MANAGINGMANAGING 21 21ST ST C C AIR QUALITYAIR QUALITY
Mining Waste transfer
stations – especially PM10 in UK
DISPERSIVE DISPERSIVE PROCESSESPROCESSES
Demolition Vehicle Wear:
Cu, Zn, Cd, Sb, Ba, Pb
Brakes pads Cu, Ba, Sb
DISPERSIVE DISPERSIVE PROCESSESPROCESSES
AGRICULTUREAGRICULTURE
Dispersive sources
Ploughing
Pesticides
Pollen dispersal
DISPERSIVE PROCESSESDISPERSIVE PROCESSES
ORGANICS ORGANICACIDS
NEUTRALIZATIONHNO3
H2SO4
DUST EMISSION
Mining, agriculture, construction, roads
OXIDATION
A SENSE OF FAILUREA SENSE OF FAILURE
Re-authorization of CAA(1970) in 1990s Recognised a failure to meet O3 standards
Noted HC down 30% NOx down 50%
UK things were not getting better- titration Secondary pollution had detached
pollutants from there sources Seemingly illogical…
OK EXCEPT OK EXCEPT FOR 2FOR 2NDND POLLUTIONPOLLUTION
EPA ambient air quality
trends
RETHINK 96/62/ECRETHINK 96/62/EC
Human health Public information Alert Zones and agglomerations Technical and scientific support
Working groups and position papers Methods
Indicative CBA Daughter Directives and position
papers
SO2 NO2 PM Pb O3 benzene CO PAH Cd As Ni Hg
1,3butadiene HF not included!
CLEAN AIR for EUROPE (CAFE)CLEAN AIR for EUROPE (CAFE)beyond 96/62/ECbeyond 96/62/EC
Follows 96/62/EC but in CAFE - a preoccupation with O3/PM
Concern with environment and not just health
Synergisms - not pollutant by pollutant approach
Indoor issues – only where it relates to outdoor pollutants
Atkinson GrimshawGlasgow Docks
Yoshio Markino- The Painter of Fog
YELLOW FOGSYELLOW FOGS
Scattering Tar in droplets Gaslight
COLOUR OF SMOGCOLOUR OF SMOG
Scattering… NO2 brown London fog
SOMETIMES OUTCOMES NOT SOMETIMES OUTCOMES NOT OBVIOUSOBVIOUS
In some places the air has In some places the air has become worse in the become worse in the weekends weekends
NO + ONO + O3 3 NO NO22 + O + O22
POPs
WOOD SMOKE VOCs, O3
COAL SMOKE DIESEL SMOKE
LEAD H2SSMELLs
TIME
DOMINANCE of the DOMINANCE of the AUTOMOBILEAUTOMOBILE
2OPHOTOCHEMICALPOLLUTION
CARCINOGENS
NEUROTOXINENDOCRINE DISRUPTOR
TERATOGEN
MEXICO CITYMEXICO CITY
STUART FRANKLIN
SEPTEMBER 1986
FUEL CHANGE
ROLE OF “AUTOMOTIVE VAPOURS”ROLE OF “AUTOMOTIVE VAPOURS”
CH4 + OH CH3 + H2O
CH3 + O2 CH3O2
CH3O2 + NO CH3O + NO2
CH3O + O2 HCHO + HO2
HO2 + NO OH + NO2
CH4 + 2O2 + 2NO HCHO + 2NO2 + H2O
…initially scientists thought that the effectiveness of the organic compound would be related to its rate of reaction with OH
PHOTOCHEMICAL OZONE PHOTOCHEMICAL OZONE CREATION POTENTIAL (POCP)CREATION POTENTIAL (POCP)
However OH reactivity did not capture branching …..where a molecule spilt into two
Ethene (ethylene) typifies this process…
CH2=CH2 + O3 CH2O2* + HCHO Can at times be a hundred fold more
reactive than simple organic compounds
POCP POCP OFOF AROMATICS AROMATICS BENZENE AND TOLUENEBENZENE AND TOLUENE
Benzene and toluene have many double bonds
High POCP Antiknock additives Can lead to an effective
lachrymator, peroxybenzoylnitrate (PBzN) an aromatic PAN: C6H5C(O)OONO2
Mexico city and aromatics CH3
WINTER NOWINTER NOXX SMOGS SMOGS
Termolecular oxidation Titration NO+O3
WINTER POLLUTION PROBLEMSWINTER POLLUTION PROBLEMS
Low temperatures favour nitrogen dioxide formation
Cold start gives high carbon monoxide Stable air masses Tyre dust
EMISSION CONTROLEMISSION CONTROL
Emissions
Pollution
CONCERN
……less applicable in an age less applicable in an age of secondary pollutantsof secondary pollutants
PRIMARY CONTROL PRIMARY CONTROL SPORTING EVENTSSPORTING EVENTS
Beijing 2008 Olympic Games
Kaohsiung 2009 World Games
London 2012
AIR QUALITY AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT
Emissioninventory
LowerPollution
POLICYCONCERN
Computermodel
Meteorologicalmeasurement
Monitoringnetwork
Air quality standards/goals
Devise tactics tomeet standards
Enforce emissions
Elsom (1992)
Disagreement
Political wrangle
Economic impact
Siting issues
Models!
Distrust
Perceptions
AQM OR EMISSION CONTROLAQM OR EMISSION CONTROL AQM complex Control principles Other methods –financial instruments
Emission trading, permits, fees, fuel tax CBA
ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES
Can control secondary pollutants Is focused on the heath based issues Can be flexible in terms of socio-economic
strategies
EPAQS & COMEAPEPAQS & COMEAP
Links between DoH and Air Quality Division
AIR QUALITY AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT
Emissioninventory
LowerPollution
Computermodel
Meteorologicalmeasurement
Monitoringnetwork
Air quality standards/goals
Devise tactics tomeet standards
Enforce emissions
COMPLIANCECOMPLIANCE – – Stationary SourcesStationary Sources ROLLBACK AND BEYOND ROLLBACK AND BEYOND
Clean Fuels Reduce fuels use – efficiency,
better plant Certification Zoning Architectural coatings
COMPLIANCECOMPLIANCE - - AutomobilesAutomobilesROLLBACK AND BEYOND ROLLBACK AND BEYOND
Reduce total emissions Speed, pooling, public transport,
urban planning Reduce vehicle emissions
Cleaner engines, fuels catalytic converters
Maintenance and inspection certification
EUROPEAN EUROPEAN CONTROLSCONTROLS
Ever tightening regulations as part of a recognition of the role of motor vehicles
DIESEL PRIMARY NODIESEL PRIMARY NO22
EURO III diesel cars have oxidation catalysis and particle traps
This now means the emission ratio for NO2/NOx is 50% rather than 5% in the past…
METHANOLMETHANOL
potential alternative to a hydrogen economy production via syngas from natural gas CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2 nickel catalyst 850°C
CO + 2H2 → CH3OH copper, zinc oxide, and alumina @5–
10 MPa and 250 °C
good motor fuel
METHANOLMETHANOL MODELLING IMPACT IN A LARGE CITYMODELLING IMPACT IN A LARGE CITY
Peak 1h ozone likely to change little More general O3 improvements though… PAN reduced Increased peak HCHO, but average does
not change much Toxicological problems
LEZLEZ
EURO3 PM 2012
Minibus
BIOFUELSBIOFUELS The European Union biofuels directive:
2010 at least 5.75% biofuel usage for traffic fuel. 2020 10 % Backed down 2008 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7186380.stm
George W. Bush 2006 State of the Union speech: US to replace 75% of the oil it imports from the Middle East by biofuels by 2025
Bush and Lula (Brazil) on Biofuel 9 Mar 07
SECONDARY ORGANIC AEROSOLSECONDARY ORGANIC AEROSOL Recognising that the organic
material formed in the smog was important
Oxidized compounds, but necessarily non volatile – e.g. dicarboxylic acids
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
400 800 1200 1600 2000
hours
NO2
NO
O3
HC
RCHO
DIESEL PARTICLESDIESEL PARTICLES
Increasing concern about very fine particles black diesel vehicles
Nitration of organics Carcinogens
Los Angeles ULTRAFINES (50-100nm) Los Angeles ULTRAFINES (50-100nm)
Most abundant
catalytic metals:
Fe, Ti, Cr,
Zn, Ce
Organic
Metal oxide
Carbon
SO4
NO3
Other
Cass et al Phil. Trans. 2000
Some 10% of primary organic particles seem to be from cars...
PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPS)(POPS)
4) toxaphene 5) Aldrin6) Chlordane7) DDT8) Dieldrin9) endrin,10) heptachlor11) Hexachlorobenzene12) mirex
1) polychlorinated biphenyls
2) polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
3) polychlorinated dibenzofurans
UNEP short list of 12
Compounds resistant to environmental degradation