People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
Teacher Training School of Constantine
Distance Training Course for Middle School Teachers
In
Linguistics
Prepared by: S.BOULMERKA
Academic Year: 2007- 2008
Department of Distant Training
1
Linguistcics
3rd Year
General Introduction
This section introduces some important fields in
linguistics. These are:
Linguistics is the scientific study of language,
which can be theoretical or applied. Someone
who engages in this study is called a linguist.
Theoretical (or general) linguistics
encompasses a number of sub-fields, such as the
study of language structure (grammar) and
meaning (semantics). The study of grammar
encompasses morphology (formation and
alteration of word) and syntax (the rules that
determine the way words combine into phrases
and sentences). Also a part of this field are
phonology, the study of sound systems and
abstract sound units, and phonetics, which is
concerned with the actual properties of speech 2
sounds (phones), non-speech sounds, and how
they are produced and perceive.
Linguistics compares languages (comparative
linguistics) and explores their histories, in order
to find universal properties of language and to
account for its development and origins
(historical linguistics).
Applied linguistics puts linguistic theories into
practice in areas such as foreign language
teaching, speech therapy, translation and speech
pathology
Linguists may specialize in some subpart of the
linguistic structure, which can be arranged in the
following terms, from sound to meaning:
Phonetics, the study of the physical aspects of
sounds of human language
Phonology, the study of patterns of a language's
sounds
3
Morphology, the study of the internal structure
of words
Syntax, the study of how words combine to form
grammatical sentences
Semantics, the study of the meaning of words
(lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations
(phraseology), and how these combine to form
the meanings of sentences
Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are
used (literally, figuratively, or otherwise) in
communicative acts
Discourse analysis, the analysis of language
use in texts (spoken or written )
Many linguists would agree that the divisions
overlap considerably, but the independent
significance of each of these areas is not
universally acknowledged. Regardless of any
particular linguist's position, each area has core
4
concepts that foster significant scholarly inquiry
and research.
Intersecting with these domains are fields
arranged around the kind of external factors that
are considered. For example
Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors that
place a discourse in context
Developmental linguistics, the study of the
development of linguistic ability in an individual,
particularly the acquisition of language in
childhood
Historical linguistics or Diachronic linguistics,
the study of language change
Evolutionary linguistics, the study of the origin
and subsequent development of language
Psycholinguistics, the study of the cognitive
processes and representations underlying
language use
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Sociolinguistics, the study of social patterns of
linguistic variability
Clinical linguistics, the application of linguistic
theory to the area of Speech-Language Pathology
Neurolinguistics, the study of the brain
networks that underlie grammar and
communication
Biolinguistics, the study of natural as well as
human taught communication systems in animals
compared to human language
Computational linguistics, the study of
computational implementations of linguistic
structures
Applied linguistics, the study of language
related issues applied in every day life, notably
language policies and language education .
6
I- SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Introduction
This chapter introduces an important field in
linguistics which is sociolinguitics . It deals with
the realtionships between language and society.It
also provides examples of the different linguistic
variation : dialect, diglossia, pidgin, and the
relation between language variation and
ethnicity, nationalism, social status, social
solidarity, sex,...etc
I.1 Sociolinguistics and linguistics
In general terms, sociolinguistics may be
defined as the study of language in relation to
society. It has become a thriving area within
7
linguistics since 1960s, and the father of
sociolinguistics is claimed to be William Labov.
(William Labov (born December 4,
1927) is a professor in the linguistics
department of the University of
Pennsylvania. He is widely regarded as the
founder of the discipline of variationist
sociolinguistics and pursues research in
sociolinguistics, language change, and
dialectology).
Sociolinguistics studies issues like accents,
dialects, language change, age, gender,
etchnicity, social context, pidgins and creoles,
language planning,code-switching and code-
mixing etc. (Bloomer&Trott:1988).
8
I.2 SOME USEFUL DEFINITIONS
I.2.1 Definition of Society
A society is a grouping of individuals, which is
characterized by common interests and may
have distinctive culture and institutions. In a
society, members can be from a different ethnic
group. A "Society" may refer to a particular
people, such as the Nuer (The Nuer are a
confederation of tribes located in Southern
Sudan and western Ethiopia. Collectively,
the Nuer form one of the largest ethnic
groups in East Africa. They are a pastoral
peoplewho rely on cattle for almost every
aspect of their daily lives) to nation state,
such as Switzerland, or to a broader cultural
group, such as a Western society. Society can
also refer to an organized group of people
associated together for religious, benevolent,
9
cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other
purposes
I.2.2 Definition of Social class
IT refers to the hierarchical distinctions between
individuals or groups in societies or cultures.
Anthropologists, historians and sociologists
identify class as universal, although what
determines class varies widely from one society
to another. Even within a society, different
people or groups may have very different ideas
about what makes one "high" or "low" in the
hierarchy. The most basic class distinction
between the two groups is between the powerful
and the powerless. Social classes with more
power usually subordinate classes with less
power, while attempting to cement their own
power positions in society. Social classes with a
great deal of power are usually viewed as elites,
at least within their own societies.
10
In the simplest societies, power is closely linked
to the ability to assert one's status through
physical strength; thus age, gender, and physical
health are often common delineators of class in
rudimentary tribes.
As societies expand and become more complex,
economic power replaces physical power as the
defender of the class status quo, so that one's
class is determined largely by:
-Occupation ( profession) ,education ( teaching
and learnng specific skills) , qualifications
(professional certification, trade certification, or
professional designation (often called simply
certification or qualification) that assure that
the person is qualified to perform a job or task.
-income:personal, household and per capita
wealth or net worth, including the ownership of
land, property, means of production, …
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Those who can attain a position of power in a
society will often adopt distinctive lifestyles to
emphasize their prestige and to further rank
themselves within the powerful class. Often the
adoption of these stylistic traits are as important
as one's wealth in determining class status, at
least at the higher levels:
costume and grooming
-manners and cultural refinement. For example,
there is a notion of high and low classes with a
distinction between bourgeois tastes and
sensitivities and the working class tastes and
sensitivities.
-political standing vis-à-vis the church,
government, and/or social clubs, as well as the
use of honorary titles
-reputation of honor or disgrace
-language : the distinction between elaborate
code, which is seen as a criterion for "upper-12
class", and the restricted code, which is
associated with "lower classes"
Finally, fluid notions such as race can have widely
varying degrees of influence on class standing.
Having characteristics of a particular ethnic
group may improve one's class status in many
societies. However, what is considered "racially
superior" in one society can often be exactly the
opposite in another.
I.2.3 Speech community is a concept in
sociolinguistics that describes a more or less
discrete group of people who use language in a
unique and mutually accepted way among
themselves.Speech communities can be
members of a profession with a specialized
jargon distinct social groups like high school
students , or even tight-knit groups like families
and friends. In addition, online and other
mediated communities, such as many internet
forums , often constitute speech communities.
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Members of speech communities will often
develop slang or jargon to serve the group's
special purposes and priorities.
I.3 Varieties of Language
Dear student. Before we review various aspects
of language variation in more detail, I want to
make sure you have got some basic terms and
concepts down:
I.3.1 SOME IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY
1-Language variety: This is a general term that
may be used at a number of levels. So, we can
use the term to distinguish between English and
French, but we can also use the term to
distinguish between two varieties of English, such
as New York City English vs. Appalachian English
2-Internal Variation: the property of languages
having different ways of expressing the same
meaning. Importantly, this refers to within 14
language, not across language, differences. An
example of internal variation in English is "GIVE"
vs. "GIVES".
3-Dialect: This is a complex and often
misunderstood concept. For linguists, a dialect is
the collection of attributes (phonetic,
phonological, syntactic, morphological, semantic)
that make one group of speakers noticeably
different from another group of speakers of the
same language.
I .3.2 COMMON SOURCES OF
MISUNDERSTANDING
1- DIALECT is NOT a negative term for
linguists. Very often, for example, we hear
people refer to non-standard varieties of English
as "dialects", usually to say something bad about
the non-standard variety (and thus about the
people who speak it). But, the term dialect refers
to ANY variety of a language. Thus, by definition,
we all speak a dialect of our native language.
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2- DIALECT is NOT synonymous with accent.
Accent is only a part of dialectal variation. Non-
linguists often think accents define a dialect (or
that accents alone identify people as non-native
or foreign language speakers). Also, non-linguists
tend to think that it's always the "other" people
that have "an accent". So, what is "accent"?
3- ACCENT: This term refers to phonological
variation, i.e. variation in pronunciation Thus, if
we talk about a Southern Accent, we're talking
about a generalized property of English
pronunciation in the Southern part of the US. But,
Southern dialects have more than particular
phonological properties .A person is said to have
an Oxford accent when we find in his speech
certain phonological characteristics related to
English spoken in that town. The term accent is
also used to refer to some ,foreign, non –native
features in the speech of a person- usually a
foreigner speaking a second language. Accent is
thus about pronunciation, while dialect is a
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broader term encompassing syntactic,
morphological, and semantic properties as well.
A final note on accent. WE ALL HAVE ONE! There
is no such thing as a person who speaks without
an accent.
In sum, a dialect is a particular variety of a
language, and we all have a dialect. Accent refers
to the phonology of a given dialect. Since we all
have a dialect, we all have an accent.
-A language, say English, is really a collection
of dialects.
-A dialect is a particular variety of a language
that differs noticeably from the variety or
varieties of the same language spoken by
another group or groups of people.
-Dialects themselves are collections of idiolects
(and thus so are languages).
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I.3.3 Standard and Non-Standard dialects
A standard dialect (also known as a standardized
dialect or "standard language") is a dialect that is
supported by institutions. Such institutional
support may include government recognition or
designation; presentation as being the "correct"
form of a language in schools; published
grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set
forth a "correct" spoken and written form; and an
extensive formal literature that employs that
dialect (prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.). There
may be multiple standard dialects associated
with a language. For example, Standard British
EnglishBritish English (BrE, BE, en-GB) is the
broad term used to distinguish the forms of the
English language used in the United Kingdom
from forms used elsewhere in the Anglophone
world. British English encompasses the varieties
of English used within the UK, including those in
England; Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales.
Some may also use the term more widely, to
18
include other forms such as Hiberno-English
(spoken in Ireland.
In daily circumstances, most Britons — the
majority of whom speak English as either a first
or a second language — consider that they just
speak "English", rather than "British English"
specifically; the term "British English" is used
only when necessary to distinguish it from other
forms of English
Standard British English and Standard Indian
English may all be said to be standard dialects of
the English language.
A nonstandard dialect, like a standard dialect,
has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and
syntax, but is not the beneficiary of institutional
support.
I.3.4 Regional Dialect
19
A regional dialect is not a distinct language but
a variety of a language spoken in a particular
area of a country. Some regional dialects have
been given traditional names which mark them
out as being significantly different from
standard varieties spoken in the same place.
Some examples are 'Hillbilly English' (from the
Appalachians in the USA) and 'Geordie' (from
Newcastle upon Tyne in the UK). For example
the differences between American and British
English are on many levels: Pronunciation –
e.g. Am E / Kar/ and Br E / ka/ for car ; Lexis-
e.g.AmE gas and BRE petrol; morphology –
AmE dove and BrE dived as the past form of
dive ; and syntax – e.g. AmE I don’t have a car
and BrE I have not a car.
I.3.5 Minority Dialect
Sometimes members of a particular minority
ethnic group have their own variety which they
use as a marker of identity, usually alongside a
20
standard variety. This is called a minority
dialect. Examples are African American
Vernacular English in the USA, London
Jamaican in Britain, and Aboriginal English in
Australia.
I.3.6 Indigenized variety:
Indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as
second languages in ex-colonies with
multilingual populations. The differences
from the standard variety may be linked to
English proficiency, or may be part of a
range of varieties used to express identity.
For example, 'Singlish' (spoken in
Singapore) is a variety very different from
standard English, and there are many other
varieties of English used in India.
I.3.7 Social Varieties
Another kind of language variation is linked
to the different social classes in the
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society( speech community). Members
within the same speech community have
differences in their linguistic behaviour
determined by the social group or social
class they belong to. Factors such
religion ,cultural background education,
profession place of residence , financial
wealth and others ( see social class
above ???? ) determine people’s social
position and differentiation end thus the
way they speak.
I.3.8 Variation According to the Use of
Language
1-Registers (or diatypes): the specialised
vocabulary and/or grammar of certain activities
or professions ( professional language) .A register
is a subset of a language used for a particular
purpose or in a particular social setting. For
example, an English speaker may adhere more
closely to prescribed grammar , pronounce words
22
ending in -ing with a velar nasal (e.g. "walking",
not "walkin'") and refrain from using the word
"ain't " when speaking in a formal setting, but the
same person could violate all of these
prescriptions in an informal setting.
The term was first used by the linguist Thomas
Bertram Reid in 1956, and brought into general
currency in the 1960s by a group of linguists who
wanted to distinguish between variations in
language according to the user (defined by
variables such as social background, geography,
sex and age), and variations according to use, "in
the sense that each speaker has a range of
varieties and chooses between them at different
times" (Halliday et al, 1964). The focus is on the
way language is used in particular situations,
such as legalese or motherese, (Baby talk,
motherese, parentese or child-directed
speech is a non-standard form of speech used
by adults in talking to toddlers and infants. It is
usually delivered with a "cooing" pattern of
23
intonation different from that of normal adult
speech: high in pitch, with many glissando
variations that are more pronounced than those
of normal speech. Baby talk is also characterized
by the shortening and simplifying of words ) and
the language of a biology research lab.
Halliday (1964) identifies three variables that
determine register: field (the subject matter of
the discourse), tenor (the participants and their
relationships) and mode (the channel of
communication, e.g. spoken or written). Any or
all of the elements of language may vary in
different registers — vocabulary , syntax,
phonology, morphology, pragmatic rules or
different paralinguistic features such as pitch,
volume and intonation in spoken English, or size
and speed of sign production in a sign language.
Registers often also have non-linguistic
prescriptions such as appropriate dress codes,
body language, and proximity of speakers to one
another
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2-Stylistics is the study of varieties of language
whose properties position that language in
context. For example, the language of
advertising, politics, religion, individual authors,
etc., or the language of a period in time, all
belong in a particular situation. In other words,
they all have ‘place’.
Stylistics also attempts to establish principles
capable of explaining the particular choices made
by individuals and social groups in their use of
language, such as socialisation, the production
and reception of meaning , critical discourse
analysis and literary criticism.
Other features of stylistics include the use of
dialogue, including regional accents and people’s
dialects , descriptive language, the use of
grammar , such as the active voice or passive
voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the
use of particular language registers, etc.
25
I.3.9 Other Examples of Language Varieties
1-Idiolect: An idiolect is simply the technical
term we use to refer to the variety of language
spoken by each individual speaker of the
language. Just as there is variation among groups
of speakers of a language, there is variation from
speaker to speaker. No two speakers of a
language speak identically. Each speaks her or
his own particular variety of that language. Each
thus speaks her or his own idiolect.
2-Idiom is a term neutral to the dialect–language
distinction and is used to refer to the studied
communicative system (that could be called
either a dialect or a language) when its status
with respect to this distinction is irrelevant (thus
it is a synonym to language the more general
sense);
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3-sociolects: varieties spoken by socially
defined speech communities . It is associated
with a particular social class
4-Standard language :standardized for
education and public performance .
5-Ethnolects: for an ethnic group
6-Ecolect: an idiolect adopted by a household
Note:Varieties such as dialects, idiolects, and
sociolects can be distinguished not only by their
vocabulary, but also by differences in grammar,
phonology and prosody.
I.4 Varieties in Contact ( Mixture of
varieties)
Whenever two languages or two language
varieties exist in the same speech community
side by side, many important matters related to
their functions ,their relation to each other, to
their seperation or mixture evolve; which involve
27
the topics of diglossia, bilingualism, code
switching, pidgins and creoles.
I.4.1 Diglossia
diglossia is a situation where, in a given society,
there are two (often) closely-related languages,
one of high prestige, which is generally used by
the government and in formal texts, and one of
low prestige, which is usually the spoken
vernacular tongue. (Vernacular refers to the
native language of a country or locality. it is
used to describe local languages as opposed to
linguae francae( lingua franca is any language
widely used beyond the population of its native
speakers ), official standards or global languages.
It is sometimes applied to nonstandard dialects of
a global language.For instance: in Western
Europe up until the 17th century, most scholarly
work was written in Latin, so works written in a
native language (such as Italian or German) were
28
said to be in the vernacular) The high-prestige
language tends to be the more formalised, and
its forms and vocabulary often 'filter down' into
the vernacular, though often in a Fergusson in
1959 who gave it the folowing defintion ”
diglossia is a relatively stable language situation
in which,in addition to the primary dialects of the
language ( which may include a standard or
regional standards), there is a very divergent,
highly codified ( often grammatically more
complex) variety , the vehicle of a large and
respected body of written literature, either of an
earlier period or in another speech community,
which is learnrd largely by formal education and
is used for most written and formal spoken
purposes, but is not used by any sector of the
community for ordinary conversation”
There are few cases of the diglossic situation in
the world. We may find it in Switzerland
( standard German and Swiss German), in Haiti
( Standard French and Haitian creole). The best
29
example of diglossia is the linguistic situation in
the Arab world. In each Arab- speaking
community, there are two varieties of Arabic in
use:Standard Arabic and a spoken colloquial.In
each diglossic situation there is a High variety
( Standard Arabic)and a Low variety (Spoken
colloquial).
I.4.2 Bilingualism and Multigualism
The term bilingualism( sometimes also
referred to as multigualism) can refer to
phenomena regarding an individual speaker who
uses two or more languages, a community of
speakers where two or more languages are used,
or between speakers of different languages.
30
Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual
speakers(monoglottism from(Greek monos,
"alone, solitary", + glotta, "tongue, language")
or, more commonly, monolingualism or
unilingualism is the condition of being able to
speak only a single language
I.4 2.1 Multilingualism within an individual
A multilingual person, in the broadest
definition, is anyone who can communicate in
more than one language, be it active (through
speaking and writing) or passive (through
listening and reading). More specifically, the
terms bilingual and trilingual are used to
describe comparable situations in which two or
three languages are involved, respectively.
Multilingualism could be rigidly defined as being
native-like in two or more languages. It could also
be loosely defined as being less than native-like
but still able to communicate in two or more
languages.
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Multilingual speakers have acquired and
maintained at least one language during
childhood, the so-called first language (L1). First
languages (sometimes also referred to as mother
tongue) are acquired without formal education,
by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children
acquiring two first languages since birth are
called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case
of simultaneous bilinguals one language usually
dominates over the other. This kind of
bilingualism is most likely to occur when a child is
raised by bilingual parents in a predominantly
monolingual environment.
I.4.3 Distinction between Bilingualism and
Diglossia
It is important to note that "diglossia" and
"bilingualism/multilingualism" refer to different,
although similar, sociolinguistic situations.
Diglossia is the term usually applied to the
sociolinguistic situation in much of the Arabic-
32
speaking world. In these countries, there are two
FORMS OF THE SAME LANGUAGE
(conventionally called "High" and "Low") that are
used in different situations. The "High" form
(called "Modern Standard Arabic") is normally
used in FORMAL situations, such as writing,
political speeches, university lectures, television
news, etc. The "Low" form (referred to as
"dialects," ) is used in INFORMAL situations,
such as conversations, etc. It is useful to think of
the language situation as it applies to Arabic as
being on a continuum. At one end of this
continuum is the "High" form, i.e., Modern
Standard Arabic, and at the other lies the "Low"
form, i.e., the various dialects. A person's place
on this continuum would most likely be
somewhere between these two poles, for it is
unlikely that they would use pure Modern
Standard or a colloquial in a given setting. The
choice on which form, or code, to use would
depend on many factors, including speaker,
33
conversation, topic, and setting.
On the other hand, bilingualism is the term more
conventionally used to describe the
sociolinguistic situation in Belgium and
Switzerland (multilingualism for Switzerland's 4
languages). The key difference is that in a
bilingual situation certain INDIVIDUALS
(communities, etc.) will use Language A, while
other INDIVIDUALS (communities, etc.) will use
Language B, but EVERYONE will use the SAME
LANGUAGE for all situations -- writing, job
interviews, dinner table chats, etc. That's the
IDEAL. In practice, it gets much messier, and it is
best to think of these terms as representing ends
of a continuum--actual societies fit somewhere
along connecting these two poles. In the
American Southwest, for instance, Spanish and
English coexist in a situation of bilingualism, but
there are some important diglossic elements: in
many cases English is used for high-prestige,
formal contexts of speech, while Spanish is used
34
primarily in the home, in conversations among
good friends, etc. Spanish thus becomes the
"Low" form and English the "High" form.
I.4.4 Code switching (code mixing)
Speakers of more than one language (e.g.,
bilinguals) are known for their ability to code-
switch or mix their languages during
communication. This phenomenon occurs when
bilinguals substitute a word or phrase from one
language with a phrase or word from another
language. To illustrate, consider the sentence, (1)
I want a motorcycle VERDE. In this sentence, the
English word “green” is replaced with its Spanish
35
equivalent. A noteworthy aspect of sentence (1)
above is that the Spanish adjective “verde”
follows a grammatical rule that is observed by
most bilingual speakers that code-switch. Thus,
according to the specific grammatical rule-
governing sentence (1) above, sentence (2) I
want a VERDE motorcycle would be incorrect
because language switching can occur between
an adjective and a noun, only if the adjective is
placed according to the rules of the language of
the adjective. In this case, the adjective is in
Spanish; therefore, the adjective must follow the
Spanish grammatical rule that states that the
noun must precede the adjective.
Traditionally, code-switching has been viewed
as a strategy to compensate for diminished
36
language proficiency. The premise behind this
theory is that bilinguals code-switch because
they do not know either language completely.
This argument is also known as semi-lingualism,
which underscores the notion that bilinguals
“almost” speak both languages correctly.
However, one concern with this account is that
the notion of language proficiency is not clearly
defined. It is not clear whether reading and
writing language skills should take precedence
over spoken language. This reliance on reading
and writing is problematic because most
bilinguals receive their formal education in one
language, whereas a majority of their social
interactions take place in the other language. So,
when their reading and writing abilities are tested
37
in both languages, the language in which
bilinguals received more formal education will
usually fare better.
Recent developments in psycholinguistic
research has focused on how code-switching is a
natural product of the interaction of the
bilingual’s two languages. Early researchers
viewed code-switching as evidence that the
bilinguals’ two languages were organized in
separate and distinct mental dictionaries. For
example, a general finding throughout the
literature is that bilinguals take longer to read
and comprehend sentences containing code-
switched words as compared to monolingual
sentences. Apparently, this time consuming
process is due to a “mental switch mechanism”
38
that determines which of the bilingual’s two
mental dictionaries are “on” or “off” during the
course of language comprehension. This mental
switch is responsible for selecting the appropriate
mental dictionary to be employed during the
comprehension of a sentence. Thus, for a
Spanish-English bilingual speaking English, the
English linguistic system is turned on, whereas
the Spanish linguistic system remains off.
However, if during the course of comprehending
a sentence, a Spanish code-switched word is
encountered, the mental switch must disable the
English linguistic system, and enable the Spanish
linguistic system.
Another current view suggests that language
dominance (i.e., which language is used more
39
frequently) plays an important role in code-
switching. For example, Spanish-English
bilinguals report more linguistic interference
(code-switching) when they communicate in
Spanish, their first-language, and little or no
code-switching when they communicate in
English, their second-language. In other words,
these bilinguals code-switch more when they
communicate in Spanish than when they use
English. Empirical research supports these
observations. Psycholinguistic evidence also
suggests that bilinguals retrieve English code-
switched words faster when they listen to
Spanish sentences, whereas they are slower to
retrieve Spanish code-switched words as they
listen to English sentences. More interestingly,
40
evidence also shows that code-switched words
are actually retrieved faster than monolingual
words, but only if the code-switched word is in
English, and the language of communication is
Spanish. These results suggest a reliance on the
bilingual’s second-language as opposed to their
first-language. How are these results explained?
The general idea behind this view is that after a
certain level of fluency and frequent use of the
second-language, a language shift occurs in
which the second-language behaves as if it were
the bilingual’s first-language. In other words, the
second-language becomes more readily
accessible and bilinguals come to rely on it more.
Thus, regardless of which language the bilingual
learned first, the more active (dominant)
41
language determines which mental dictionary is
going to be accessed faster. This argument is
reasonable since most bilinguals in the US, whose
first-language is Spanish, obtain their formal
education in English. Likewise, many of their
everyday interactions involve the second-
language. As a result, words and concepts in
English, the second-language, become more
accessible than words in Spanish, the first-
language. Thus, code-switching is not the same
for both languages. Rather, it depends on
language dominance.
In short, code-switching may be indicative of
difficulties in retrieval (access) affected by a
combination of closely-related factors such as
language use (i.e., how often the first-language is
42
used) and word frequency (i.e., how much a
particular word is used in the language). Finally,
the notion that people code-switch as a strategy
in order to be better understood and to enhance
the listeners’ comprehension is another plausible
alternative.
I.4.5 Borrowing
There is a difference between code-switching
and borrowing though on the surface they seem
to include the use of “foreign words” in a
conversation that is conducted in another
language .The difference lies in the existence and
the use of one or more language system in the
mind of the speaker. Borrowing usually occurs
when the speaker is unable to find or ignores an
appropriate equivalent for the borrowed word in
43
the first language. The borrowed elements are
usually single words and are modified so as to
conform to the first language rules. In code
switching, however, speakers switch codes not
because they do not know an item/s in one of the
codes; rather they do for necessary social
considerations. Code switching occurs completely
i.e. in phonetics, morphology, grammar and
vocabulary. There is no adjustment or change to
the rules of the other code.
I.4.6 Pidgin
Pidgin is a new language which develops in
situations where speakers of different
languages need to communicate but don't
share a common language. The vocabulary of
a pidgin comes mainly from one particular
language (called the 'lexifier'). An early 'pre-
pidgin' is quite restricted in use and variable in 44
structure. But the later 'stable pidgin' develops
its own grammatical rules which are quite
different from those of the lexifier.
Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is
generally learned as a second language and
used for communication among people who
speak different languages. (Nigerian Pidgin)
I.4.6.1 Reasons for the Development of
Pidgins
In the nineteenth century, when slaves from
Africa were brought over to North America to
work on the plantations, they were separated
from the people of their community and mixed
with people of various other communities,
therefore they were unable to communicate with
each other. The strategy behind this was so they
couldn't come up with a plot to escape back to
their land. Therefore, in order to finally
communicate with their peers on the plantations,
and with their bosses, they needed to form a
45
language in which they could communicate.
Pidgins also arose because of colonization.
Prominent languages such as French, Spanish,
Portuguese, English, and Dutch were the
languages of the colonizers. They travelled, and
set up ports in coastal towns where shipping and
trading routes were accessible.
The superstrate ( lexifier) language from the
Papua New Guinea Creole example above is
English. The other minority languages that
contribute to the pidgin are called the substrate
languages.
I.4.7 CREOLE
When children start learning a pidgin as their
first language and it becomes the mother
tongue of a community, it is called a creole.
Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language 46
which has taken most of its vocabulary from
another language, the lexifier, but has its own
unique grammatical rules. Unlike a pidgin,
however, a creole is not restricted in use, and
is like any other language in its full range of
functions. Examples are Gullah, Jamaican
Creole and Hawaii” Creole English.
Note that the words 'pidgin' and 'creole' are
technical terms used by linguists, and not
necessarily by speakers of the language. For
example, speakers of Jamaican Creole call
their language 'Patwa' (from patois) and
speakers of Hawaii Creole English call theirs
'Pidgin.'
I.5 Language and Social Interaction
I.5.1 Speech Functions
One particular side of the relation between
language and society is that of the use of
language in the interaction between
47
individuals in a community. This social
interaction requires some necessary
functions and rules reflected in the ways
people use speech.
Speech has functions. We speak to
communicate some information. This
informative or referential function is one
of the basic functions of speech. We may
also use speech to report feelings and
attitudes. This is its expressive function .
We may speak to cause or prevent overt
actions ; this is the directive function.
These three functions are the basic ones
though identifying just these three is an
oversimplification. Several other uses of
language deserve mention. The phatic
function refers to the expressions of
sympathy like " how are you? “ and”
fantastic” as well as “street –corner” and
“elevator talk” conversations”.The poetic
function of speech refers to the use of
48
aesthetic features, such as poems ,rhymes ,
etc…The metalinguistic function refers to
the use of language
I.5.2 Solidarity and Power
The type of relationship the speaker has
with the addressee determines the choice of
one linguistic form than another. Among the
social relationships between the speaker
and the interlocutors can be defined in
terms of power and solidarity.
Power refers to the unequal relation
between people –one of them being
superior, the other a subordinate. e.g.
teacher-pupil- father-son-officer- soldier.
Solidarity on the other hand, concerns the
extent of the social distance between
people- how close they are, how intimate
they are, how much they share in social
characteristics. The variety in social
relations determines the choice of language
49
and linguistic forms. For example a teacher
usually tends to use the imperative with his
pupils, whereas people of equal status will
use the declarative and the interrogative
and strangers will tend to use polite
formula.
I.5.3 Forms of Address
The type of relationship the speaker has
with the addressee determines again the
form of address in speech situations. A
person can be addressed by different titles
( Mr or Dr,or Pr Brown) or by his first name
John. Again the concepts of power and
solidarity discussed above interfere. Mr or
Dr Brown is used when there is low
solidarity between the speaker and the
addressee i.e. when the addressee is
superior. In case there is high solidarity
between the speaker and Mr Brown , then
the first name John is used. In French “tu” is
50
used in situations of high solidarity and
“vous” is used in between strangers and
cases of low solidarity.
I.5.4 Language and Social Inequality
In the view of modern linguistics all
languages are equal. There is no language
that is better, more beautiful or more
expressive and cultured than another. There
is no bad or ugly language. All languages
are complex and serve the communicative
needs of their communities. However, many
people do not agree with this view and
attribute judgments to one language /s or
language variety.
In this section, some issues of social
inequality will be discussed.
I.5.4.1 Minority Languages
51
A minority language is a language spoken by a
minority of the population of a country usually
ethnic distinct groups (minorities). Such people
are termed "linguistic minorities".For example , in
Algeria , beside Arabic, there is Berber, and in
Iraq there are Kurdish, Turkish, and one or two
dialects of Syriac beside Arabic.
The social status of these languages is different
from that of the language of the majority which is
usually the official language and is a tool for for
social, politiacl, and economic advantage.
Historically, minority languages have been
overlooked, and since language is emblematic for
national and ethnic identity, most of their native
speakers were kept at their low satus socially and
politically. For political reasons , govenments
have intervened in the affais of their linguistic
minorities by discourging the leaning and the
teaching of such languages and even sometimes
the use of these languages.
52
Nowdays, humanistic attitudes have gained
position . Govenments now encourage these
minority languages in education especially when
they do not represent , as symbols of national
unity, any political threat to these
governments .
I.5.5 Elaborated and Restricted Codes
Another linguistic disadvantage concerns the
deficiency of the language of the lower social
classes. Basil Bernstein in 1971 makes a
significant contribution to the study of
Communication with his sociolinguistic theory of
language codes. As an educator, he was
interested in accounting for the relatively poor
performance of working-class students in
language based subjects, when they were
achieving scores as high as their middle-class
counterparts on mathematical topics. In his
theory, Bernstein makes a direct correlation
53
between societal class and language. Within the
broader category of language codes are
elaborated and restricted codes. These two codes
(varieties) are different as far as the contexts
they are used in are concerned. They also differ
linguistically.
The elaborated code is characterised by the use
of syntactically complex sentences and
subordinate clauses, a high proportion of
adjectives and adverbs, frequent use of the
pronoun I and complex use of prepositions and
conjunctions Elaborated codes have a longer,
more complicated sentence structure that utilizes
uncommon words and thoughts. In the elaborate
code there is no padding or filler, only complete,
well laid out thoughts that require no previous
knowledge on the part of the listener, i.e.,
necessary details will be provided. The restricted
code is, however, distinguished by the
employment of short and simple sentences,
which may not be formed, few conjunctions, and
54
little subordination. The use of adjectives and
adverbs is limited. The restricted code is less
formal with shorter phrases interjected into the
middle or end of a thought to confirm
understanding. For example, “you know,” “you
know what I mean,“ “right?” and “don’t you
think?”
Bernstein makes a correlation between social
class and the use of either elaborated or
restricted code. He reports that in the working
class you are likely to find the use of the
restricted code, whereas in the middle class you
find the use of both the restricted and elaborated
codes. His research argues that the working class
have access only to restricted codes, the ones
they learned in the socialization process, where
“both the values and role systems reinforce
restricted codes”. However, the middle class,
being more geographically, socially and culturally
mobile has access to both the restricted codes
and elaborate codes. According to Bernstein
55
(1971), a working class person communicates in
restricted code as a result of the conditions in
which they were raised and the socialization
process. The same is true for the middle class
person with the exception that they were
exposed to the elaborate code as well. Both
groups use restricted code at some point, for as
Atherton (2002) points out, “Everyone uses
restricted code communication some of the time.
It would be a very peculiar and cold family which
did not have its own language.”
I.5.6 Language and Sex
Language mirrors the structure of the speech
community and reflects the social and cultural
values that exist in that community. Among the
latter is sexism. Language itself is not sexist, but
the speech community distinguishes between its
members according to whether they are males or
females, and gives them different social roles
which are going to be reflected in the language of
56
that community. In the following two sections
how sexist social attitudes are reflected in
language and the ways men and women use
language will be discussed.
I.5.6.1Sexism in Language
Human civilisation has given unequal status
to men and women which can be observed easily
in human language. Sexism in language is the
use of language which devalues members of one
sex, almost invariably women, and thus fosters
gender inequality.
It discriminates against women by rendering
them invisible or trivializing them at the same
time that it perpetuates notions of male
supremacy. For example English has manly
courage and masculine charm, but feminine
hands and women tears. Some nouns that refer
to professions reflect the distribution of roles that
57
has been, historically prevalent. Rector,
chancellor, worker and doctor, and similar terms,
are interpreted to refer to a man because these
were professions that only men did. Similarly,
typist and nurse are interpreted to refer to a
woman.
The following table shows the differentiation
patterns in English as a result of the sexism in
the society and the increasingly more neutral
terms that replacing the old sexist ones.
Current Usage Alternative
man human being, human, person, individual
mankind, men human beings, humans,
humankind,humanity, people, human human species, society,
men and women workers, wage earners
58
working men, workmen
man on the street average person, ordinary person, the common tao
forefather ancestor
layman layperson, nonspecialist, non professionalmanhood adulthood, maturity
to a man everyone, unanimously,
without exception
one man show one person show solo exhibition
founding fathers founders
manpower human resources, staff,
personnel, labor force
59
brotherhood of man the family of humanity, the unity of people or
of humankind human solidarity
early man early people, early men and
women, early human beings
statemanship diplomacy
man-made manufactured, synthetic,
artificial
old masters classic art/artists
masterful domineering, very skillful
I.5.6.2 Man Language and Woman
Language
60
Study of human societies has indicated that
the speech of women differs from that of
men. These differences are seen at all
linguistic levels. At the level of vocabulary
for example, women do not use some taboo
words that only males use. These words are
sexual vocabulary, swear words, words
referring to body function, etc…Research
has also revealed that in Norwich , a town in
England, women pronounce words like
walking , cooking , singing, etc with the
standard variant of the variable ing more
than men. In English women also use some
colour words that are not used by men such
beige, mauve and lavender.
Women and men are treated differently by
the society, which involves different
behavioural patterns from them since they
play different roles in it. Women and men
know these social differences and behave
accordingly so as not to be socially inept.
61
II Psychology and Language
This chapter deals with psycholinguistics. It
describes the developmental stages of child
language acquisition and introduces some
theories of First Language Acquisition. The
chapter also presents some analysis and
classification of some language disorders
II.1 Some Important Definitions
II.1.1Definition of psychology
Psychology is both an academic and applied
discipline involving the scientific study of mental
processes or mental functions ( such as
perception, introspection, memory , creativity,
imagination , conception , belief , reasoning ,
volition, and emotion — in other words, all the
62
different things that we can do with our minds)
and behaviour ( the actions or reactions of an
object or organism, usually in relation to the
environment; which can be conscious or
unconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or
involuntary ). Psychologists study such
phenomena as perception, cognition, emotion,
personality, behaviour, and interpersonal
relationships. Psychology also refers to the
application of such knowledge to various spheres
of human activity, including issues related to
daily life—e.g. family, education, and work—and
the treatment of mental health problems.
The social science branch of psychology (mainly
social psychology) attempts to understand the
role human behavior plays in social dynamics
(e.g., culture, economics, and politics). Although
the natural science branch of psychology differs
from biology which is the branch of science that
studies life . This broad spectrum of empirical
fields studies (Empirical data is data that is
63
produced by experiment or observation ) and
classifies living organisms and biological
phenomena and neuroscience (a field that is
devoted to the scientific study of the nervous
system. Such studies may include the structure,
function, evolutionary history, development,
genetics, biochemistry, physiology,
pharmacology, and pathology of the nervous
system.) .Psychological science has a long
tradition of incorporating physiological and
neurological processes into its conceptions of
mental functioning. Psychology includes many
sub-fields of study and application concerned
with such areas as human development, sports,
health, industry, forensics, and spirituality. As
such, psychology is not a unified scientific
discipline, with many different perceptions of
what the field entails, and many different
standards of what constitutes scientific research.
II.1.2 Definition of Psycholinguistics or psychology of language
64
Psycholinguistics is the study of the psychological
and neurobiological factors ( the study of cells of
the nervous system and the organization of these
cells into functional circuits that process
information and mediate behavior. ) that enable
humans to acquire, use, and understand
language. Initial attempts to study
psycholinguistics were largely philosophical
ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data
on how the human brain functioned. Modern
research makes use of biology, neuroscience ,
cognitive science, and information theory to
study how the brain processes language. There
are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as
non-invasive techniques for studying the
neurological workings of the brain become more
and more widespread, neurolinguistics ( the
science concerned with the human brain
mechanisms underlying the comprehension,
production and abstract knowledge of language,
65
be it spoken, signed (body language) or
written.)has become a field in its own right.
Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes
that make it possible to generate a grammatical
and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and
grammatical structures, as well as the processes
that make it possible to understand utterances,
words, text, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics
studies infants' and children's ability to learn
language, usually with experimental or at least
quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic
observations such as those made by Jean Piaget (
Swiss philosopher, natural scientist and
developmental psychologist, well known for his
work studying children, and for his theory of
cognitive development ( in his research on the
development of children).
II.2 First Language Acquisition
66
Language acquisition is one of the central topics
in cognitive science. Every theory of cognition
has tried to explain it. Possessing a language is
an essential human trait: all normal humans
speak, no nonhuman animal does. Language is
the main vehicle by which we know about other
people's thoughts, and the two must be
intimately related. Every time we speak we are
revealing something about language, so the facts
of language structure are easy to obtain; these
data hint at a system of extraordinary
complexity. Nonetheless, learning a first
language is something every child does
successfully, in a matter of a few years and
without the need for formal lessons.
Language acquisition takes place mainly before
the age of 5 years old. No child fails to learn a
language (pathologies aside); and language
acquisition is carried out in much the same way.
67
In acquiring language, the child’s linguistic
knowledge passes through stages; each stage
resembles the adult’s linguistic knowledge until
the child gains full competence .Children do not
acquire their mother tongue by memorisation
and repetition of sentences they hear in their
immediate environment. Quite the reverse,
children are continuously involved in the creative
activity of constructing and comprehending new
sentences which they have never experienced
before .In fact what they do is building a
grammar of the language they are learning, a
mental system of rules and principles, a theory of
their language which makes them able to
produce and understand all the sentences of the
language .The very difficult task and the very
short time in which it is acquired , added to the
poor quality of the language material the child is
exposed to ( parents ,mothers in particular,
sometimes even imitating child’s language )
confirm the assumption that human beings are
68
born with the disposition to learn language.
However, the role of the environment is very
important. With no linguistic input- i.e. speech
from the surrounding environment- to provoke
the acquisition process, a child will not learn a
language.
II. 2.1 Stages of Language Development
1-Babbling
Approximately by the age of six months, all
normal children start to babble; making long
sequences of varied vowels and consonants. Per
se , babbling is a linguistic universal. Children at
this stage do not produce sounds proper to their
mother tongues. Babbling belongs to infants of all
communities. Babbling is not a true language
69
though it shares with adult language the property
of being stimulus -free .Infants do not babble to
express a physical need. They rather do it for
pleasure.
Babbling sequences are usually stretches of
vowels, or stops followed by vowels. They
generally have the structure of ( CV) or ( VV)
e.g. / gaa/, / boo/. / aa/etc…., these sequences
usually have the intonation patterns that are
similar to the intonation of the adult language
they hear. Babbling is considered as the first
stage of the acquisition process.
II.2.2 The First Words
Towards the age of twelve months- sometimes
later- the child produces his/ her first words with
some overlapping with babbling sequences at
first. The first words the child produces are
monosyllabic and are not different from babbling
sequences except in their symbolic function.
70
They are of the form / CV(V)/ / daa/ , / maa/, etc…
and may be similar to adult words.
For about six months, children seem to pass this
stage in which the single words which they
produce represent full adult sentences. In the
case of English, / waa/ means water, or I want
water or this is water. Here a variety of functions
and intentions are conveyed through these single
words.
II.2.3 The Two- Word Stage
Between 18 and 24 months, children begin to use
two-word utterances. They first utter two single
word utterances one after the other, with a pause
in between. Later, the two words are uttered with
no pause.
e.g. Baby sleep - Mommy sock
These utterances are used with no syntactic
markers.
71
II.2.4The Hierarchical Stage
After the two-word stage, children combine their
two words together to produce longer utterances.
At the beginning, the utterances don not contain
function words and syntactic markers but only
words which carry important information, e.g.
mommy eat bread. Though they lack function
words these utterances are sentence –like.
II .3The Acquisition of Linguistic
Subsystems
II.3.1Phonology
Infants respond to speech sounds a few days
after their birth. Experiments carried on infants’
perception demonstrate that they are able to
perceive contrasts on voicing, place of
articulation, nasals, and stops. Infants do this
without any previous experience with language
72
which is evidence that human beings are born
with an innate ability to acquire language.
The production of sounds in infants starts with
babbling. Most of babbling sequences start with
stops and end with vowels or voiceless stops, and
there are non consonants clusters. At about 10-
12 months, the infant starts copying accurately
the sounds he hears from the adults around him.
At this age, the child pronounces the same words
differently when trying to imitate adult
pronunciation. The child can discriminate
between sounds but cannot contrast in
production. Comprehension is not problematic for
him/her whereas production is.
Individual sounds are produced gradually; some
are acquired earlier than others, and therefore
substituted for them. The sound system is fully
acquired by the age of 7.
The early words are generally monosyllabic (until
the age of 2), of the form/ CV/ or/ CVC/ .However,
73
consonants clusters appear later. Children
shorten adult words by deleting final consonants,
or by reducing clusters and omitting unstressed
syllables.
II.3.2 Morphology
The child learns early the morphological rules of
the language. In the two-word utterances
production we can notice that they lack affixes
and function words. Children learn them later
when they start constructing rules for using
morphemes. At the beginning over generalise,
but later they perfect their rules.
Inflections or grammatical morphemes are
learned in order, depending on their regularity,
transparency, and frequency of use. In English, /
ing/ is acquired earlier than the present tense
/s/ . In the same way productivity and regularity
in derivational morphemes are factors affect the
74
order of acquisition. In English for example the
agentive / er/ is learned early e.g. writer, teacher,
baker, etc
Overgeneralisation with irregular forms is usual
in children’s speech. Goed and breaked are
typical examples. Before the stage of over
generalisation , the child may use the forms went
and broke without associating them with present
forms .Later ,overgeneralisation is restricted to
regular forms, and irregular forms reappear.
II.3.3Syntax
A Holophrases or one-word sentence used by the
child to express what adults would use sentences
for are the first step in the syntactic
development. Though children posses only single
words, they use them for different functions:
naming, asking, requesting, etc…. They intend
their utterances to be understood a full
75
sentences. Any way they understand full
sentences when they hear them.
With the two –word stage ,the structure in the
child’s utterances comes into existence. The two
words are usually linked with some word order.
However the structure of these utterances is
semantically determined. The variety of relations
between the two words can be exemplified in the
following English examples:
Daddy sleep(agent-action)
Daddy car(possessor-possession)
Kick ball black car( action –object)
Mommy bed( subject –location)
These examples indicate the child is aware of the
different semantic relations.
After this stage when there is a lack of inflections
and function words, the child ‘s sentences
76
develop to look like adult sentences. In the stage
of the acquisition of syntax, the child moves from
simple to more complex sentences by learning
the negative , passive, questions ,etc…The
acquisition of syntax progresses until the age of
ten or beyond where some syntactically complex
sentences develop longer than others.
II.3.4Semantics
The acquisition of meaning is more complicated
than the acquisition of phonology and syntax.
Semantics is a never-ending process. We always
learn vocabulary and store it continuously.
Children produce their first words at the age of
one and associate each word with its meaning
through the process of trial and error. By the age
of six, children acquire about 14000 words. The
progress of vocabulary acquisition is so rapid that
it is impossible to give statistics at any time, add
to this the fact that the person/ child possess two
types of vocabulary: active and passive . Active,
77
which the person actually uses in his speech, and
passive, which he does not use in his speech, but
recognises when he hears it. The former is larger
in number.
There are many things specific to children’s
acquisition of vocabulary. There is a certain order
in learning words. The first words a child learns
are those which include words that the child can
act on, or things that can act for themselves, and
names of large objects that exist in his
environment. The meanings of the words
acquired by the child are different from their
adult’s meanings. This is a proof that the child
has not acquired the semantic system of the
language.
The child’s language is full of cases of
overgeneralisation . A child may use an item for a
wider range of things than he should. The word
doggie is used by an English-speaking child to
refer to dogs, horses, cows, sheep ,etc…This
78
demonstrates that a general feature is acquired
which covers all these things.
II.4Theories of First Language Acquisition
Linguists and psychologists have long addressed
the issues of language acquisition and its
mechanisms. Many of them, however disagree on
many points. The behaviourist school of
psychology emphasises the role of the
environment and the role of standard methods in
language development. Other and mainly those
who belong to the generative school hold that
human beings are born with the ability to learn a
language. Others like Piaget and his followers
assert that language acquisition is linked to the
cognitive development in the child.
The following sections will discuss briefly these
theories.
II.4.1The Behaviourist Theory
79
The advocates of this theory assert that the
linguistic behaviour like any other kind of
behaviour is a result of a chain of stimuli and
responses. Language learning is a result of
responses to a given stimulus that is positively
reinforced so as to become automatic.
Children learn their first language by imitating
the speech of adults the hear and by keeping a
certain response ( for example a certain answer
to a certain question) when it is positively
reinforced, and rejecting another response when
it is negatively reinforced by the environment.
Imitation and reinforcement are considered two
complementary methods the child uses to
acquire his mother tongue.
II.4.2The Nativistic Approach
Human beings are born with a mental device
which is called (LAD) Language acquisition
device which enables them to acquire language.
80
Thanks to this device or language faculty, the
child when exposed to linguistic input from the
outside environment , even if it is poor, will
construct a mental system representing the
language of his community, a grammar provided
to him by the language faculty.
The advocates of this approach are Noam
Chomsky and his school of Generative Grammar
who believe that humans are born with the
capacity of constructing a grammar with highly
specified properties. According to this view,
imitation and reinforcement are not valid
methods for language acquisition since the child
does not learn his language as a set of habits .
II.4.3The Cognitive Approach
The proponents of this approach refuse the
specific mental faculty that enables language
acquisition hypothesised by the nativistic
81
approach. They rather believe that this
knowledge is determined by general cognitive
principles. Piaget describes the linguistic
development in the child as an interaction
between his developing cognitive capacities and
linguistic experience.
Though we still need a lot of information to
decide which of these theories is more valid, all
what is suggested in them plays an important
role in language acquisition.
II.4 Language Disorders and Language Loss
Neurolinguistics is the study of the relation
between language and the central nervous
system. Linguistics helps in identifying and
categorising language disorders which are
generally speaking termed aphasia. These
disorders are described and categorised in
linguistic terms.
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Particular damages in the central nervous system
affects different language aspects because
certain areas of the brain are linked with
language. They are located in the left
hemisphere , which s said to be responsible for
language ability.
II.4.1What are speech and language
disorders?
Speech and language disorders are inabilities of
individuals to understand and/or appropriately
use the speech and language systems of society.
Such disorders may range from simple sound
repetitions or occasional misarticulations to the
complete absence of the ability to use speech
and language for communication.
II.4.2What are some types of speech and
language disorders?83
Speech disorders may include:
-Fluency disorder-an interruption in the flow or
rhythm of speech characterized by hesitations,
repetitions, or prolongations of nouns,
syllables, words or phrases.
-Articulation disorder-difficulties with the way
sounds are formed and strung together usually
characterized by substituting one sound for
another (wabbit for rabbit), omitting a sound
(han for hand) and distorting a sound (shlip for
sip).
-Voice disorder-characterized by inappropriate
pitch (too high, too low never changing or
interrupted by breaks; quality (harsh, hoarse,
breathy or nasal); loudness, resonance, and
duration.
Language disorders may include:
Aphasia-the loss of speech and language
abilities generally resulting from stroke. 84
Delayed language-characterized by a marked
slowness in the development of language skills
necessary for expressing and understanding
thoughts and ideas.
II.4.3What are the causes of speech and
language disorders?
Some of the causes of speech and language
disorders are related to hearing loss, short
memory span, cerebral palsy and other
neuromuscular disorders, severe head injuries,
stroke, viral diseases, certain drugs, physical
impairments such as cleft lip or palate, and
inadequate speech and language models in the
home environment. The majority of voice
disorders in children usually result from frequent
vocal abuse associated with excessive throat
clearing, coughing screaming, or yelling. This
abuse can cause inflammation of the larynx
(vocal cords), or the formation of nodules and
polyps, which are small growths, on the vocal
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cords. Allergies, smoking, and the consumption of
alcoholic beverages are other factors which may
adversely affect the larynx (vocal cords) resulting
in varying degrees of voice disorder.
In the following sections different types of aphasia will be discussed.
1. Broca’s aphasia
In this type of aphasia, speech is hesitant and
not fluent, with many stops and deficient
intonation. Both speech and writing lack
grammar. This kind of aphasia also is
characterised by the incorrect use of
grammatical morphemes (function
words).Lexical morphemes are used but
phonologically deformed.
2.Wernicke’s aphasia
A lesion in an area in the brain called
Wernicke’s area causes this aphasia. 86
Generally, language comprehension and
expression are affected. The person may be
quite fluent but his speech is meaningless. The
utterances are made of indefinite noun
phrases sequences of actual or non-actual
words. Comprehension and the ability to read
and to repeat are damaged.
3.Anomic aphasia
This type of aphasia is characterised by the
difficulty to find words. Some patients block and
may substitute the words they want to say.
Others block even in writing.
4.Conduction aphasia
While production and comprehension are whole,
the ability is impaired. It is phonological . There
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are errors in the sequencing and selection of
segments.
5.Alexia and agraphia
The patient can speak and understand correctly
but unable to read and write (alexia and agraphia
respectively). He / She can recognise individual
letters but totally unable to read them in
combination. There is another type of aphasia
that is characterised by word deafness. The
patient can speak, read, and write, but cannot
understand spoken language.
From the above brief presentation of the types of
aphasia , we can deduce that linguistics can
provide the description, analysis and
classification of language disorders. The latter
are described in terms of the linguistic abilities
of the patient- i.e. the four language skills:
speaking, comprehension, reading and writing.
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