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Introduction to ManufacturingEngineering and Technology
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How do we make these?
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How do we make these?
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manufacturing consists of the conversion of
raw materials into final products Forming and shaping materials can be carried
out by four approaches: Phase changes
Solid to liquid (mostly) g\Gas to solid (specialty materials)
Deformation In the bulk in sheet
Powders Additive methods ( new)
The method chosen depends on the materialand the shape and properties required
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Custome
r
needs
Societal pressures, Governmentregulations, company plans and policies,etc
People, money, machines and automation
Products
manufacturingRawmaterial
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Raw
Material
Materials Science, Statics, Dynamics, Thermodynamics, Fluiddynamics
Machines and Automation
Assembly
MaterialTransformation
Processes
Products
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Products
Ingot
casting
Molten
Material
Powders
Casting
Shapes
Rolling Forging/
Press forming
Stamping
Pressing
Sheet metal
forming
Continuous
Casting/Rolling
Injection
Molding
Machining
Finishing
Assembly
Raw
Material
Special
Extruding
Single crystalpulling
Firing/Sintering
SLS
Increasing level of detail
Blow
molding
Assem
bly
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Critically dependent on function Requires a clear understanding of the
interrelationship among Function
Material properties
Materials process capabilities
Process costs Commercial availability of material form
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Mechanical properties (Strength, Hardness,Fatique, Ductility, Resistance to environment)
Tolerances
Surface finish
Resistance to corrosion and abrasion
Electrical properties
Thermal Properties
Appearance/surface finish
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Source:KalpakjianP 1225
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Cast metals tend to be brittle Forging adds strength along flow lines
Machining is cost effective for small lotsizes
Casting, forging and extrusion have highsetup costs but low production costs
Heat treatments affect harness, strength,
corrosion resistance and fatigue properties Machining results in lots of scrap (the buy
to fly ratio)
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Source: Kalpakjian p 1229
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You cannot design any hardware without
taking into account the production processused to make that product
Manufacturing considerations must beincluded in the design as early as possible
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Product Creative Characteristics (How newproducts differ from previous ones)
Product Size (physical dimension) Product Complexity/Sophistication Scale Material Flow Degree of Automation Organization
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How new products differ from previous ones Selection design (Lego houses)
Configuration design (automobiles)
Parametric design (portable generators)
Redesign (New VCR)
Original design (the original VCR, the Space Shuttle)
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A individual device on a computer chip A computer chip A television An automobile A Navy cruiser
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A nail A TV
A car or truck A 777 aircraft A satellite Mars sojourner
A CPU chip (5 millioncomponents)
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Number of people and disciplines involved Artisan Garage machine shop
General Motors, Arlington Plant Boeing Commercial Aircraft Engineering firms who make bridges, chemical plants
or dams
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How the work is organized on the shop floor Discrete parts (traditional job shop) Cellular (New machine shops) Semicontinuous Continuous flow (bottle making)
Process (chemical industry and oil refineries)
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How much automation exists on the shopfloor Manual
Machine assisted Computer controlled - islands of automation Computer integrated manufacturing
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Casting Pour a fluid into a "cavity which has the negative of
the shape you want to create Fluid flows into all the crevices, and seeks its own level
change the phasee from liuid to solid by
Extracting heaat
Removing the liguid component of a slurry
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Takes =advantage of the plastic flowbehaviro of many materials under differentsrain sates Compressive Tensile Shear Combinations
Tensile - drawing Compressive
Rolling, forging Shear
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No waste of any kind Material waste
No scrap - process right each time
Work-in-Process
Pull material flow (KANBAN system)
Personnel waste Cross functional teams
Design product so there is only one way to assembleproduct (poke-a-yoke)
Time Waste
Concurrency in operations where possible
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The ability to manufacturing multiple
products on a single line
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Customer responsiveness Physical plant and equipment responsiveness
Human Resource responsiveness
Global market responsiveness
Teaming as a core competency Responsive business practices and cultures
Source: Next Generation Manufacturing - A Framework for Action: Volume II, published by theAgility Forum, Bethlehem, PA, 1997
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Employee security without lifetime employment Simultaneous satisfaction of all stakeholder needs
Practicing collaboration within knowledge-basedcompetition
Controlling core competencies without owning them Managing assets when the most valuable asset is
knowledge
Keeping domestic jobs while developing globalmarkets
Rewarding learning in a reward for doingenvironment
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From MP GROOVER
INTRODUCTION TOMANUFACTURINGENGINEERING
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1. What is Manufacturing?2. Materials in Manufacturing
3. Manufacturing Processes
4.
Production Systems5. Organization of the Book
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Technologically Economically
Historically
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Technology - the application ofscience to provide society and itsmembers with those things that areneeded or desired
Technology provides the productsthat help our society and its memberslive better
What do these products have incommon? They are all manufactured
Manufacturing is the essential factorthat makes technology possible
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Manufacturing isone way by which
nations creatematerial wealth
U.S. economy:
Sector% ofGNP
Manufacturing 20%
Agriculture, minerals, etc. 5%
Construction & utilities 5%
Service sector
retail,transportation, banking,communication, education, andgovernment
70%
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Throughout history, human culturesthat were better at making things weremore successful
Making better tools meant better
crafts & weapons Better crafts allowed people to live better
Better weapons allowed them to conquerother cultures in times of conflict
To a significant degree, the history ofcivilization is the history of humans'ability to make things
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The word manufactureis derived from twoLatin words manus(hand) and factus(make);the combination means made by hand
Made by hand accurately described the
fabrication methods that were used when theEnglish word manufacture was first coinedaround 1567 A.D.
Most modern manufacturing operations are
accomplished by mechanized and automatedequipment that is supervised by humanworkers
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Figure 1.1 (a)Manufacturin
gas a technicalprocess
Application of physical and chemicalprocesses to alter the geometry, properties,and/or appearance of a starting material tomake parts or products
Manufacturing also includes assembly Almost always carried out as a sequence ofoperations
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Figure 1.1 (b)Manufacturing
as an economicprocess
Transformation of materials into items ofgreater value by means of one or moreprocessing and/or assembly operations
Manufacturing adds valueto the materialby changing its shape or properties, or bycombining it with other materials
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Industry consists of enterprises andorganizations that produce or supplygoods and services
Industries can be classified as:
1. Primary industries - those that cultivateand exploit natural resources, e.g.,farming, mining
2. Secondary industries - take the outputs ofprimary industries and convert them into
consumer and capital goods -manufacturing is the principal activity
3. Tertiary industries - service sector
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Secondary industries includemanufacturing, construction, andelectric power generation
Manufacturing includes severalindustries whose products are notcovered in this book; e.g., apparel,beverages, chemicals, and foodprocessing
For our purposes, manufacturing
means production of hardware Nuts and bolts, forgings, cars, airplanes,
digital computers, plastic parts, andceramic products
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The quantity of products Qmade by afactory has an important influence on theway its people, facilities, and proceduresare organized
Annual production quantities can beclassified into three ranges:
Production range AnnualQuantity Q
Low production 1 to 100 units Medium production 100 to 10,000
units High production 10,000 to
millions of
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Product variety Prefers to differentproduct types or models produced inthe plant
Different products have differentfeatures
They are intended for different markets Some have more parts than others
The number of different product typesmade each year in a factory can becounted
When the number of product typesmade in the factory is high, thisindicates high product variety
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Figure 1.2 P-Q Relationship
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Although Pis a quantitative parameter,
it is much less exact than Qbecausedetails on how much the designs differis not captured simply by the numberof different designs
Soft product variety- small differences
between products, e.g., between carmodels made on the same productionline, with many common parts amongmodels
Hard product variety- products differ
substantially, e.g., between a small carand a large truck, with few commonparts (if any)
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A manufacturing plant consists ofprocessesand systems(and people, ofcourse) designed to transform a certainlimited range ofmaterialsinto productsof increased value
The three building blocks - materials,processes, and systems - are thesubject of modern manufacturing
Manufacturing capability includes:
1. Technological processing capability2. Physical product limitations3. Production capacity
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The available set of manufacturingprocesses in the plant (or company) Certain manufacturing processes are
suited to certain materials By specializing in certain processes, the
plant is also specializing in certain materials Includes not only the physical processes,
but also the expertise of the plantpersonnel
Examples: A machine shop cannot roll steel A steel mill cannot build cars
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Given a plant with a certain set ofprocesses, there are size and weightlimitations on the parts or productsthat can be made in the plant
Product size and weight affect: Production equipment Material handling equipment
Production, material handlingequipment, and plant size must beplanned for products that lie within acertain size and weight range
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Defined as the maximum quantity thata plant can produce in a given timeperiod (e.g., month or year) underassumed operating conditions
Operating conditions refer to number of
shifts per week, hours per shift, directlabor manning levels in the plant, and soon
Usually measured in terms of output
units, such as tons of steel or numberof cars produced by the plant
Also called plant capacity
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Most engineering materials can beclassified into one of three basiccategories:1. Metals2. Ceramics
3. Polymers Their chemistries are different Their mechanical and physical
properties are dissimilar
These differences affect themanufacturing processes that can beused to produce products from them
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Figure 1.3 Venndiagram of threebasic materialtypesplus composites
Nonhomogeneous mixtures of the otherthree basic types rather than a uniquecategory
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Usually alloys, which are composed oftwo or more elements, at least one ofwhich is metallic
Two basic groups:1. Ferrous metals - based on iron,
comprises about 75% of metal tonnagein the world:
Steel = Fe-C alloy (0.02 to 2.11% C)
Cast iron = Fe-C alloy (2% to 4% C)
2. Nonferrous metals - all other metallicelements and their alloys: aluminum,copper, magnesium, nickel, silver, tin,titanium, etc.
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Compounds containing metallic (orsemi-metallic) and nonmetallicelements.
Typical nonmetallic elements areoxygen, nitrogen, and carbon
For processing, ceramics divide into:1. Crystalline ceramics includes:
Traditional ceramics, such as clay(hydrous aluminum silicates)
Modern ceramics, such as alumina(Al2O3)
2. Glasses mostly based on silica (SiO2)
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Compound formed of repeatingstructural units called mers, whoseatoms share electrons to form verylarge molecules
Three categories:
1. Thermoplastic polymers - can besubjected to multiple heating and coolingcycles without altering molecularstructure
2. Thermosetting polymers - molecules
chemically transform (cure) into a rigidstructure cannot be reheated
3. Elastomers - shows significant elasticbehavior
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Material consisting of two or more
phases that are processed separatelyand then bonded together to achieveproperties superior to its constituents
Phase- homogeneous mass ofmaterial, such as grains of identical
unit cell structure in a solid metal Usual structure consists of particles or
fibers of one phase mixed in a secondphase
Properties depend on components,
physical shapes of components, andthe way they are combined to form thefinal material
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Two basic types:1. Processing operations - transform a work
material from one state of completion to amore advanced state
Operations that change the geometry,properties, or appearance of the startingmaterial
2. Assembly operations - join two or more
components to create a new entity
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Alters a materials shape, physicalproperties, or appearance in order toadd value
Three categories of processingoperations:
1. Shaping operations - alter thegeometry of the starting work material2. Property-enhancing operations -
improve physical properties withoutchanging shape
3. Surface processing operations - toclean, treat, coat, or deposit materialon exterior surface of the work
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1. Solidification processes - startingmaterial is a heated liquid orsemifluid
2. Particulate processing - starting
material consists of powders3. Deformation processes - startingmaterial is a ductile solid(commonly metal)
4.
Material removal processes -starting material is a ductile orbrittle solid
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Starting material is heated sufficiently totransform it into a liquid or highly plasticstate
Examples: metal casting, plastic molding
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Starting materials are powders of metals orceramics
Usually involves pressing and sintering, inwhich powders are first compressed and then
heated to bond the individual particles
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Starting workpart is shaped by application offorces that exceed the yield strength of thematerial
Examples: (a) forging, (b) extrusion
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Excess material removed from thestarting piece so what remains is thedesired geometry
Examples: machining such as turning,
drilling, and milling; also grinding andnontraditional processes
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Desirable to minimize waste in part
shaping Material removal processes are wasteful
in unit operations, simply by the waythey work
Most casting, molding, and particulate
processing operations waste littlematerial
Terminology for minimum wasteprocesses: Net shapeprocesses - when most of the
starting material is used and nosubsequent machining is required
Near net shapeprocesses - when minimumamount of machining is required
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Performed to improve mechanical orphysical properties of work material
Part shape is not altered, exceptunintentionally Example: unintentional warping of a
heat treated part
Examples: Heat treatment of metals and glasses
Sintering of powdered metals andceramics
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Cleaning - chemical andmechanical processes to removedirt, oil, and other contaminantsfrom the surface
Surface treatments - mechanicalworking such as sand blasting,and physical processes likediffusion
Coating and thin film deposition -coating exterior surface of theworkpart
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Two or more separate parts arejoined to form a new entity
Types of assembly operations:1. Joining processes create a
permanent joint
Welding, brazing, soldering, andadhesive bonding
2. Mechanical assembly fastening bymechanical methods
Threaded fasteners (screws, boltsand nuts); press fitting, expansionfits
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People, equipment, and proceduresused for the combination of materialsand processes that constitute a firm'smanufacturing operations
A manufacturing firm must have
systems and procedures to efficientlyaccomplish its type of production
Two categories of production systems: Production facilities Manufacturing support systems
Both categories include people (peoplemake the systems work)
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A company designs its manufacturing
systems and organizes its factories toserve the particular mission of eachplant
Certain types of production facilitiesare recognized as the most appropriatefor a given type of manufacturing:1. Low production 1 to 1002. Medium production 100 to 10,0003. High production 10,000 to >1,000,000
Different facilities are required for eachof the three quantity ranges
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Job shopis the term used for thistype of production facility
A job shop makes low quantities ofspecialized and customizedproducts Products are typically complex, e.g.,
space capsules, prototype aircraft,special machinery
Equipment in a job shop is general
purpose Labor force is highly skilled Designed for maximum flexibility
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Two different types of facility, depending onproduct variety:
Batch production
Suited to hard product variety
Setups required between batches Cellular manufacturing
Suited to soft product variety
Worker cells organized to process parts without
setups between different part styles
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Often referred to as mass production High demand for product
Manufacturing system dedicated tothe production of that product
Two categories of mass production:1. Quantity production
2. Flow line production
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Mass production of single parts on singlemachine or small numbers of machines
Typically involves standard machinesequipped with special tooling
Equipment is dedicated full-time to theproduction of one part or product type
Typical layouts used in quantity productionare process layout and cellular layout
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Multiple machines or workstations arrangedin sequence, e.g., production lines
Product is complex Requires multiple processing and/or assembly
operations Work units are physically moved through the
sequence to complete the product
Workstations and equipment are designed
specifically for the product to maximizeefficiency
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A company must organize itself to
design the processes and equipment,plan and control production, andsatisfy product quality requirements
Accomplished by manufacturing
support systems - people andprocedures by which a companymanages its production operations
Typical departments:
1. Manufacturing engineering2. Production planning and control
3. Quality control
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Figure 1.10 Overview of production system and majortopics in Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing.
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A robotic arm performsunloading and loadingoperation in a turningcenter using a dual gripper
(photo courtesy ofCincinnati Milacron).
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Metal chips fly in a highspeed turning operationperformed on a computernumerical control turningcenter (photo courtesy ofCincinnati Milacron).
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Two welders perform arcwelding on a large steelpipe section (photocourtesy of Lincoln
Electric Company).
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Automated dispensing ofadhesive onto componentparts prior to assembly(photo courtesy of EFD,
Inc.).
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Assembly workers on anengine assembly line(photo courtesy of FordMotor Company).
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Assembly operationson the Boeing 777(photo courtesy ofBoeing Commercial
Airplane Co.).