that
inf
ormation , as we
ll
as tllC
responses
to
previo
us questions,
to
d
ete
rmine w hidl question will be presented next. As long as
ex.1minees respond correctly, the compu t
er
typica
ll
y
se
lectS quest jons of grea te r or
equal d ifficulty. Incor rect :m
swers,
h
owever
, lypically bring questions
of
l
esser or
equa l difficul ty. Tht comp uter is programmed to fu
lfi
ll th e tcst
desig
n as it co
ntinu
ously adjusts to fi nd quest ions of approp riate d ifficulty for test-takers
at
a
ll perfo
r
man
ce
levels. In CATs,
the
test-take.r
sees
on
ly
one ques
tion
at a
time
,
an
d
the
computer scores e
ach qu es
tion
before
selecti ng
(h
e next one . As a result , tes t-takers
cannot sk ip questions,
and
once tllCY have
entered and
confirmed thei r answers,
they
cannot rerum to questions or
to
any
earJjer part of the
test
.
Computer-based esting,with
or
witlIom CAT te
dlllology
,o
fft tS these
advantages:
cI:lSsroom·bascd
te
s ting
se
lf ·directed t
esting
o n V". .rious aspects of a l
anguage
(vocabu l
ary
,
gramma
r,
discourse , onc or all of the four skills,
et c
.)
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cm.I TlIl
I Tesfing,
Asse55ing
nd
Teil
ch i
ng 5
• pr.tcticc for upcoming high-stakcs standardi
zed
tests
•
some
ind
iv
idualizati
on
, in the
case of
CATs
• large-scale stan
dard
i
zed
tests thai can be
administered
casil)' to thousands of
tcs t-takers
at
many different stations, then scored electronica lly for rapid
re po
nin
g
of
results
Of
co
urse , some disad\rantagcs are presem in
our
currenl predile(:lion for com
pu t
erizing test
ing_Among th
em:
• Lack
of se
c urity
and
the
poss
ib
ili
ty of cheating are inhe rent
in
c1a
ssroo
m
based,
unsupervised
compute ri
ze
d tests.
Occasional
o m · r o w Qui
zzes
that appear on
unofficial
websites
may
be
mistaken for valida ted assessmen ts.
• Th e mu ltiple-choi ce forma t p referred for most computer-based
tests
comains
the usual
po t
ential fo r flawed it
em
de
sign
see
Ch
ap
t
er
3).
•
Ope
n e
nd
ed responses are less likely to appear because
of
lhe need for
human scorers, with all the attendant issues of
COS
t, reliability, lind tu
rn
a
round
time.
• ' c human interactive clement
es
pecia
ll
y in oral production) is
abse
nt _
More is said
abo
ut computer-based t
esting
in sub
sequent
ch
aplers
, especially
Chap ter 4, in a discussion of large·scale standardized testin g. In add itio n, the fol-
low
ing webs i[t"s
provide
further informatio n
and
examples o f computer·based tests:
Educational Testing Service
T
es
t
of
English
as
3.
Foreign
Language
Tcst of English for International Communication
lntem
:nio
naJ
English Language T
est
ing System
Dave'S ESL Cafe (computerized quizzes)
www .ets.org
www .tocfl.org
www
.todc .com
www .ie1ts.o rg
www.e slcafe
.co
m
Some argue th at computer-based testing, pushed to its ul timate level,
might
mil
i
gate
agai nst recent c fforts to rerurn t
csting
0 its artful form of be ing tailored
by
teach
ers
f
or
th
ei
r dassrooms,
of
being
de
signed [ be
perfor
mance-ba
se
d ,
and
of
a
llOW
ing a teache r- s
tud
ent d ialogue to f
or
m th e basis o f assessmen
t.
This ne
ed
no t
be the C
ll
se. Co mplllcr tcchnolo .')' am bc a boon to co mmun icative language
testing.Tead1ers
and
test-m
ake
rs
of
the
fu ture w
ilJ
have
access
to an
ever
-i
ncreasing
rdnge of too ls
10
safeguard against impcrson
aJ
, stamped-om fo
rmul
as fo r aSsessment.
By using t
ed
lOoJogical innovations creatively, testers will be able
to en
hance authen·
ticity,
10
in
cre
ase interactive c.'Xchange,
and
to promote
aut
o no my.
As rou TCad this book , I hope you
\ \
'
ilI
do so w
ith
an
appreciat
ion for the place
of testing in assessment , a
nd
w
ith
a s
ense of
the
in t
er
conn
ection
of
assessment
and
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16
H m
ll
I
Testing
Assessing C nd T
eClching
teaching
. Assessment is an
int
egral part of
the teaching-learning cyde
. In an inter
active,
co
mmunicative c urriculum, assessment is alm ost constant. Tests, w hich are a
subset of assessment , can provide authenticity, motiV"dtion, and feedback to
the
l
earner
. Tests are essential
components
of a successful
cu
rriculum and one of sev
eral
partners
in
the
learning process. Keep
in
mind th
ese
basic p rinciples:
1. o d i assessments, both formal and informal, can in
crease
motivation by
se rving as milestones of srudent progress.
2.
Appropr
iate assessments aid in [he reinforcement and retention
of
informa
lion .
3. Assessments
can
co nfirm areas of strength and
pinpoint
areas n
eed
ing further
wo
rk.
4. Assessments can provide
a
sense
of
periodiC closure to modules
with
in
a
cur
ri
c ulum .
5
Assessments
ca
n
promote
st
udent
au
tono
my
by
en
co
ura ging s
tudents
' se lf
evruu3tion of their progre
ss
.
6 Assessments can spur learners to set goals fo r themselves,
7. Assessments can aid in evaluating
teadling
effectiveness.
Answers to the vocabulary quiz
on
pages 1 and 2: l c, 2a, 3d,
4b
, Sa, 6c.
EXERCISES
[Note: I) lndividual
work
; (G) Group or
pair work
; C) Whole-class d iscussion .)
1. G) In
a
smaU group , look at Figure 1.1 on page 5 that shows t
es
ts as a subset
of
assessment
and
the
laner as a s
ubset
of teaching.
Do yOll agree with
this
diagrammatic dep iction of th e
three
terms? Co
nsider
the following classroom
tcaching techniques : choral drill,
pair
pronunciation practice, reading aloud ,
infomlation gap task, Singing songs in English , wri ting a description of ule
wee ken d 's activities.What proportion of ellch has an assessment face t to il?
Share your
co
nclusions with the resl
of
the class.
2. G) TIle c
hart
below shows a hypo thetical tine of distinction between fonna
tivc
and summa
tive assessme
nt
.
and betwecn
informal and forma assessm
ent.
As a group , place
the
foUowing techniques
/proced
ures into one of the four
ce
Us and justify your decision. Sh
are
your results with othe r groups and
dis
Cll
SS any differences
of opin
i
on
.
Pl
ace
ment tests
Di
agnostic
te
st
Period ic achievemem tests
Short po p qujzzes
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Standanlized proficiency
lestS
Final exams
Portfolios
CWol ml T
es
t
ing
Mres5ing and Teiiching
7
Journals
Speeches prepared
and rehearsed)
Oral presentatiOns
prepared
, but not rehearsed)
Impromptu student responses to teacher s questions
Student-written response one paragrnph) to a reading assignment
Drafting
and
revising writing
Final essays (after
severa
l
drafts)
Student oral responses
to tcache
r questions after a videotaped lecture
hole
class open ended discussion
of
a
topi
c
formative Summative
Informal
Form
al
3.
l ie)
Review
th
e distinction
be twee
n
norm
·referenced and cril crion
referenced testing. If norm-referenced tests typica lly yie
ld
a distribution
of
scores that resemble a beU
s
h
aped
curve,
what
ki
nds
of
distributions are
typical
of
classroom ac
ru
evement tests in your experience?
4. l ie) Restate i.n
your
own words lhe argumcill betwecn unilary trai t propo
nems
and discrete-point testing advocates.Why did O
Uer
back down from
the
unitary trait hypothesis?
5. eve Why are doze and dictation considered to be integra live tests?
6.
G) Look
at the
lisl
of
Gardner s seven intelligenc
es
. Take
one or
t
wo
intelli
gences, as assigned
to
your group, and brainstorm some teaching activities
that foster
thai
type of intelligence.
Then
, bminstorm some assessment tasks
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8
HIoPTrR 1 Testing. Assessing and Teach ing
that may
presuppose the
sa
me
intelligence
n order
to pe
rf
o rm
we
ll . Sha
re
yo
ur
resulls
with
othe r groupS.
7. C) As
a
wh
ole-c.lass discussi
on
, brain
storm
a variery of test tasks
that
class
members
have e.xperien
ce
d
n
learning a foreign language.
Then decide
whi<:h of
those
tasks are performance-based ,
which are
nO
t, and
which
ones
fa n between
.
8. G)
Table
1.1
lists traditional and
alternat
ive assessment tasks a
nd
characteris
tics. ln pair
s
quickly review
the
advantages and disad\ antages of
cad
}, o n
both
sides of the dun Share
your
conclusi
ons
with
the
res t
of the
class.
9. C)
As
k
class
members
to share any
expe
ri
ences with
co
mputer
-based t
es
ting
and eva luate the adv-dntages and disadvantages
of
th
ose experie
nces.
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING
McNamara,
Tim.
(2000). Latlgllage testi
ng.
Oxford:
Oxf
ord
Un
iversity Press.
One of a number
of
Oxford University Press s brief introductions to various
of language study this 140-page primer
on
testing offers definitions
of
basic t
er
ms
in
language testing with brief explanations
of
fundamental
concepts. It
i s a
useful
little
reference
boo
k to check your understand ing
of
testing jargon and issues
in
the field.
Mousavi, Seyyed Abbas. 2002). An
e lcyclopedlc dictlo
1la
ry of language testing.
111ird Edition. Taipei: Tung Bua Book Co
mpany.
111
i5 publica
li
on may
e
d ifficult to find in loca l lx>okslores, but
it
is a
highly useful
co
mpilation of Virtually every term in the field
of
language
testi ng, w i
th
definitions, background
hi
story. and research references. It
provides comprehensive explanations
of
theories, principles, issues, tools,
and
ta
sk
s. It
s exhaustive BS-page b
ib
liography is al
so
down loadable at
http:/ /www.abbas
·
mousavi.com
. A shorter
ve
rsion of this 942-page lome
may
e fOUlld in
the previous version, Mousavi s (1999) Di
ctiollary
of
lan-
g age les ing
(Tehran: Rahnama Publicat
ions)
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