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Theory into Practice
Methodologies
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Introduction
s Frequent swings of the pendulum
s Language teachers need to aware of
the historical bases ofmethodological options
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Pre-twentieth-CenturyTrends
s Getting learners to use a language vs.getting learners to analyze a language
s
Greek and Latin as lingua francass Renaissance: formal study of the
grammars of Greek and Latin
s European vernaculars grew in prestigeand utility
s J. A. Comenius
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Pre-twentieth-CenturyTrends
s Beginning of 19th century:Grammar-Translation (modern
language as well)s End of 19th century: the Directive
Methods 1886: the International Phonetic
Alphabets Reading Approach in the US
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Pre-twentieth-CenturyTrends
s World War II: Audiolingual LanguageMethod (US); Situational Approach
(Europe)
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Twentieth-CenturyApproaches
s Grammar-Translations Directs
Readings Audiolingual Method (United States)s Oral-Situational (Britain)s Cognitives Affective-Humanistics Comprehension-baseds Communicative
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Twentieth-CenturyApproaches
s Approach: a certain model orresearch paradigm
s Method: a set of proceduress Technique: a classroom device or
activity
s Richards & Rodgers Model:Approach, Design & Procedures
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Reaction to perceivedinadequacies
s Cognitive Approach: Language is rule-governed cognitive behavior (not habitformation)
s Affective-Humanistic Approach: Learninga foreign language is a process of self-realization and of relating to other people
s Comprehension Approach: Languageacquisition occurs if and only if thelearner comprehends meaningful input
s Communicative approach: The purpose of
language is communication
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Designer Methods
s Silent Way (Gattegno 1976)
s Community Language Learning
(Curran 1976)s Total Physical Response (Asher
1977)
s Desuggestopedia (Lozanov 1978)
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Grammar-TranslationMethod (1)
s Classical Method
s The learning of Latin or Greek
s Focus on grammatical rules;Memorization of vocabulary;
Translation of texts;
Doing written exercise
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Grammar-TranslationMethod (2)
s Characteristicss (1) Classes are taught in the mother
tongue.s (2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form
of lists of isolated words.s (3) Long explanation of the intricacies of
grammar are given.s (4) Instruction often focuses on the rules
for putting words together.
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Grammar-TranslationMethod (3)
s (5) Reading of difficult classical texts isbegun early.
s (6) Little attention is paid to the contentof texts.
s (7) Often the only drills are exercises intranslating disconnected sentences fromthe target language into the mothertongue.
s (8) Little or no attention is given topronunciation.
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Grammar-TranslationMethod (4)
s Procedure
s Step 1: The teacher translates red,yellow
,green
,blue
into Chinese.Students read after the teacher.
s Step 2: Students open the book, and theteacher read, The book is red, The
pencil is yellow, It is green, The bag isblue. The students translate thesentences into Chinese.
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Grammar-TranslationMethod (5)
s Step 3: The teacher explains thesentence structure ofS is Color
and It is Color.s Step 4: The teacher says, The box
is green. The door is blue. It is
red.
Students need to translate thesentences.
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Grammar-TranslationMethod (6)
s Influences
s (1) Accuracy
s (2) Translations
s (3) Few specialized skills arerequired on the part of teachers.
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The Direct Method (1)
s The second language learningshould be more like first language
learning lots of oral interaction,spontaneous use of the language, notranslation between first and second
languages, and little or no analysisof grammatical rules.
s The Berlitz Method
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The Direct Method (2)
s Characteristicss (1) Classroom instruction was conducted
exclusively in the target language.s (2) Only everyday vocabulary and
sentence were taught.s (3) Oral communication skills were built
up in a carefully traded progressionorganized around question-and-answerexchanges between teachers andstudents in small, intensive classes.
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The Direct Method (3)
s (4) Grammar was taught inductively.s (5) New teaching points were taught
through modeling and practice.s (6) Concrete vocabulary was taught
through demonstration, objects, andpictures; abstract vocabulary was taughtby association of ideas.
s (7) Both speech and listeningcomprehension were taught.
s (8) Correct pronunciation and grammar
were emphasized.
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The Direct Method (4)
s Procedure
s (1) The teacher holds up cards with
different colors. He points to eachcard and says, It is white. It isblack. It is brown.
s (2) The teacher points to the wall,the hair and the door and keepssaying the sentences.
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The Direct Method (5)
s Influences
s (1) Use target language only
s (2) Use various teaching materials.
s (3) Emphasize on teachingtechniques.
s (4) The importance on oralcommunication.
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The Audio-Lingual Method(1)
s An oral-based approach
s Emphasizing vocabulary acquisition
through exposure to its use insituations
s Army Method / Michigan Method
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The Audio-Lingual Method(2)
s Characteristicss (1) New materials is presented in
dialogue form.s (2) There is dependence on mimicry,
memorization of set phrases and over-learning.
s
(3) Structures are sequenced by means ofcontrastive analysis and taught one at atime.
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The Audio-Lingual Method(3)
s (4) Structural patterns are taughtusing repetitive drills.
s
(5) There is little or no grammaticalexplanation.s (6) Vocabulary is strictly limited and
learned in context.s (8) There is much use of tapes,
language labs, and visual aids.
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The Audio-Lingual Method(4)
s (8) Great importance is attached topronunciation.
s
(9) Very little use of the mother tongueby teachers is permitted.
s (10) Successful responses areimmediately reinforced.
s (11) There is a great effort to getstudents to produce error-free utterances.
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The Audio-Lingual Method(5)
s Procedure
s (1) A dialogue
s (2) Drills
s (3) Role play
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The Audio-Lingual Method(6)
s Influences
s (1) Habit formation
s (2) Drills
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Total Physical Response (1)
s Trace theory of learning: memory isincreased if it is stimulated, or traced,through association with motor activity.
s Associating language with physicalactivity
s Principles of child language acquisition +
Right brain learning + Stress-freelearning
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Total Physical Response (2)
s Characteristics
s (1) Comprehension comes before
production.s (2) Students do a great deal of
listening and acting.
s (3) The teacher is very directive inorchestrating a performance.
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Total Physical Response (3)
s (4) Imperative drills are used toelicit physical actions.
s (5) The objective is to teach oralproficiency to produce learners whocan communicate uninhibitedly and
intelligibly with native speakers.
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Total Physical Response (4)
s Procedures (1) The teacher says, and the teacher
does.
Point to the green (blue, red) card.s (2) The teacher says, and the students
do.s
(3) The students say, and the studentsdo.s (4) The teacher says a series of
commands.
Hold up the black card.Kiss the
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Total Physical Response (5)
s (5) Sing and act
Red, red, red, touch your head.
Blue, blue, blue, tie your shoe.Brown, brown, brown, touch the
ground.White, white, white, take a bite.
(from )
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Total Physical Response (6)
s Influencess (1) Successful second language
learning should be a parallel processto child first language acquisition.s (2) Appropriate activities can
produce stress-free learning.s (3) Learners are encourage to speak
when they feel ready to speak.
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Syllabus
s Structural syllabus: a list ofgrammatical inflections and
constructions (Grammar-Translation/ Direct / Audiolingual / Cognitive)
s Text-based syllabus: texts and
vocabulary items with only minorconsideration given to grammar
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Syllabus
s Notional-Functional syllabus:meanings such as spacial location,
time, degree; social transactionsand interaction such as asking forinformation
s
Communicative syllabus: real-worldtasks and authentic materials
s Learner-generated syllabus (CLL)
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