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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the study is to investigate the relationship between a supervisor’s emotional
intelligence, and leadership styles and between a supervisor’s emotional intelligence and
leadership effectiveness in the software industry in India. In this chapter review of literature is
presented mainly in three areas, (1) the topic of emotional intelligence including an overview,
theoretical construct, historical overview, models, and emotional intelligence measurement
instruments; (2) the topic of leadership including theoretical evolution, leadership styles,
leadership effectiveness and leadership measurement instruments; and (3) studies of EI and
leadership styles and leadership effectiveness.
2.2 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION AND EVOLUTION OF
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotion was not considered part of the intelligence domain for two millennia, as evidenced
by historical accounts of philosophical debates that occurred among early Roman and Greek
philosophers who thought emotion was too unpredictable to be part of rational thought [28].
Scholarly discussions treated emotions with a negative connotation early to mid 1900’s.
Emotions were thought of as overcoming and ruling individuals. Emotions were to be
controlled by the individual or he or she would succumb to their influences [29] [30].
Emotions were later thought of as positive aspects of humans helping to prioritize tasks,
organize, focus, and motivate oneself. It was also realized that emotions are holistic in nature
as they involve the whole human, mind and body [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37]. Research
also suggested that emotions emerged in the human species through the evolutionary process
“to provide new types of motivation and new action tendencies as well as a greater variety of
behaviors to cope with the environment and life’s demands” [37].
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In 1920, Thorndike pointed out principles of psychology used in military to understand how
to manage personnel efficiently. Thorndike noted that individuals do not consist of one form
of intelligence, but rather different intelligences that vary based upon life experiences. He
suggested that an individual’s level of intelligence be examined in three forms; abstract,
mechanical, and social intelligence, because people are not equally intelligent in all areas.
Thorndike noted intelligence involves the ability to understand and manage ideas (abstract),
environmental objects (mechanical), and people (social). He defined social intelligence as
“the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls—to act wisely in
human relations”. The underpinning of the EI construct can be traced back to Thorndike’s
theory of social intelligence [38].
More than 60 years after Thorndike, H. Gardner [39] explored the mind of an individual using
the construct of social intelligence in terms of independent cognitive abilities rather than
general intelligence. Gardner included interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences that are
closely related to social intelligence in his theory of multiple intelligences. In Gardner’s
theory of multiple intelligences, intelligence is defined as “a biopsychological potential to
process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create
products that are of value in a culture” [40].
Gardner contended that individuals have a variety of intelligences that interact with one
another to produce different outcomes. He noted that an individual may have more than one
intelligence interacting together to produce a successful action or result. Multiple intelligences
theory consists of linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic,
naturalistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and existential intelligence. To illustrate the concept
of multiple intelligences, a successful musician may utilize a different mix of intelligences
than a business leader or law enforcement executive [39]. Gardner’s interpersonal and
intrapersonal intelligences became two of the foundational elements of the initial EI
constructs.
Based upon Gardner’s principles of intrapersonal (emotional) and interpersonal (social)
intelligences, Bar-On [41] [42] developed a construct called emotional-social intelligence.
Bar-On [42] professed that effective human behavior is determined by combining emotional-
social intelligence with other skills and attributes. The model of well-being involved the
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noncognitive skills or competencies that allow an individual to understand, control, and adapt
to environmental stressors [42] [25].
The five components of Bar-On’s model are (a) intrapersonal skills, (b) interpersonal skills,
(c) adaptability skills, (d) stress management, and (e) general mood, which are measured with
the self-report Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) instrument.
Bar-On [42] defined emotional intelligence as a multifactorial array of interrelated emotional
and social competencies, skills and facilitators that influence one’s ability to recognize,
understand and manage emotions, to relate with others, to adapt to change and solve problems
of a personal and interpersonal nature, and to efficiently cope with daily demands, challenges
and pressures.
In 1990, Salovey and Mayer first formally identified the term Emotional Intelligence (EI) and
defined it as ‘the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions’ [2].
Salovey and Mayer used earlier research on social intelligence to underpin the development of
the EI ability model, which correlates more with cognitive abilities than with personality traits
and centers on a person’s ability to perceive, express, assimilate, understand, reason, and
regulate emotions in themselves and others [25] [43] [44].
Mayer et al. [43] first attempted to measure and operationalize EI. The four components of the
EI ability model are (a) emotions perception, (b) facilitation, (c) understanding, and (d)
management, which are measured via the self-report Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional
Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Goleman [45] [46] popularized EI thorough his works
Emotional Intelligence (1995) and Working with Emotional Intelligence (1998). Goleman
defined emotional intelligence as “the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of
others, for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our
relationships” [46].
Goleman later states that emotional intelligence is the “sine qua non” of leadership and
without emotional intelligence, a person can have the best training in the world, an incisive,
analytical mind, and an endless supply of smart ideas, but he still will not make a great leader
[47]. Goleman [46] separates emotional intelligence into five components: self-awareness,
self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill. Later, Goleman’s theory evolved to four
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overarching clusters of EI skills: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and
relationship management [48] [49] which are measured with the 360- degree multirater
Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) or Emotional and Social Competence Inventory
instruments [25] [45].
The most recent EI construct, the trait EI model is developed by Petrides and Furnham [50]
[51]. The trait EI model includes individual qualities of the earlier EI constructs [74] [25].
Petrides [51] [52] focused on the personality facets of EI rather than competencies, cognitive
abilities, or facilitators. The four components of the trait EI model are (a) well-being, (b)
sociability, (c) self control, and (d) emotionality, which are measured via the self-report
TEIQue instrument.
2.3 EI MODELS
There has been some lack of clarity in the field of research on the definitions, constructs, and
measures of EI [53] [25] [54] [55] [56] [57]. The four major models of emotional intelligence
are: the ability model, by Mayer, Salovey & Caruso [58]; the Bar-On [59] [42] model of
emotional-social intelligence (ESI); the emotional and social competencies model focused on
a theory of performance in the workplace [46] [60] [61] [8]; and the model by Petrides and
Furnham [50] [51] [62] of trait-EI.
Bar-On defined EI as noncognitive skills or competencies that allow an individual to
understand, control, and adapt to environmental stressors. Mayer et al.’s definition of EI
centered on individuals’ ability to perceive, express, assimilate, understand, reason, and
regulate emotions in themselves and others. Goleman’s definition focused on a person’s
capability to understand his or her own feelings and those of others to motivate and manage
relationships. Petrides and Furnham definition of trait EI is “a constellation of emotion-related
self-perceptions and dispositions (e.g., emotion perception, emotion management, empathy,
impulsivity)” [50].
2.3.1 Bar-On’s Model
Bar-On’s [41] [59] mixed model construct of EI includes emotion and personality combined
into noncognitive components and competencies that explore how individuals adapt to
environmental stressors. The five components of Bar-On’s mixed model are intrapersonal
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skills, interpersonal skills, adaptability, stress management, and general mood [41] [59] [44].
Bar-On’s model contained the following subcomponents [42]:
• Intrapersonal component (internal intelligence): self-regard, self-awareness, assertiveness,
independence, and self-actualization.
• Interpersonal component (external intelligence): empathy, social responsibility, and
interpersonal relationships.
• Adaptability: reality testing, flexibility, and problem solving.
• Stress management: stress tolerance and impulse control.
• General mood: optimism and happiness [44]
Bar-On [41] [59] utilized these components to examine the individual behavior in relationship
with personal success, happiness, and well-being. In the work environment, the focus of Bar-
On’s model is employee self-awareness and how employees understand and relate with each
other in stressful situations.
2.3.2 Mayer-Salovey-Caruso’s Model
This popular construct of EI is the ability model developed by Salovey and Mayer [2].
Salovey and Mayer viewed EI as the “recognition and use of one’s own and others’ emotional
states to solve problems and regulate behavior”, not the “general sense of self and appraisal of
others”. They define emotional intelligence as “the subset of social intelligence that involves
the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among
them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” [2].
Mayer et al. [43] contended that EI involved individual aptitude or intelligence and cognitive
abilities. The model correlates more with cognitive abilities with than personality traits and
centers on an individual’s ability to interact within an environment [43] [25] [44]. The model
has four key emotion components: perception, facilitation, understanding, and management.
Perceiving emotion: represents an individual’s ability to detect and interpret the emotions of
others as well as their own [44] [57].
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Facilitating emotion: involves an individual’s ability to control his or her own emotions to
solve problems [44] [57].
Understanding emotion: represents an individual’s ability to comprehend the way people
combine, progress, and transition emotions with each other [44] [57].
Managing emotion: is the ability to situationally regulate emotions in self and others [44]
[57].
2.3.3 Goleman & Boyatzis’s Model
Goleman & Boyatzis’s theory proposes that an emotionally intelligent individual has learned
and refined their skills in a series of emotional competencies that are part of an awareness or
regulation of emotions within the self or others [63] [45] [46]. The model has grown from its
introduction in Goleman’s book in 1998. Goleman [46] proposed a model of Emotional
Intelligence in his book Working with Emotional Intelligence and defined emotional
intelligence as “managing feelings so that they are expressed appropriately and effectively,
enabling people to work together smoothly toward their common goals” [46]. It consists of
five dimensions of EI: self awareness, self regulation, self motivation, empathy, and social
skills.
Goleman’s original introduction of EI competencies included both personal and social
competencies. Three competencies were identified as personal competencies: self-awareness,
self regulation, and motivation. Two competencies were identified as social competencies:
empathy and social skills. Later, Goleman’s model evolved to four overarching clusters of EI
skills: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management [25]
[8] [48] [49].
The self-awareness cluster includes the competencies: emotional self-awareness, accurate
self-assessment, and self-confidence. Self-management cluster includes the competencies:
emotional self-control, trustworthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability, achievement drive,
and initiative. Moving into the social competence clusters; Empathy, service orientation, and
organizational awareness are all social awareness competencies. Relationship management
cluster is comprised of the following competencies: developing others, influence,
communication, conflict management, visionary leadership, change catalyst, teamwork and
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collaboration, and building bonds [48]. The clusters of EI were further revised by Haygroup
and competencies in the revised clusters are listed below [64]:
1. Self Awareness: Recognizing and understanding our own emotions and it includes the
competency: Emotional Self Awareness.
2. Self Management: Effectively managing our own emotions. It encompasses the
competencies: Emotional Self Control, Achievement Orientation, Positive Outlook,
and Adaptability.
3. Social Awareness: Recognizing and understanding the emotions of others. It
comprised: Empathy, and Organizational Awareness.
4. Relationship Management: Applying our emotional understanding in our dealings with
others. It includes the competencies: Influence, Coach and Mentor, Conflict
Management, Inspirational Leadership, and Teamwork.
As the Boyatzis and Goleman model is more applicable to workplace, I will use this model of
emotional intelligence in order to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence
and leadership effectiveness and between emotional intelligence and leadership styles.
2.3.4 Petrides’s Trait EI Model
The model by Petrides and Furnham of trait-EI, derived through a content analysis of the
three previous models [50] [51] [62] [65]. Petrides and Furnham [50] [51] proposed the
establishment of a theoretical distinction between trait and ability intelligence. “Trait-EI
appertains to the greater personality realm whereas ability EI is an attempt to chart new
territory in the field of human mental ability” [50].
Petrides’s [52] [66] model consisted of four components with 15 facets of the personality
domain:
Emotionality: individuals who are in touch with their own feelings and those of others.
The facets include empathy, emotional perception, emotional expression, and
relationships.
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Self-control: individuals in control over their desires and impulses. The facets consist
of emotional regulation, impulsiveness, and stress management.
Sociability: individuals engaging in social relationships and influence. The facets
involve emotional management, assertiveness, and social awareness.
Well-being: individuals who feel positive, happy, and fulfilled based upon past actions
and future expectations. The facets include optimism, happiness, and self-esteem [52].
2.3.5 Theory of Emotional Intelligence proposed by Dr. Dalip Singh
Singh [67] defined Emotional intelligence as “the ability of an individual to appropriately and
successfully respond to a vast variety of emotional stimuli being elicited from the inner self
and immediate environment. EI constitutes three psychological dimensions—emotional
competency, emotional maturity and emotional sensitivity—which motivate an individual to
recognize truthfully, interpret honestly and handle tactfully the dynamics of human behavior.
The three dimensions of Emotional Intelligence by Singh are described below.
Emotional Competency: It constitutes the competencies to tackle emotional upsets, having
high self esteem and optimism, tactfully respond to emotional stimuli elicited by various
situations, and handling self interest and egoism. Tackling emotional upsets such as
frustrations, conflicts and inferiority complexes, and emotional self-control, capacity to avoid
emotional exhaustion such as stress, burnout, learning to avoid negativity of emotions.
Emotional Maturity: It constitutes competencies of dealing with inner self and the immediate
environment. Some important aspects of emotional maturity are self awareness, delaying
gratification, adaptability & Flexibility, and developing others.
Emotional sensitivity: It includes understanding threshold of emotional arousal, improving
interpersonal relations, empathy, and communicability of emotions. It helps in maintaining
rapport, harmony, and comfort with others, and having an insight into how others evaluate
and relate to you. [67].
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2.4 INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Several measures of emotional intelligence are used rather widely and reported in the
literature. The consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations has listed
ten instruments for measuring emotional intelligence [68]. These ten instruments are:
1. The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i)
2. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)
3. Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI)
4. The Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI)
5. The Group Emotional Competence (GEC) Inventory
6. The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT)
7. Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue)
8. Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS)
9. Work Group Emotional Intelligence Profile (WEIP)
10. Emotional & Social Competence Inventory - University Edition
Of these ten, eight instruments are used to measure individual emotional intelligence. The
Group Emotional Competence (GEC) Inventory and Work Group Emotional Intelligence
Profile (WEIP) are used to measure group or team emotional intelligence. The Emotional
Quotient Inventory, Emotional & Social Competence Inventory, and The Genos Emotional
Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI) are available in self report and multi-rater versions.
Emotional & Social Competence Inventory - University Edition is used to measure emotional
intelligence of students in schools, colleges, and universities
2.4.1 The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i)
The EQ-i was originally constructed by Bar-On to analyze a concept of emotional and social
functioning. The test was developed to assess the Bar-On model of emotional-social
intelligence. The EQ-i is a self-report measure designed to measure a number of constructs
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related to EI. The EQ-i consists of 133 items and can be completed using a five-point Likert
scale extending from 1 = “very seldom or not true of me” to 5 = “very often true of me or true
of me” in approximately 40 minutes. It is appropriate for persons 17 years of age and older. It
gives an overall EQ score as well as scores for the five composite scales and 15 subscales [59]
[42].
EQ-360 is a multi-rater version of EQ-i which takes others feedback also in completing the
instrument.
EQ-i: YV is a youth version of EQ-i and measure the level of emotional and social
functioning in children and adolescents. It is appropriate for age ranging 8 to 18 years. As a
strength based assessment, this product highlights areas of positive functioning as well as
areas for development [69].
EQ-i Composite Scales and Subscales [42]
1. INTRAPERSONAL (self-awareness and self-expression)
Self-Regard: To accurately perceive, understand and accept oneself
Emotional Self-Awareness: To be aware of and understand one’s emotions
Assertiveness: To effectively and constructively express one’s emotions and oneself
Independence: To be self-reliant and free of emotional dependency on others
Self-Actualization: To strive to achieve personal goals and actualize one’s potential
2. INTERPERSONAL (social awareness and interpersonal relationship)
Empathy: To be aware of and understand how others feel
Social Responsibility: To identify with one’s social group and cooperate with others
Interpersonal Relationship: To establish mutually satisfying relationships and relate well with
others
3. STRESS MANAGEMENT (emotional management and regulation)
Stress Tolerance: To effectively and constructively manage emotions
Impulse Control: To effectively and constructively control emotions
4. ADAPTABILITY (change management)
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Reality-Testing: To objectively validate one’s feelings and thinking with external reality
Flexibility: To adapt and adjust one’s feelings and thinking to new situations
Problem-Solving: To effectively solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature
5. GENERAL MOOD (self-motivation)
Optimism: To be positive and look at the brighter side of life
Happiness: To feel content with oneself, others and life in general Source: [42].
This instrument has shown reliability and validity. The average Cronbach’s alpha coefficients
range from a low of .69 to a high of .86 for all subscales of the instrument, with an average
overall internal consistency coefficient of .76 [59]. Validity studies have been conducted in
more than six countries demonstrating good estimates of validity [59].
2.4.2 The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)
MSCEIT is an ability-based test developed on the basis of the EI model of Mayer and
Salovey. MSCEIT is a self-report test and consists of 141 items. It takes 30-45 minutes to
complete the instrument. It is designed to measure the four branches of the model. MSCEIT
provides total EI score, two Area scores, four Branch scores, and eight Task scores making
these total 15 scores. In addition to these 15 scores, the instrument provides three
Supplemental scores also [70] [71].
The MSCEIT standardization sample (approximately 2000 individuals), reported, full-test
split-half reliabilities of .93 and .91 for consensus and expert scoring, respectively.
Experiential and Strategic EI area scores reliabilities were .90 and .90 for consensus scoring,
and .88 and .86 for expert scoring. The reliabilities of the four branch scores (perceiving,
using, understanding, and managing emotions) for both methods of scoring were between .76
to .91 [72] [73]. A number of studies have shown that the MSCEIT has discriminant,
convergent, predictive, and incremental validity [73].
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Table 2.1: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) Branch Title Measured Through Definition
1 Perceiving Emotions Faces Participants are asked to identify the
emotions in faces.
2 Using Emotions to Sensations Participants are asked to compare
Facilitate Thought emotions to sensory stimuli.
3 Understanding Emotions Changes One’s ability is tested to recognize
under what circumstances lessen or
increases emotional intensity.
4 Managing Emotions Emotion Participants are asked how they
Management would respond to hypothetical
situations either by maintaining or
changing their feelings.
2.4.3 Emotional & Social Competence Inventory (ESCI)
The Emotional & Social Competence Inventory (ESCI) is a “360°” survey developed by Prof.
Richard Boyatzis and Dr. Daniel Goleman and published by Hay group, USA. ESCI is
designed to assess competencies that differentiate outstanding from average performers. The
ESCI measures the demonstration of individuals’ behaviors, through their perceptions as well
as those of their raters [64]. The ESCI assesses 12 competencies: Emotional Self-Awareness,
Achievement Orientation, Adaptability, Emotional Self-Control, Positive Outlook, Empathy,
Organizational Awareness, Coach and Mentor, Conflict Management, Inspirational
Leadership, Influence, and Teamwork. The 12 competencies cover four distinct areas of
ability: Self Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management
[22]. ESCI contains 68 items and for each of the 68 items, peers and subordinates of the
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executive described how frequently he or she typically demonstrated the behaviour described
in the item.
2.4.4. The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT)
It is a 33 item self-report measure of emotional intelligence developed by Schutte et al. The
SSEIT has been designed to measure four facets of emotional intelligence model defined by
Salovey and Mayer (1990). The four facets of emotional intelligence given by SSEIT are:
1. The appraisal of emotion in self and others
2. The expression of emotion
3. The regulation of emotion in self and others
4. The utilization of emotion in problem solving. [74] [75]
2.4.5 Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS)
Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS) is a self-report EI measure developed for
Chinese respondents. WEIS consists of 40 choice items divided in to two parts. The first part
contains 20 scenarios and respondents are required to choose one option that best reflects their
likelihood of reacting to each scenario. The second part of the scale contains 20 ability pairs
of which respondents are required to choose one out of the two types of abilities that best
represent their strengths [76].
WEIS has four ability dimensions described in the domain of EI [76]:
(1) Appraisal and expression of emotion in the self
It is an individual’s ability to understand one’s deep emotions and to be able to express them
naturally. The individuals who have high ability in this area, sense and acknowledge their
emotions well before most people.
(2) Appraisal and recognition of emotion in others
It is an individual’s ability to perceive and understand the emotions of other people.
Individuals who are high in this ability will be much more sensitive to the emotions of others.
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(3) Regulation of emotion in the self
This relates to the ability of an individual to regulate his/her emotions and to come out more
rapidly from emotional climax and distress. Individual high in this ability can control their
behavior in extreme moods.
(4) Use of emotion to facilitate performance
This ability relates to making use of their emotions by individuals towards constructive
activities and performance. Persons high in this ability use their emotions to facilitate high
performance.
2.4.6 The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue)
TEIQue developed by K. V. Petrides, is an integral part of a scientific research program at the
London Psychometric Laboratory in University College London. Petrides’s [52] [66] model
consisted of four components with 15 facets of the personality domain.
• Emotionality: individuals who are in touch with their own feelings and those of others. The
facets include:
empathy,
emotional perception,
emotional expression
relationships.
• Self-control: individuals in control over their desires and impulses. The facets consist of:
emotional regulation,
impulsiveness, and
stress management.
• Sociability: individuals engaging in social relationships and influence. The facets involve:
assertiveness,
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Ph. D. Thesis 24
social awareness.
emotional management
• Well-being: individuals who feel positive, happy, and fulfilled based upon past actions and
future expectations. The facets include:
optimism,
happiness,
self-esteem
• Auxiliary facets
self motivation,
adaptability,
2.4.7 The Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI)
This measure is developed by Dr Benjamin Palmer and Professor Con Stough from
Swinburne University, Australia, to measure emotionally intelligent workplace behavior. This
is a 360-degree instrument and it measures how often individuals display emotionally
intelligent workplace behavior according to a taxonomic seven-factor model of emotional
intelligence, which, are identified by Palmar & Stough. Both self and multi-rater formats
comprise a total of 70 items and it requires approximately 12-15 minutes completing the test
by respondents. Each of the seven factors of the model is measured by 10 homogeneous
emotionally intelligent workplace behaviors [77] [78].
Seven key areas Measured by Genos EI are:
1. Emotional Self Awareness
Perceiving and understanding one’s own emotions
2. Emotional Expression
Effectively expressing one’s own emotions
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Ph. D. Thesis 25
3. Emotional Awareness of others
Perceiving and understanding others’ emotions
4. Emotional reasoning
Utilizing emotional information in decision making
5. Emotional Self management
Effectively managing one’s own emotions
6. Emotional Management of others
Influencing the moods and emotions of others
7. Emotional Self control
Effectively controlling strong emotions experienced
2.4.8 Group Emotional Competence (GEC) Inventory
The GEC inventory is based on the work of Vanessa Druskat and Steven Wolff. They have
pioneered the application of emotional competence concepts at the group levels. The
instrument contains 57 items and measure nine dimensions of group emotional intelligence
[79].
The nine dimensions of GEC are:
Interpersonal understanding
Confronting members who break norms
Caring Behavior
Team self-evaluation
Creating resources for working with emotion
Creating an affirmative environment
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Proactive problem solving
Organizational understanding
Building external relationships
2.4.9 The Work Group Emotional Intelligence Profile (WEIP)
WEIP a self-report measure was developed by Jordon et al. and is designed to measure
emotional intelligence of individuals in teams.
The WEIP captures two dimensions of emotional intelligence:
Scale1: Ability to Deal with Own Emotions (18 items)
Subscales
Ability to Recognize Own Emotions
Ability to Discuss Own Emotions
Ability to Manage Own Emotions
Scale 2: Ability to Deal with Others' Emotions (12 items) [80]
Subscales
Ability to Recognize Others' Emotions
Ability to Manage Others' Emotions
2.4.10 Emotional & Social Competence Inventory –University Edition (ESCI-U)
ESCI-U is a student version of Emotional & Social Competence Inventory developed by
Boyatzis and Goleman. This multi-rater test comprised of 70 questions takes approximately
30-45 minutes to complete. ESCI-U assesses 14 competencies comprised of 5 emotional
intelligence competencies, 7 social intelligence competencies, and 2 cognitive competencies.
The instrument has shown sufficient reliability and validity [81] [82]
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2.5 BACKGROUND OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership is defined as a process of social interaction where performance outcomes are
strongly influenced by the leader’s ability to influence the behavior of their followers.
Emotions play an important role in understanding leadership and in being a good leader [83].
Kouzes and Posner define leadership as a set of behaviors that anyone in a leadership capacity
can be taught and become skilled at to achieve excellence [84]. Burns [85] offered a definition
that encompasses the initial conceptualization of transformational leadership. He defined
leadership as:
“Leadership is defined as leaders inducing followers to act for certain goals that represent the
values and the motivations—the wants and needs, the aspirations and expectations—of both
leaders and followers. In addition, the genius of leadership lies in the manner in which leaders
see and act on their own and their followers’ values and motivations”.
In 1990, Bass offered a more comprehensive definition of leadership similar to Burn’s
definition of leadership. Bass defined it as follows:
“Leadership is interaction between two or more members of a group that often involves
structuring or restructuring of the situation and the perceptions and expectations of the
members. Leaders are agents of change—persons whose acts affect other people more than
other people’s acts affect them. Leadership occurs when one group member modifies the
motivation or competencies of others in the group”.
2.5.1 Leadership Theories
Chemers claimed that early scientific study of leadership focused around three periods. The
trait theory studies started from 1910 to World War I and further studies during a second
period from a behavioral perspective from World War II to the late 1960s. Lastly, the
contingency theory started in the late 1960s and beyond with a focus on contingency-oriented
leadership theories in addition to more contemporary theories. These early periods of
leadership studies are important to discuss to understand the origin of transformational
leadership [86].
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2.5.1.1 Trait Theory
Trait theory focused on identifying superior and specific traits or characteristics of effective
leaders. Early leadership research began with the “Great Man” theories of leadership with a
focus on who the leader “was” by identifying traits of a leader critical to a leader’s success
[87]. Traits such as high energy, social skills and adaptability, among others were included.
Initially the study of leadership assumed that leaders were somehow “different” and therefore
much of the research focused on identifying this distinguishing, seemingly mythical set of
traits. Stogdill concluded that traits alone do not identify leadership and he further predicted
that personal and situational characteristics be taken into consideration before adequately
theorizing leadership further [87].
2.5.1.2 Behavioural Theory
Behavioral theories research focused on two styles important for effective leadership; task
oriented or people oriented. This was influenced by research done at Ohio State University in
the 1960s and later by research conducted at the University of Michigan. These earlier studies
included: (a) the importance of a leader’s interpersonal relationship with their followers as
well as their concerns for accomplishing tasks toward goals or initiating structure and (b) the
leadership behaviors necessary for effective leadership or patterns of communication termed
consideration [88]. Therefore, behavioral theories focused on a leader’s stable style of action
often categorized as an orientation to either task or people.
2.5.1.3 Contingency Theory
Although behavioral theories in leadership explained leadership effectiveness, the research
shifted to theories that could explain why leadership behavioral styles were not always
effective in all settings. Identified leader behavior patterns also showed inconsistency when
related to organizational outcomes such as follower satisfaction and productivity [86]. After
the trait and behavioral research failed to identify a leadership style that worked best in all
situations, contingency leadership theories arose to explain the appropriate leadership style
based on the leader, the follower, and the situation [89]. The contingency theory literature
focused on the assumption that leaders draw on their attributes and behavioral styles to meet
the needs of a particular situation or followers. The contingency theory brought focus to
various aspects of contexts like the favorableness of the environment, the complexity of task
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Ph. D. Thesis 29
and knowledge of the followers, the relationship between leaders and followers, and the
effects of specific leader behaviors on follower motivation and satisfaction [86].
2.5.2 Theoretical Foundation of Leadership Styles
Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model addressed how particular leader
behaviors are necessary to manage a particular situation. Hersey and Blanchard contended
that a leadership style was defined by how the followers perceive the leader behaviors; which
led to the classification of behaviors as either task or relationship oriented. Task behavior
involves the leader clearly defining the goals of the individual or group, which includes telling
people what, when, where, and how to accomplish a task. Relationship behavior consists of
the leader listening, facilitating, and supporting the communication process of the group [90].
According to Burns, one of the true failures of research was the separation of the relationship
between leaders and followers. Burns defined leadership as the collective and purposeful
engagement of leaders and followers to accomplish mutual goals. The leader–follower
relationship encompasses the interaction of people with various degrees of motivation and
power. Burns’s seminal work on political leaders solidified this concept [85]. Burns noted that
the leader–follower relationship takes place in either a transactional or a transformational
form. Burns described transactional leadership as a leader’s ability to motivate a follower
based upon economic, political, or psychological rewards. Both parties understand each
other’s role and what is at stake; however, the bargaining process was not based upon a true
relationship. In contrast, Burns asserted that transformational leadership involves the leader
and follower engaging in a purposeful relationship to achieve a higher level of motivation and
ethical aspiration. Burns purported that power alone does not make a person transactional or
transformational, whereas leadership does.
Bass extended the work of Burns and developed a formal theory, model, and measurement of
transformational leadership to explore factors of leadership behavior [91]. Bass and Avolio
expanded the model further by creating full range leadership, which includes
transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire styles [91] [92]. Transformational leadership
is the most effective managerial behavior, in which a leader builds positive relationships with
followers to move lower level objectives to higher levels of performance [91] [92] [93] [94].
Transactional leadership centers solely on the leader’s ability to set up agreements or
contracts with followers to accomplish specific goals based upon rewards and punishment
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Ph. D. Thesis 30
rather than a relationship [93]. Laissez-faire leaders passively manage employees using a
hands-off approach [91] [92] [93] [94]. Although transactional leadership can be effective in
certain environments, research has shown that transformational leadership positively
influences extra effort, commitment, and job satisfaction [94].
2.5.2.1 Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is a term coined by Burns, who believed that leadership is
inseparable from the goals and needs of followers. Burn’s work emphasized interactions that
are necessary for purposes of pursuing a common goal. Burn’s initial studies viewed those
interactions as either transactional, using rewards or punishment to motivate followers or
transformational, inspiring and exciting followers to higher levels of performance and
morality through a clear vision. Burns claimed that transformational leaders are attentive to
follower needs and motivations and help them reach their highest potential [85]. Later, Bass
[95] popularized and expanded the transformational leadership concept and discussed the
importance and distinction between transformational leadership and transactional leadership.
He theorized that leaders who use transformational approaches to leadership change inspire
and excite followers to great performance through vision and leaders who use transactional
approaches do so by managing and manipulating rewards to motivate followers. Bass [96]
argued that transformational leaders do more with others than establish simple exchanges or
agreements. He further argued that transformational leaders operate from a deep personal
value system that is not negotiable in contrast to a more traditional exchange relationship
between the leader and follower [95].
Transformational leaders have the ability to stimulate other leaders, colleagues, and followers
to embrace new organizational perspectives, support the vision of the organization, achieve
higher level of performance, and adopt higher levels of moral and ethical standards [91] [92]
[93] [94]. Transformational leaders enhance follower satisfaction and performance by
demonstrating idealized leadership, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and
individualized consideration or what Bass and Avolio called the four I’s [91] [92].
• Idealized leadership: Leaders who demonstrate self-confidence and power by acting as role
models for their followers. Idealized leadership is displayed in two forms:
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Idealized attributes: These leaders are admired, respected, and trusted by their colleagues and
followers because they perform in ways that are beneficial to followers, teams, and the
organization.
Idealized behaviors: These leaders seek to obtain follower buy-in, share risks, and
consistently handle issues related to conduct, ethics, standards, and values.
• Inspirational motivation: These leaders motivate and inspire their followers by providing
meaning and understanding to the objectives and work environment. The leaders use effective
communication to create a team atmosphere with a shared vision for the future.
• Intellectual stimulation: These leaders stimulate their followers to use innovation and
creativity to develop new ways of accomplishing goals and objectives. The leaders encourage
critical thinking and problem solving to improve performance.
• Individual consideration: Transformational leaders are attentive to the needs of others to aid
followers in reaching a higher level of performance. The leaders focus on employee
development through mentoring and coaching [91] [92].
2.5.2.2 Transactional Leadership
Transactional leadership emphasizes the contract, agreement, or exchange between a leader
and a follower to achieve common goals based upon contingent reward or management-by-
exception [91] [92] [94]. The leader and follower both understand the exchange requirements
necessary to receive a reward or corrective action. Consequently, the follower may receive a
positive contingent reward for successful performance or discipline for poor performance,
which constitutes negative active or passive forms of management-by-exception [92] [94].
Transactional leadership consists of two core behaviors:
• Contingent reward: the leader provides the follower clear performance objectives and
expectations that will lead to a specific reward or recognition. The leader establishes (a) what
is to be accomplished, (b) who is responsible for the performance, and (c) what will be given
to the followers when goals are successfully completed.
• Management-by-exception: the two forms of management-by-exception are active and
passive management. MBEA, Active management involves the leader monitoring and taking
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Ph. D. Thesis 32
immediate corrective action to address ineffective performance or noncompliance of
followers. MBEP, passive management is a more reactive approach to dealing with
irregularities, mistakes, errors, and deviations. Passive leadership often leads to poor
performance or noncompliance because leaders fail to set clear expectations, goals, or
objectives [92] [94].
Transactional leadership may be effective in certain situations, but, it will not work when the
leader does not have oversight of the reward process [92] [94]. MBEA may contribute to
leader satisfaction, but it is less effective than transformational leadership. MBEP often
produces ineffective leadership and dissatisfaction. In the final analysis, transactional leaders
may have a marginal effect on follower performance but are more effective when using
transformational leadership behaviors [92] [94].
2.5.2.3 Laissez-faire Leadership
Similar to MBEP, laissez-faire leadership is another form of passive or avoidant leadership.
Laissez-faire leaders do not demonstrate transformational or transactional behaviors, and,
which means laissez-faire leadership is the most ineffective or inactive leadership style.
Laissez-faire leaders commonly avoid problem solving, making decisions, or dealing with
poor performance [92].
Laissez-faire leadership style can be effective when addressing incremental change rather than
major organizational change. Avolio and Bass contended that all leaders have some level of
transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire behaviors in their leadership style and there
are certain situations in which each style may be appropriate [94].
2.6 INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE LEADERSHIP
2.6.1 LMX Questionnaire
LMX theory describes the dyadic relationship between an individual member and his or her
supervisor, and describes reciprocal fulfillment of expectations. The LMX 7 scale assesses the
degree to which leaders and followers have mutual respect for each other’s capabilities, feel a
deepening sense of mutual trust, and have a sense of strong obligation to one another. Taken
together, these dimensions determine the extent to which followers will be part of the leader’s
in-group or out-group [97] [98].
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Ph. D. Thesis 33
2.6.2 Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI)
The Leadership Practices Inventory developed by Posner & Kouzes, [99] [100] [101] assesses
a leader’s practices and competencies. The Leadership Practices Inventory contains 30
statements – six statements that measure each of the five key practices of exemplary leaders.
A self-report measure and an observer measure of the LPI have been developed and used for
various populations and organizations. The LPI assesses leaders’ and observers’ responses to
statements using a 10-point Likert scale. The scale used in LPI is as follows: (1) almost never
do what is described in the statement; (2) rarely; (3) seldom; (4) once in a while; (5)
occasionally; (6) sometimes; (7) fairly often; (8) usually; (9) very frequently; and (10) almost
always do what is described in the statement.
The leadership practices identified by Kouzes and Posner include:
Modeling the way:
This practice involves finding one’s voice as well as setting the example through aligning
actions with values. This includes the leader’s ability to clearly communicate an authentic
message and engage others toward common goals and aspirations.
� Inspiring a shared vision:
This practice supports articulating an envisioned future and enabling others to a common
vision. This includes the leader’s ability to build a sense of unity among the followers toward
that vision in ways that are enthusiastic and igniting.
� Challenging the process:
This practice includes searching for innovative ways to change and improve through
experimentation and risk-taking. This also includes the leaders’ ability to receive ideas from
all constituents and utilize every opportunity to learn from and develop their followers.
Enabling others to act
This practice is enhanced by fostering collaboration and trust and sharing power. A leader’s
ability to promote trust and collaboration enables followers to work effectively.
� Encouraging the heart
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Ph. D. Thesis 34
This practice is cultivated when leaders recognize contributions and show appreciation for
individual excellence as well as celebrate accomplishments to create a spirit of community.
2.6.3 Leadership Quotient (LQ)
Leadership Quotient is a recent development in the measurement of leadership effectiveness,
developed by Robert Service. It comprised 12 dimensions for measuring and improving
leadership. Service suggested leadership is not a position or title but a living influence where
a person or persons move others into the unknown [102] [103]. Service argued that the
Leadership Quotient is a methodology or model to measure leadership for its understanding
and improvement and provides a more comprehensive formula and depiction of leadership
effectiveness. He argued that since much of the leadership research has focused on
intelligence and emotional quotients or a combination of traits that produce effective
leadership; the Leadership Quotient provides a natural evolution to measure leadership
effectiveness. This model consists of leader angle, follower and environment quotients.
Service suggested that the need to identify, understand, change and direct yourself, others and
corresponding situations toward becoming more of what one can become as a leader. It is not
how the leader thinks he communicated, but how the followers think the leader
communicated; it is not how the leader think he treat and read people, it is how the followers
think you are a people person; it’s not how the leader look or behave, it’s how the followers
see leader and leader’s behavior [102].
2.6.4 Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is a validated instrument created by Bass
and Avolio in 1995 to measure transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership
styles and leadership outcomes. This is a 45- item instrument and it measures nine leadership
components (idealized influence attributed, idealized influence behavior, inspirational
motivation, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration, contingent reward,
management-by-exception [active], management-by-exception [passive], and laissez-faire
leadership) categorized into the three leadership styles. The instrument also measure three
outcomes of leadership namely extra efforts, effectiveness, and satisfaction.
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Ph. D. Thesis 35
2.6.5 Organizational Leadership Questionnaire (OLQ)
The OLQ is a self reported inventory and was developed and standardized by Pareek. This
inventory is comprised of 12 situations. This scale measures four styles of leadership. Style 1
has been named as ‘Directive’ and is representative of persons who display behaviors to be
considered high on regulating, but low on nurturance. Style 2 is named ‘Supportive’ and is
characterized by leader who is high on both regulation and nurturance behavior. Style 3 is
named ‘Consulting’ and is characterized by low on regulation but high on nurturance
behavior. Finally, Style 4 is named as ‘Delegating’ which is characterized by leadership
behaviors that are low on both regulation and nurturance [104].
2.7 EI AND LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS
A review of literature revealed mix findings of the relationship between Emotional
Intelligence and leadership effectiveness and performance. Some studies supported the theory
that EI positively affects leadership effectiveness [1] [8] [105] [106] [107] [108] [109] [110]
[24] [111] and performance [1] [45] [112] [55] [113] [114], others disputed the relationship
between EI and leadership effectiveness [115] [116] [117] [118] [119].
Several studies have provided evidence that a significant relationship exists between EI and
leadership effectiveness [1] [8] [63] [14] [107] [110]. Leaders with higher EI tend to have
impacted leadership effectiveness in a better way and impacted the leadership outcome of
extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction [24] [46] [120]. Research has shown that the EI of
an organizational leader correlates with the quality of the leader’s relationship with
subordinates [121]. Emotional Intelligence is found to be related to organizational relevant
outcome [122]. Research has also indicated that high EI positively influenced workplace
stress, perceived control, satisfaction, and commitment [123]. Research has also shown that
emotional intelligence has also impacted leadership in family business [124]. Emotional
Intelligence has also been found related to job performance in many studies [45] [46]. Koman
and Wolff conducted a study on military organizations and found that team leader EI levels
significantly related to team performance [55]. Emotional Intelligence has been found
significantly related to leadership effectiveness in some studies in India also [110] [125]
[122].
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Ph. D. Thesis 36
Antonakis purported that academicians, practitioners, and organizational leaders have
embraced the concept of EI without empirical evidence to support the construct [115].
Antonakis et al. consequently noted that further research was necessary to support the role of
EI and leader success, but argued that scientific advancement in all areas of research comes
from the rigorous testing and discarding of theories [117]. Antonakis et al. concluded that EI
becomes less of a factor when relationship outcomes are not the main objective, but
emphasized that EI was more essential in social situations and IQ was more essential in
cognitive tasks [117].
A review of the literature indicated that a relatively small number of studies focused on the
relationship between EI and leadership effectiveness have been conducted on Indian software
industry supervisors. The current study addresses this gap in the literature through an
examination of the relationship between EI and full range leadership in the Indian software
industry.
2.8 EI AND LEADERSHIP STYLES
Many researchers have conducted studies to understand the relationship between emotional
Intelligence and leadership styles namely transformational, transactional, and Passive
Avoidant. There have been mix findings of the relationships. Although some studies have
supported the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational style [126]
[127] [128] [120] [129] [130] [131] [132] [133] [134] others found no relationship between EI
and transformational leadership [135] [136] [137] [138] [139].
Some studies also supported the relationship between emotional intelligence and transactional
leadership style [126] [129] [128]. In India, a study by Srivsastava and Bharamanaikar
supported the relationship between EI and transformational leadership [110] and a study by
Modassir and Singh did not find any relationship between EI and transformational leadership
[140]. Some studies found negative relationship between passive avoidant leadership styles
and other did not find any relationship between these two variables [126] [120] [128] [141].
A review of the literature indicated that a relatively small number of studies focused on the
relationship between EI and leadership styles have been conducted in Indian software
industry supervisors. The current study addresses this gap in the literature through an
examination of the relationship between EI and leadership styles in Indian software industry.
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Ph. D. Thesis 37
2.9 STUDIES OF EI AND LEADERSHIP STYLES AND LEADERSHIP
EFFECTIVENESS
Transformational leadership theory is based primarily on Bass’s work [96]; although Burn’s
earlier work [85] influenced the thinking behind its development. The dynamics of
transformational leadership involve strong personal identification with the leader, joining in a
shared vision of the future, or going beyond the self-interest exchange of rewards for
compliance. Transformational leaders, aim at reaching followers’ emotional drivers to achieve
results [142]. An effective transformational leader understands the needs and motivations of
others and tries to help them reach their full potential [91].
Goleman finds that truly effective leaders are distinguished by a high degree of emotional
intelligence [46]. Cherniss Suggested that a person’s ability to perceive, identify, and manage
emotions provides the basis for the kinds of social and emotional competencies that are
important for success in almost any job [143].
Barling et al. in 2000 conducted an exploratory study on the relationship between EI and
transformational leadership [126]. The study was conducted in a Single Organization with 49
Supervisors and 187 Subordinates. They were administered three questionnaires a)
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ 5x short) to assess the four components of
transformational leadership and transactional leadership, b) EI inventory of Bar-on to assess
EI, and c) Seligman attribution style Questionnaire to measure attribution [144]. The findings
showed that idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration (MLQ
characteristics of transformational leadership style), as well as contingent reward have
significant relationship with Emotional Intelligence. It was also found in the study that
Intellectual stimulation aspect of transformational leadership did not have any relationship
with Emotional Intelligence. There was no significant association between active and passive
management–by- exception, laissez-faire and emotional intelligence. The leaders who report
exhibiting these behaviors were assumed to be more effective in the workplace.
Palmer et al. [129] in 2001 studied the relationship between EI and effective leadership. The
researchers used the Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS) [145], a predecessor of the MSCEIT
that included emotional as well as cognitive items, and the MLQ to examine the relationship
between leadership style and EI. Self report versions of both the questionnaires were used in
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Ph. D. Thesis 38
the study. They assessed 43 past and present students in one of Swinburne University’s
(Australia) Center for Innovation and Enterprise Programs. About two-thirds of the
participants held middle or upper level manager positions.
They did find relationships between some of these sub-scales of TMMS, such as between
emotional monitoring and inspirational motivation and between idealized influence and
emotional monitoring. The researchers also found a positive relationship between the
contingent reward component of transactional leadership and the emotional monitoring
subscale, and with contingent reward and the total transformational leadership score,
concluding that “perhaps ‘contingent reward’ overlaps considerably with the transformational
leadership component”
Gardner and Stough [120] in 2002 examined the utility of emotional intelligence in
predicting effective leaders. They employed the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence
Test for measuring emotional intelligence and the MLQ to assess leadership style. Self report
versions of both the tests were used in this study. The sample consisted of 110 senior level
managers.
Researchers found a significant positive relationship between emotional intelligence and all
components of transformational leadership. The relationship was further supported for all five
EI factors from the SUEIT, as well as with contingent rewards (part of the transactional
leadership style). A strong negative relationship was found between for laissez-faire
leadership and total emotional intelligence score. The outcomes of leadership (extra effort,
effectiveness, and satisfaction) were all found to be significantly correlated with components
of emotional intelligence as well as total emotional intelligence. They also recommended for a
360-degree measure of emotional intelligence to complement the self report measures of
emotional intelligence.
Goleman, Boyatzis and Mckee in 2002, concluded that the fundamental task of leaders was
to prime good feelings in those they lead. [8]. Goleman et al. assert that it is the level of a
leader’s understanding of the powerful role emotions play in the workplace that separates the
best leaders from the rest.
Sivanathan and Fekken [130] in 2002, studied the relationship of emotional intelligence and
moral reasoning to leadership styles and effectiveness. This study was conducted among 58
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Ph. D. Thesis 39
residence staff of Ontario University. 232 subordinates and 12 supervisors of residence staff
rated on leadership behaviour and effectiveness. The researchers used four questionnaires in
this study, Bar On EQi, The Defining Issues Test (DIT) [146], the Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire (MLQ 5x), and two external criterion to minimize the effect of monomethod
bias.
Transformational leadership positively correlated to emotional intelligence and leadership
effectiveness. It was also found that transactional leadership was positively correlated with
superior rating of don effectiveness and leaders displaying greater moral reasoning were not
found to display rater transformational leadership behaviour.
Mandell and Pherwani [147] in 2003 conducted a small study consisting of 13 male and 19
female managers in mid- to large-size companies. The goal of the study was to examine the
gender differences in the relationship between EI and transformational leadership. Emotional
intelligence was measured using the EQ-I and leadership was measured with the MLQ (5x-
Rev.). The study found that females were significantly higher in emotional intelligence than
males, but there were no gender differences when comparing the relationship between
emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. There was an overall significant
positive relationship between the total EI scores and transformational leadership scores of the
managers.
Duckett and Macfarlane [148] in 2003 examined the relationship between emotional
intelligence and transformational leadership relationships in a UK based retailing
organization. 13 store managers participated in the study. The results showed a strong
connection between the theory of EQ and transformational leadership.
Weinberger [141] in 2003 investigated the relationship between EI, leadership styles and
perceived leadership effectiveness in a single US based manufacturing organization. The
Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) was used to measure
emotional intelligence and the multifactor leadership questionnaire, was used to assess
leadership styles and leadership outcomes. MSCEIT was administered to 138 top managers of
the organization and MLQ 5x was administered to subordinates of the 138 managers.
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Ph. D. Thesis 40
No significant correlations were found between emotional intelligence and leadership styles.
In addition, no significant relationships were found between emotional intelligence and
leadership outcomes.
Prati et al. [149] in 2003 proposed that the emotionally intelligent team leader will induce
collective motivation in team members and the emotionally intelligent leader uses charismatic
authority and transformational influence in order to improve team performance. They
formulated 10 propositions. They proposed that emotional intelligence is particularly essential
to effective team interaction and productivity. The leader serves as a motivator towards
collective action and relationship among team members.
Antonakis J wrote a critique of the article by Prati et al. He concludes that excitement over
the use of EI in the workplace is premature [150]. He underlines contradictions and
inconsistencies which may cast doubt on the necessity of EI for understanding and predicting
leadership effectiveness [28].
Leban & Zulauf [151] in 2004 studied 24 project managers and their associated projects in
six organizations from varied industries to link emotional intelligence and transformational
leadership styles. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Ability Test (MSCEIT)
and the multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) Form 5x instruments were used for data
collection. Project managers completed the emotional intelligence ability test (MSCEIT)
during project planning. Team members and stakeholders responded to questions addressing
the project manager’s leadership style between four to nine months after project activities
began and at the designated end of a project phase.
The results of the study found that there are a number of linkages between emotional
intelligence abilities and transformational leadership style. The ability to understand emotions
and overall emotional intelligence were significantly related with the inspirational motivation
component of transformational leadership. Emotional intelligence was found to relate
significantly with the idealized influence and individual consideration components of
transformational leadership. Management-by-exception component of transactional leadership
and laissez-faire or non-leadership were found to have a significant negative relationship with
the strategic emotional intelligence and understanding emotions component of emotional
intelligence. The study recognizes that transformational project leader behavior has a positive
Chapter 2
Ph. D. Thesis 41
impact on actual project performance, and emotional intelligence ability contributes to
transformational project leader behavior and also to subsequent actual project performance.
Burbach [152] in 2004 examined the effect of emotional intelligence on full-range
leadership. The moderating effects of leaders' cognitive style and direction of self-concept
(internal vs. external) on the relationship of emotional intelligence and full-range leadership
were also examined. 146 self-identified leaders and their 649 raters participated in the study.
Emotional intelligence was measured with Mayer-Salovey Caruso emotional intelligence test
(MSCEIT), full range leadership was assessed with The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
(MLQ 5x), and The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) measured cognitive style.
A significant relationship was found between emotional intelligence and all the full-range
leadership from leaders' perceptions. Significant variance to the relationship between
emotional intelligence and transformational leadership and outcomes of leadership from
leaders' perceptions was added by Cognitive style. This indicated that the combined
extraversion and intuitive cognitive style is related with transformational leadership over and
above emotional intelligence. The leader's direction of self-concept added significant variance
to the relationship between EI and transformational, management by exception (MBE) and
laissez-faire leadership from leaders' perceptions. This showed that internal self concept is
associated with transformational leadership over and above EI and external self-concept is
associated with management by exception and laissez-faire leadership over and above
emotional intelligence. No significant relationship was found between cognitive style or
direction of self-concept and emotional intelligence while predicting full-range leadership
style from leaders' perceptions. A significant predictive association was found between
emotional intelligence and laissez-faire leadership and outcomes of leadership from raters'
perceptions. Significant interaction was found between direction of self-concept and EI while
predicting transformational leadership, contingent reward leadership (a component of
transactional leadership style) and outcomes of leadership from raters' perceptions. This
showed that the leader's internal self-concept moderates the relationship between EI and
transformational leadership, contingent reward leadership (a component of transactional
leadership style) and leadership outcomes (extra efforts, effectiveness, satisfaction) from
raters' perceptions.
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Ph. D. Thesis 42
Higgs [106] in 2004 explored the association of emotional intelligence and performance
ratings of call center agents. This study used EIQ measure developed by Dulewicz and Higgs,
and ratings of their performance. 289 agents from three organizations participated in this
study. He suggested an array of both skills and characteristic relationships be present within
the framework of effective performance. The results suggested a robust relationship between
emotional intelligence and individual performance. There was also exploratory evidence
suggesting that organizations can achieve overall improved performance if the emotional
intelligence elements (self awareness, motivation, interpersonal sensitivity, emotional
resilience, and conscientiousness) are included in their selection criteria.
Rahim and Psenicka [105] in 2005 carried out a comprehensive international study
involving participants from the United States, Greece, Bangladesh, and China. Their
hypothesis was that empathy would mediate between social skills and effective leadership.
Participants were 1182 dyads, consisting of MBA students designated as target leaders, and a
peer in their MBA program. Researchers employed a self-developed instrument, which
specifically measured subordinates’ perception of their supervisor’s empathy and social skills.
They also used a subscale of McCall & Sergist instrument to measure leadership
effectiveness, which was also completed by the subordinates.
The authors found a positive association between social skills and leadership effectiveness in
each of the four countries. They also found that there was a positive association between
empathy and social skills in each country. Finally, they controlled for social skills and found
that there was a positive association between empathy and leadership effectiveness in all of
the countries except China. The relationship between empathy and leadership was strongest
among the U.S. leaders (MBA students), moderate among leaders in Bangladesh and Greece,
and non-existent in China. The study’s weakness was in not having true subordinates for the
rating process.
Rosete and Ciarrochi [107] in 2005 conducted a study to investigate the relationship
between emotional intelligence (EI), personality, cognitive intelligence and leadership
effectiveness in a large Australian public service Organisation. The sample consisted of 41
executives who volunteered to participate in a career development centre. They were
administered Mayer-Salovey Caruso emotional intelligence test Version 2.0 an ability
measure of Emotional intelligence, a measure of personality test 16 PF, and a measure of
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Ph. D. Thesis 43
cognitive ability – The Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence (WASI). Leadership
effectiveness was assessed using an objective measure of performance and a 360- degree
assessment involving each leader’s subordinates and direct manager (n=149).
The results from the investigation revealed that EI was related to a leader’s effectiveness in
being able to achieve organisational goals. Higher EI was associated with higher leadership
effectiveness, and EI also explained variance not explained by either personality or IQ. The
ability to perceive emotion and understand emotion of a leader had an impact on core
leadership behaviour. Perceiving emotion was the strongest predictor of “how” measures
leadership effectiveness. Dominance – a personality factor is the strongest predictor of the
‘what’ measure of leadership effectiveness. There is no significant co-relation between total
EI and any of the 16 personality factors. Vigilance; a personality factor co-related
significantly with perceiving emotion. There was significant relationship between total EI
score and verbal IQ, performance IQ, full scale IQ. The findings suggest that executives
higher on EI are more likely to achieve business outcomes and be considered as effective
leaders by their subordinates and direct manager.
Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, and Boyle [1] in 2006 conducted their study in a single organization
with a sample size of 38 supervisors (37 males and 1 female) and 1,258 employees. The
Supervisors took the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) an
ability-based test, which measures overall EI and and four branches. And the measure of
leadership effectiveness was a 24-item Likert scale constructed by a third party consultancy
specifically for this organization, of which nine of the items related to rating supervisory
leadership. The MSCEIT scores were stratified into three factor levels. The correlation results
yielded significant relationships between MSCEIT scores and supervisor ratings for only two
of the EI branches: perceiving emotions and using emotions.
Butler and Chinowsky [127] in 2006 extended the research of Gardner and Stough by
examining 132 leaders in the construction industry. This research investigated emotional
intelligence and leadership behavior profiles of leaders in the construction industry. The Bar-
On EQ-i test was used to measure of EI and the MLQ 5x was used to measure
transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. It was found that five of the
fifteen subscales of emotional intelligence were related to transformational leadership
behavior at a statistically significant level. The construction leaders, as a group, viewed
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Ph. D. Thesis 44
themselves as transformational leaders who sometimes behaved as transactional leaders, with
laissez-faire leadership behaviors seldom used. Inspirational leadership was reported as the
most commonly employed transformational behavior and employing contingent reward
behavior was viewed as the most frequently used transactional leadership behavior
Vrba [128] in 2007 conducted a research in a South African insurance company to study the
relationship between emotional intelligence skills and leadership behaviours. The sample
consisted of 60 first line managers and 314 close associates of these managers. The Emotional
Intelligence Appraisal (EIA) survey was used to measure EI Skills of the managers. The
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ 5x) was used to assess managers’ leadership
profiles. The study showed a positive correlation between all the EI skills and all the
transformational styles. EI skills also had a positive correlation with contingent reward; a
component of transactional style. All the EI skills also had a positive correlation with the
outcomes of leadership (extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction). A negative correlation
was found between EI skills and laissez-faire style.
Sunindigo et al. [153] in 2007 studied the benefits of emotional intelligence to project
management. They investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and
leadership style in Thailand. They interviewed project managers and engineers. The results of
the study showed that emotional intelligence affected leadership behaviour of project leaders.
Project leaders with higher emotional intelligence tend to use open communication and
proactive leadership styles. It was also found that EI generated delegating, open
communication, and proactive behaviour, which could bring positive outcomes to the
organization.
Koman and Wolff in 2008 conducted a study in military organizations [55]. The objective of
this study was to assess the relationship between individual emotional intelligence
competencies, team level emotional intelligence, and team effectiveness. 70 team leaders and
73 managers (team leaders’ supervisors) rated team leaders’ emotional intelligence. A total of
349 aircrew and maintenance team members participated representing 81 aircrew and
maintenance teams. To assess team leader emotional intelligence, the emotional competence
inventory (ECI-2) was administered. Each team leader had 2-14 raters rate their behaviors,
with an average of 4.34 ratings completed for every team leader, excluding the self-rating.
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Ph. D. Thesis 45
Team level emotional intelligence was assessed using the Group Emotional Intelligence
measure developed by Druskat and Wolff and later refined based on work by Hamme [154].
Team member participants self rated their team’s behavior according to each of the nine
emotionally competent group norms measured by the instrument. The objective performance
rating was calculated from the percentage of goals attained by each team on measures used in
respective military organization. Subjective performance measures were gathered from upper
level officers who had observed multiple teams within the command over time. This study
showed that a team leader’s emotional intelligence affects team level emotional competence
and team performance through the development of emotionally competent group norms.
Team leader EI levels were significantly related to performance
Williams [155] in 2008 studied the leadership characteristics of urban principals that were
identified as outstanding. Twelve outstanding and eight typical principals were identified by
nominations by peers, supervisors’ nominations and teachers’ ratings. Data from behavioral
event incident interviews (BEI) were used as the major source for exploring the study. The
BEI, is designed to get the participant to vividly and accurately describe real experiences in
his/her job, is a well established qualitative research method for assessing individual
competencies [156] [157] [158] [159]. Each incident was analyzed using a code derived
directly from a model of emotional and social intelligence competencies that has been widely
used and its validity and reliability well documented [49] [160].
Outstanding principals demonstrated a broad and deep repertoire of competencies related to
emotional and social intelligence. Williams discovered emotional and social intelligence
competencies that significantly differentiated outstanding principals from typical principals.
The competencies were (a) self-confidence, (b) self control, (c) conscientiousness, (d)
achievement orientation, (e) initiative, (f) organizational awareness, (g) developing others, (h)
influence, (i) analytical thinker, (j) leadership, (k) teamwork/collaboration influence, (l)
change catalyst, and (m) conflict management.
Ramo, Saris, and Boyatzis [112] in 2009 studied Spanish executives. The data were
collected from three medium sized Spanish organizations with (n=223). Emotional
Competence Inventory a 360-degree instrument was used to measure emotional intelligence,
Personality was measured with the NEO-FFI, a shortened version of the Revised NEO
Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) [161]. Nominations from subordinates, peers, and bosses
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Ph. D. Thesis 46
or nominations in concert with other output measures were used to measure performance
effectiveness. In the study, it was found that emotional competencies and personality traits are
valuable predictors of job performance. In addition, competencies were found to be more
powerful predictors of performance than global personality traits.
Mills [162] in 2009 conducted a meta analysis of relationship between emotional intelligence
and effective leadership. The results of his study suggest that emotional intelligence may now
need to be considered as a component of leadership effectiveness and as such, changes need
to be considered in the preparation for and practice of educational leadership. Developing
skills associated with emotional intelligence, and implementing a leadership style in practice
that is reflective of emotional intelligence may support greater levels of effectiveness.
Cote et al. [111] in 2010 reported findings from two studies of examining the relationship
between emotional intelligence and leadership emergence in small groups. Overall emotional
intelligence and some of its dimensions were associated with leadership emergence over and
above cognitive intelligence, personality traits, and gender. Among the dimensions of
emotional intelligence, the ability to understand emotions was most consistently associated
with leadership emergence.
Tang at el. [163]. In 2010 explored the relationship between the emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership practices of academic leaders in Taiwan and the USA. The
objective of the study was to investigate whether cross-cultural differences exist in academic
leaders’ EI, leadership practices, and the relationship between them. Emotional intelligence
and Leadership effectiveness were measured with Nelson and Low’s Emotional Skills
Assessment Process (ESAP) and Kouzes and Posner’s Leadership Practices Inventory-Self
(LPI-Self).
The study employed a casual-comparative approach to draw cross-cultural comparisons.
Convenience samples of 50 academic leaders in Taiwan and 50 in the USA were selected as
two comparison sample groups in these two different cultures. Results of the correlation
analyses indicated that the Taiwanese participants’ overall EI was found to have a positive
significant correlation with all five areas of leadership practices. The US participants were
also found to have statistically significant positive relationships between overall emotional
intelligence and all areas of leadership practices except challenging the process, and inspiring
a shared vision.
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Ph. D. Thesis 47
Hebert, E B, in 2011 conducted a study with school principles [164]. The research sample
was composed of 30 elementary, middle, and high school principals and five to seven teachers
who worked with each principal from schools in the United States. An emotional intelligence
score for the principals was obtained by administering the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional
Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Teachers who worked with each principal completed the rater
form of the Multi-Factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X) also. Correlations were
analyzed to conclude that there is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership. A positive correlational relationship between effectiveness and
emotional intelligence was found. Analyzing the relationship between emotional intelligence
and different non-transformational leadership styles yielded mixed results. Findings also
indicated a relationship exists between emotional intelligence and contingent reward
leadership, while no significant relationship was found between emotional intelligence and
other leadership styles. It was concluded from the study that principals and future principals
could better develop effective leadership skills by becoming more aware of their strengths and
weakness in the area of emotional intelligence, along with improving their transformational
leadership behaviours.
Jordan and Troth [165] in 2011 conducted a study to examine the mediating effect of leader
member exchange (LMX) on the relationship between followers’ emotional intelligence and
the outcomes of turnover intention and job satisfaction. They used a longitudinal design.
Survey data were collected from 579 employees within a private pathology company.
Measures of emotional intelligence and LMX were collected at Time 1 and employee
turnover intentions and job satisfaction were collected at Time 2. Turnover intention was
measured with three items developed by Colarelli (1984) [166]. Job satisfaction was measured
using three items developed by Caplan et al. (1975) [167].
Emotional intelligence was assessed using the self-report Workgroup Emotional Intelligence
Profile – Short Version (WEIP-S, Jordan and Lawrence) [168]. LMX was assessed using a
scale developed by Liden and Maslyn [169]. Negative affect was assessed using ten items
from Watson et al.’s [170] PANAS scale. The results of this study showed that followers’
emotional intelligence was related to employee turnover intentions, was linked to higher
levels of job satisfaction, and was related to higher levels of quality LMXs. Their underlying
premise was that these relationships occur as a consequence of the higher quality relationships
more likely to be formed by employees with higher emotional intelligence abilities.
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Ph. D. Thesis 48
Boyatzis et al. [24] in 2012 conducted a study to assess the role of the behavioral level of
emotional and social competencies on leader performance. The objective of the study was to
test how emotional & social competencies, cognitive intelligence (g), and personality would
affect sales leadership. 60 divisional executive (leaders) participated in the study.
Performance of the leaders was measured through recruitment of financial consultants by
these participating leaders. “g” The Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) was used
to measure cognitive intelligence [171]. The NEO Personality Inventory–Revised was used to
measure personality traits [172]. The emotional & social competencies demonstrated by each
subject were assessed with the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI) and the
“others” feedback was used in analysis [22]. The findings of the study showed that emotional
& social competencies significantly predicted leader performance (i.e., recruitment) whereas
measures of generalized intelligence and personality did not. Adaptability and influence were
two competencies distinctively predicting sales leadership performance.
Stanescu, and Cicei [18] in 2012 conducted a study by taking 101 Romanian Public
Managers to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership styles and
between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. Emotional intelligence of
managers was assessed using Bar-On EQ-i and leadership styles were assessed using MLQ-
5x. It was found that there are significant positive correlations between transformational
leadership and emotional intelligence and between leadership effectiveness and emotional
intelligence. Transactional leadership was also found correlated with EI score, and with the
Adaptability and Interpersonal scale of EQ-i. Total EQ-i score and the EQ-i subscales were
found negatively significantly correlated with Passive/Avoidant leadership. Interpersonal,
Stress Management and General Mood scales of EQ-i predicted 47.5% of the total variance of
transformational leadership and Interpersonal and Stress Management scales of EQ-i
predicted 38.2% of the total variance of leadership effectiveness. The results offered a clearer
perspective on the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership styles, and
leadership effectiveness.
Zhang and Fan [173] in 2013 studied the relationship between project manager’s emotional
intelligence and project performance. They used a modified Boyatzis Goleman model of
emotional intelligence for measuring emotional intelligence score of the project managers.
Project performance was assessed using a 13 point criteria. 112 project managers participated
in the study. The participants rated themselves on both the scales. The findings of the study
Chapter 2
Ph. D. Thesis 49
showed a positive relationship between total EI and project performance. Six factors of
emotional intelligence were found significantly correlated with project performance.
Boyatzis et al. concluded in a recent publication in 2013 that emotional and social
intelligence competencies have been shown to predict effectiveness in leadership,
management and professional jobs in many countries of the world. To be an effective leader,
manager or professional, a person needs to understand and skillfully manage his emotions
appropriately based on each person or situation and understand the emotional cues of others
in order to effectively interact with others [7].
2.10 EI AND LEADERSHIP- INDIAN STUDIES
Srivsastava and Bharamanaikar [110] in 2004 examined leadership effectiveness with a
unique population of 291 Indian army officers. EI was measured using a self-report measure,
the Work Profile Questionnaire Emotional Intelligence version (WPQei) and Leadership
styles were measured by the 5x-short version of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
(MLQ 5x). Perceived success of the leaders was measured by a questionnaire developed by
Pareek and Rao and job satisfaction was measured by the Job Satisfaction Survey developed
by Spector. MLQ 5x was completed by subordinates allowing subordinates to determine the
extent that transformational and transactional leadership style was displayed in the leaders.
The results significantly supported the connection between leader’s EI and all of the
components of the transformational leadership style. Higher EI scores were also found for the
contingent reward component of transactional style. EI was not related to job satisfaction, but
was related to perceived success. EI was not related to job satisfaction, but was related to
perceived success. There was a strong relationship between transformational leadership
behaviors and the leader’s self-reports of being innovative, intuitive, self-aware, motivated,
socially adept, empathic, and managing emotions. The army officers who rated themselves
high on EI also perceived themselves to be more successful in their careers.
Sinha & Jain [122] in 2004 studied emotional intelligence and organizational relevant
outcomes in two-wheeler automobile manufacturing organizations. The sample consisted of
250 male middle level executives. Emotional intelligence was measured through a
questionnaire adapted from the writings of Bar On [59]. Job satisfaction was measured
through a questionnaire consisting of three items adapted from the work of Cammann,
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Ph. D. Thesis 50
Fichman, Jenkins, and Flesh [176]. Personal effectiveness was measured through a
questionnaire consisting of four items based on work of Sutton and Ford [177].
Organizational commitment was measured through a questionnaire adapted from the writing
of Meyer and Allen [178]. Reputational Effectiveness was measured through three items
taken from the writing of Tsui [179]. The general health (lack of strain) was measured
through the General Health Questionnaire–12 (GHQ-12) variant of General Health
Questionnaire by Goldberg, [180] consisting of 12 items. Trust questionnaire was taken from
the work of Gabarro and Athos [181] consisting of seven items. The 3-item scale from
Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins, and Klesh [182] was used to measure turnover intention.
Organizational effectiveness was measured through a 22 items questionnaire taken from Sinha
[183] and based on the work of Sutton and Ford [184]. Organizational productivity was
measured through five items scale based on the work of Spreitzer and Mishra [185].
Results showed that the dimensions of emotional intelligence turned out to be significant
predictors of the organizationally relevant individual level, and organizational level outcome
variables. Job Satisfaction was predicted by one dimension (of EI), Personal Effectiveness
was by two dimensions, Organizational Commitment aspects by two dimensions, General
Health by two, Vertical Trust by three, Turnover Intention by one, dimensions of
Organizational Effectiveness by two, and Organizational Productivity by one dimension of EI
respectively. The results showed that the construct of emotional intelligence may be taken as
meaningfully related to the organizationally relevant outcome variables [122].
Singh [125] in 2007 studied 210 males and 130 females in an Indian software organization.
Emotional Intelligence was measured by Emotional Competency Inventory – V2 (Self
Version) and leadership styles and leadership effectiveness were measured by Organizational
Leadership Questionnaire [104]. All the dimensions of EI have been found to be positively
associated with leadership styles as well as effectiveness of the male software professionals.
EI of the male software professionals is significantly as well as positively related with their
supportive and delegating styles of leadership, but their overall leadership effectiveness has
been found to be significantly as well as positively associated with all the dimensions of EI
and total EI. Results also depicted positive relationships of EI with leadership styles and
effectiveness of the female software professionals. But here the supporting and the consulting
styles of leadership as well as overall leadership effectiveness that obtained positive
relationships with EI have been found to be significant.
Chapter 2
Ph. D. Thesis 51
Modassir and Singh [140] in 2008 studied Relationship of Emotional Intelligence with
Transformational Leadership and Organizational Citizenship in Different industries in Goa
and daman, India, with a sample of 57 managers 57 subordinates. EQ scale developed by
Schutte et al. (SSEIT Self rater) was used to measure emotional intelligence, The Multifactor
Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ 5x rater form) was used to measure transformational
leadership style, and a scale devised by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter [174]
was used to measure Organizational Citizenship behaviour. The study supported no relation
between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style.
Mishra and Mohapatra [20] in 2010 studied Relevance of Emotional Intelligence for
Effective Job Performance in Various Organizations in Delhi NCR having a sample of 90
executives. They used EI Test by Chadha & Singh (Self rating) [175] for measuring emotional
intelligence and Formal Appraisals of executives’ job performance. Emotional intelligence
was found to be a predictor of job performance. Through personal interviews and discussion
with these executives, it was realized that role plays, simulations, games, and cognitive
exercises are more appropriate than lectures when dealing with emotional learning. It was also
recommended to carry out studies in various organizations using EI measure and performance
appraisal instruments of high technical standards and also using “others” feedback.
Raina & Sharma [134] in 2013 conducted a study to examine the relationship between
emotional intelligence and transformational leadership with entrepreneurs in Rajasthan in
India. The research sample was composed of 47 entrepreneurs. An emotional intelligence
score for the each entrepreneur was obtained by administering the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso
Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Multi-Factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) was
used to measure the leadership of entrepreneurs and each entrepreneur completed a self form
of MLQ 5x.
Correlations were analyzed to conclude that there is a positive relationship between emotional
intelligence and transformational leadership. A positive relationship was found between
effectiveness and both emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Analyzing the
relationship between emotional intelligence and different non-transformational leadership
styles yielded mixed results. Findings indicated a positive relationship exists between
emotional intelligence and contingent reward leadership, while no significant relationship was
evident between emotional intelligence and other leadership styles. Using the results of the
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Ph. D. Thesis 52
study, it was concluded that entrepreneurs and future entrepreneurs could better develop
effective leadership skills by becoming more aware of their strengths and weakness in the
area of emotional intelligence, along with improving their transformational leadership
behaviors.
Srivastava, Sibia, & Misra Conclude that the study of EI in India has taken off with a good
start and it will be premature to draw any conclusion at this juncture [21]. Mishra and
Mohapatra also recommended to carry out studies in various organizations using EI measure
and performance appraisal instruments of high technical standards and also using “others”
feedback. There are a few published studies in India which have used the variables of
emotional intelligence and leadership styles and leadership effectiveness. The present study
can add in to the existing knowledge of the relationship between the variables. Mills [162]
also offered several directions for future research in his Meta analysis of relationship between
emotional intelligence and effective leadership. Given the availability of several models of
emotional intelligence in the literature, studies of the effectiveness of specific models and
their impact on leadership effectiveness should be conducted. Studies focusing on emotional
intelligence and leadership effectiveness that examine these outcomes incorporating different
methodological should be conducted.
2.11 CONCLUSION
The chapter reviewed the literature of emotional intelligence, leadership effectiveness, and
three leadership styles namely transformational, transactional, and passive avoidant. The
chapter reviewed the literature of relationships between emotional intelligence and leadership
effectiveness and between emotional intelligence and leadership styles.
Overall, the literature revealed mixed findings of relationship between these variables. But
major findings indicate a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership
effectiveness, between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership, and between
emotional intelligence and transactional leadership. The findings also revealed a negative
relationship between emotional intelligence and passive avoidant leadership style. There are a
few published studies in India which have used the variables of emotional intelligence and
leadership styles and leadership effectiveness. Some Indian studies also revealed mixed
findings of the relationship between these variables.
Chapter 2
Ph. D. Thesis 53
Chapter 3 presents the population and sample, tools used for data collection, and statistical
techniques and procedures used to analyze the data.