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Mining andenvironmentin the WesternBalkans
www.envsec.org
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Disclaimer: Te views expressed in this study are those o the authors and do notnecessarily reect views o neither UNEP nor ENVSEC partner organizations or theirmember-countries. Te designations employed and the presentation o material inthis study do not imply the expression o any opinion on the part o the organizationsconcerning the legal status o any country, territory, city or area o its authority, ordelineation o its rontiers and boundaries.
Tis study was initiated by the Environment and Security Initiative (ENV-SEC), a partnership between UNDP, UNEP, OSCE, NA O, UNECEand REC.
Mining and Environment in the Western Balkans is also available as in-teractive map and in ormation lm or urther insight in this subject. Bothare available atwww.envsec.org
UNEP promotesenvironmentally sound practices
globally and in its own activities. Thisreport is printed on 100% recycled paper,using vegetable-based inks and other eco-
friendly practices. Our distribution policy aims toreduce UNEPs carbon footprint.
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Editor Christina Stuhlberger
Cartography Matthias BeilsteinChristina Stuhlberger
Photography UNDP MontenegroPhilip Peck Christina Stuhlberger
ContributorsHarald EgererPhilip Peck Pier Carlo SandeiOtto Simonett
Stewart Williams
Copy editingHarry Forster
Tis study was prepared by Zoi EnvironmentNetwork on behal o UNEP Vienna in the
ramework o the Environment and Security Ini-tiative - South Eastern Europe with support o theAustrian Development Agency (ADA) and theMinistry o Foreign Affairs o Finland.
A special thank you to the many members othe ENVSEC - South Eastern Europe amily andriends o the Balkan who contributed through-
out the years with passion and dedication to thetopic. We are in particular grate ul to UNDPMontenegro and its Western Balkan Environ-ment Programme (WBEP) or the continuousbackstopping in preparation o this study and
ruit ul cooperation in the programme imple-mentation on the ground.
Supervision by UNEP Vienna:Harald Egerer HeadPier Carlo Sandei Associate Programme Officer
Mining andenvironmentin the WesternBalkans
P r o
d u c e d b y Z
o E nv i r onm
ent N
et w or k
www.z o
i n et . or g
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Environmentalproblems atmine sites
Mining andenvironment
PolicyrequirementsThe Mining forClosure principles
18Policy requirements19What is Mining for Closure?21Why governments benetfrom Mining for Closurepractices22Why business benets from
Mining for Closure practices
12Mining and environment
26Environmental problems atmine sites29Mine structures tailingsmanagement facilities32Contaminated mine water37Remediation approaches
Contents
11 17 25
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Remediationexercise
Mining in the Western Balkans
Emergency risk reductionat tailings managementfacilities in Albania
CASE S UDIES
42Mining in the Western Balkans45Situation today49
Albania56Bosnia and Herzegovina60Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia72Montenegro77Serbia82Kosovo (UN administeredTerritory under UNSC 1244)
92Practical approach93Rapid risk-reductioninterventions96Selection criteria98Selected sites
54Elbasan65Bucim68Lojane74Mojkovac-Brskovo80Bor complex
86repca Artana/Novo Brdo88
repca Stan erg/Stari rg mine
41 91
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Over the last ew years UNEP and itsENVSEC partners have been workingto identi y and reduce transboundaryenvironmental risks rom hazardousmining operations in South Eastern Eu-rope, with the ocus on Albania, Bosniaand Herzegovina, the Former YugoslavRepublic o Macedonia, Kosovo ( erri-tory under Interim UN Administration),Montenegro and Serbia.
Tis has been achieved by collecting,analysing and distributing valuable en- vironmental data, acilitating knowledgeexchange, and creating partnershipswithin the region and beyond. Our team
Prefacehas prepared and supported pilot re-mediation projects in the region whichreduce environmental risks at miningsites. In addition, these practical mea-sures help build local capacity in techni-cal, managerial and administrational ap-proaches to tackle other mining sites oenvironmental concern.
Tis document seeks to provide an over- view o the results and experience cre-
ated over this period to acilitate relatedwork in the uture and ensure broaddissemination o the lessons learned toguarantee that the efforts made so ar canbe sustained.
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Mining and Environment
Practically all human societies depend onthe availability and use o mined products.But the expansion o mining operationsinto environmentally sensitive and ragileareas has increased the level o environ-mental destruction and the impact onbasic ecosystem services and biodiversity.
Te mining industry has been involved
in some o the most widely publicizedenvironmental disasters. Well-knownexamples o mining-related environ-mental accidents and long-term dete-rioration include Rio into, a river insouthern Spain, the colliery spoil heap
ailure at Aber an, Wales, or the BaiaMare cyanide spill in Romania.
Mining and mineral processing has playeda vital part in the history and economyo the Western Balkans. Richly endowedwith mineral resources such as copper,chromite, lead and zinc, it boasts some othe largest deposits in Europe. Capitaliz-ing on such mineral assets will be a prior-ity or South Eastern Europe in order to
boost local economies and attract oreigninvestment. o secure the environmental,economic and social sustainability o suchnew or restarted operations, the region willneed to dene and en orce a legal rame-work or sustainable mining practices.
Good practice, research and experiencein policy making, en orcement and tech-nical approaches are all available. In or-mation exchange between South East
Executive summary European countries and internationalpartners trans erring relevant knowledgeto assist local Governments in adoptingsuitable mechanisms and approaches hasbeen shown to be highly valuable.
Policy requirements the Mining for Closureprinciples
All around the world there are examples
o mines that were not properly closed.Some ran out o money be ore completinga cleanup and rehabilitating land, othershad to struggle with ownership issues andconsequently liability and so orth. Regard-less o whether mine legacies were lef byprivate or state-run operations, it is usuallygovernments which must pay or respon-sible mine closure and rehabilitation whereno clear regulations or such sites exist.
New practices have shown that theseproblems and the associated nancialand human costs can be avoided by aprocess o intelligent planning prior tomining or at least well in advance ocessation o mining activities. We call the
avoidance o uture mining legacies viagood planning mining or closure. Oth-ers call it best environmental practice
or mining, integrated mine planningor sustainable mining practice.
Mining or closure involves addressingthe ollowing issues:
dening a vision o the end result ormining land with concrete objectives
or implementation;
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ensuring that the mine closure plan isan integral part o the project li e cycle;
preparing a mine-closure plan early inthe process o mine development andin consultation with the regulatory au-thority and local communities;
explicitly including environmen-tal, social and economic issues whenplanning mining operations;
allowing or review and change ex-tending rom the pre-mine planningphase, through construction, mining,and mine closure to post-mine stew-
ardship.Environmental problemsat mine sites
Waste, Air pollution, Adverse impact on land use and bio-
diversity, Water pollution and availability, Hazardous materials, Noise and vibration, Energy use, Visual impacts.
Transboundary impactsIt has been demonstrated that waterways
(uvial transport) are the dominant vec-tor or exposure, at all levels o interest.Airborne toxic emissions rom smelterstransported in the atmosphere, whichconstitute a second vector, also havebeen a very signicant issue in the past.However, in the Western Balkans nu-merous smelter operations have ceasedoperations. In general the regional andtransboundary importance o airborneemissions seems to have decreased in
importance. A third important vectorappears to be toxic-particulate pollutanttransport as dust, which has a largely lo-cal or sub-regional effect.
Tailings management facilitiesailings are the ne-grained waste mate-
rial remaining afer the metals and min-erals have been recovered (extracted)
rom mineral ores via various technicalprocesses. ailings management acili-ties ( MF), also ofen re erred to moresimply as tailings dams, tailings ponds or
tailings impoundments, are waste storagesites or milling and extraction residuesand some o the most common sites oconcern in relation to mining activity at asite. MFs are associated with two mainareas o risk or the environment. Te rstis the potential or losing large volumes owater and/or tailings in a large-scale ail-ure. Te second relates to the eco-toxicityo the tailings themselves.
Common technical problems at tailingsmanagement acilities comprise:
Water-diversion structure ailures, Overtopping ailures, Chronic leakage o pollution.
Contaminated mine waterTe potential toxicity o mine water andits adverse affects on the environment canbe ascribed to our characteristics com-mon in such effluents: acidity, iron and itsprecipitates, trace metals (e.g. cadmium,zinc, copper, lead etc.) and turbidity.
Mine water prevention
Te goal o mine water prevention is tominimize contaminant release. Tis can
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be achieved by excluding one or more othe actors relevant to mine water gen-eration. Te essential components orsulphide weathering are sulphide miner-als, water and oxygen.
Passive prevention o pollutant releaseis achieved by the sur ace or subsur aceinstallation o physical barriers whichinhibit pollution-generating chemicalreactions and/or prevent the migrationo existing polluted water.
Re-mining may be another viable optionat mining sites in South Eastern Europeas much mine waste has a relatively highconcentration o marketable material dueto the inefficient metal extraction process-es applied at the time o ore beneciation.In some instances the revenue rom suchoperations could cover part o the expenseo remediation measures or the site, thus
acilitating urther improvement.
Active and passive treatmentWater treatment prevents distribution othe contaminants into the environment.It is considered an end-o -pipe tech-nology, so treatment applications are nota genuinely sustainable solution to the
problem. But it is ofen the only solutionwhere generation o contaminated efflu-ents cannot be avoided.
Active treatment techniques rely on con- ventional, well-recognized technologyand are regarded as proven technology.Tey have been implemented or de-cades all over the world and the experi-ence gained over time has led to reliabletechniques.
Passive treatment schemes rely onnaturally occurring processes to im-prove the quality o the inuent waterswith minimal operation and mainte-nance requirements. Tese processesare chemical, biological and physical innature. Te aim is to provide such con-ditions where the highest removal rate
or a particular contaminant can beachieved.
Mining sites in the Western Balkans
Te mineral extraction industries, whichocus primarily on mining or base and
precious metals and metallurgy, havehad a long history in the Western Bal-kans. In the period up to the early 1990s,mining, minerals processing and down-stream exploitation o the base metalsintroduced above, established the regionas a major European source o copper,lead, and zinc. Te region, and in par-ticular Albania, was also a major worldproducer o chromate.
Tough traces o very old mining exploi-tation and metallurgy are still visible inmany places and likely to contribute to
the environmental risk o mining sites insome ways, it is the more recent activitieswhich have lef the most serious mininglegacy or the region.
Tousands o old abandoned or or-phaned sites are scattered all over theregion. On such sites, with no liable le-gal owner, the necessary measures toclose the site (stabilization, water man-agement, replanting o vegetation, etc.),
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minimize the risk o accidents and pre- vent environmental pollution have ofennot been taken. aking them now is veryexpensive.
Coping with this situation is com-plicated, with a large number o siteswith serious environmental impacts,high remediation costs and the liableowners missing. In most cases the gov-ernment is held accountable. But thehuge nancial liability attached to anysystematic rehabilitation programme
represents a challenge that ar exceedsthe nancial or organizational resourceso any one regional actor. Te situationis urther aggravated by the lack o ex-pertise required to take practical respon-sibility or dealing with abandoned sitesand the associated issues.
Governments in South Eastern Europeare in the process o preparing andimplementing mine privatization andclosure. Tis seems to constitute a goodopportunity to clean up a substantialnumber o mining sites as part o newand ongoing operations. As such, the re-opening o sites with modern industrialpractices, as stipulated by the European
Union in its BREF documents, couldmake urgently required mitigation andrehabilitation much more easible thanwas thought a ew years ago.
Remediation exercise Emergency risk reductionat tailing managementfacilities in Albania
Tree priority sites in Albania Fushe-Arrez, Reps and Rreshen were chosen
or more detailed investigation, with thedenition o appropriate risk-reductioninterventions as pilot activities or theregion. All three mining sites comprisenon-operational tailings management a-cilities ( MF) that display severe signs o
instability, leakage and ailure. Te resultsare presented in the ollowing section.
o reduce the risk o urther destabiliza-tion and uncontrolled release o miningwaste short to medium-term interven-tions were identied as the most easibleway o improving the situation at thesites. When developing easible interven-tions it is also essential to make allow-ance or the limited availability o bothtechnical and nancial capacities.
Serious environmental and public healthimplications o the selected sites:
widespread pollution o rivers due tochronic erosion and release o con-
taminated waters, and larger acuteailure events; waterways signicantly affected by
pollution rom the sites; all rivers ow through populated areas
and are used or irrigation during thesummer months;
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Mining and
environment
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Almost all societies depend on the avail-ability and use o mined products suchas minerals and metals. Tey are the ba-sis o our wealth and ensure economicdevelopment all over the world. But theexpansion o mining operations intoenvironmentally sensitive and ragileareas has increased the level o environ-mental destruction and the impact onbasic ecosystem services and biodiver-sity. Furthermore, inadequate provision
or closure and post-closure is leaving agrowing number o abandoned and/ororphan mining sites around the world.
As a result, mining and environment areofen seen as antithetical and many con-sider sustainable mining a contradictionin terms. Afer all mining entails the ex-ploitation o non-renewable resources.Depending on its denition, sustainablemining may re er to the extraction o min-eral resources rom the earth in a mannerthat allows this activity to continue in-denitely. However in this work, sustain-ability in mining applies to policies andpractices that preserve the environment,protect indigenous cultures, and promote
the wel are o local communities.Tere is nothing new about mining giv-ing rise to environmental concerns. In1550, in the rst European textbook onmines and quarries, the scholar and min-er Georgius Agricola wrote:
Te strongest argument of the detractors isthat the elds are devastated by mining op-erations And when the woods and groves
Mining and environmentare felled, then are exterminated the beastsand birds Further, when the ores arewashed, the water which has been used poi-sons the brooks and streams, and either de-stroys the sh or drives them away ... Tusit is said, it is clear to all that there is greaterdetriment from mining than the value of themetals which the mining produces.
Te mining industry has been involved insome o the most widely publicized envi-
ronmental disasters. One well-known ex-ample o a mining-related environmentalaccident and long-term deterioration isRio into, a river in southern Spain. Re-search suggests that ancient (and mod-ern) mining activities around the Rio
into have caused highly acidic condi-tions in the entire river system creatinghostile living conditions and high con-centrations o heavy metals which havepersisted or millennia. During the 20thcentury mining accidents caused deathand injuries all over the world. In 1966the collapse o a colliery spoil heap in Ab-er an, Wales, killed 144 people, including116 children. Numerous catastrophic re-leases o toxic materials have occurred in
the Balkans, one o the most high-prolebeing the ailure o the Baia Mare tailingsdam in Romania. In January 2000 the a-cility overowed, releasing 100,000 cubicmetres o cyanide-contaminated efflu-ent into the isza river. By the time theoverow was detected, the heavily con-taminated waste water had reached theDanube and was on its way to Hungaryand beyond. Large quantities o cyanideentered the drinking water o numerous
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towns in seven countries and water sup-plies serving thousands o people andagriculture. races o cyanide, albeit at a very low level, could still be detected inthe river water when it reached the BlackSea two weeks later.
But exploitation o mineral resources canyield great benets or the population,with scope or economic growth and re-gional development. When proper allow-ance is made or environmental and sa etyconcerns, with appropriate environmen-
tal management and contingency plan-ning measures, the benets or popula-tion and environment can be maximized.
Such experience has not only raised en- vironmental awareness but also expecta-tions or the environmental per ormanceo mining operations and o the envi-ronmental quality o areas affected bymining in the past. Changing social de-mands have prompted signicant im-provements in regulatory requirementsand mining practice in many countriesworldwide. Many miners have introducedmanagement policies, practices and tech-nologies that markedly reduce the en- vironmental damage done by mining.
When taken alongside the growing will topreserve land as a repository or valuablebiological assets, natural environmentalservices and aesthetic appeal, these devel-opments appear likely to drive continuingimprovement in mining practice.
In the past communities ofen thought theonly choice was whether or not to mine adeposit, but now the way a mine is plannedcan substantially change or the better the
scale and duration o impacts over the li eo the development and ollowing its clo-sure. As part o this positive trend, mineplanning, closure practices and conducto operations to acilitate environmentallyand socially acceptable closure have alsochanged signicantly in recent years.
Tis is o particular relevance to the West-ern Balkan states, comprising Albania, Bos-nia and Herzegovina, the Former YugoslavRepublic o Macedonia, Kosovo ( erritoryunder Interim UN Administration), Mon-
tenegro and Serbia). Mining and mineralprocessing has played a vital role in thehistory and economy o the region. Richlyendowed with mineral resources such ascopper, chromite, lead and zinc, it boastssome o the largest deposits in Europe.In the 20th century the mining industryplayed a vital role in ormer Yugoslaviaand Albania but with the disintegration othe Yugoslav common market, economicconditions in the region deteriorated andin the early 1990s the Balkan economy de-clined sharply. Industrial output droppedsignicantly, with a widespread shutdowno operations such as mining. In environ-mental terms this cuts both ways. Withthe dramatic drop in industrial output,
pollution decreased. But at the same timeplants were either abandoned or priva-tized under conditions that did not clearlyestablish environmental liability.
Tis lef a vast legacy o orphaned1 andabandoned2 mines scattered across theregion with signicant environmental
1. Mines or which the owner cannot be ound.2. Mines or which the owner is nancially unable orunwilling to carry out clean-up.
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risks requiring remediation. Tese envi-ronmental legacies are among the mostwidespread environmental concerns inthe Western Balkans. A wide range omining sites do not meet todays stan-dards or sustainable mine management.Environmental problems, such as waterand soil pollution rom heavy metals,
are the result o sub-standard operationsand improper mine closure.
oday mining and quarrying accountsor only 1.2% o total GDP in the West-
ern Balkans. But the potential remainswith numerous reserves awaiting exploi-tation. Capitalizing on such mineral as-sets will be a priority or South EasternEurope in order to boost local economiesand attract oreign investment. o secure
the environmental, economic and socialsustainability o such new or restartedoperations, the region will need to deneand en orce a legal ramework or sus-tainable mining practices. Tis will alsoinclude mine planning and mine closurerequirements to avoid urther environ-mental legacies in the uture. For the leg-
acies that already exist, solutions need tobe ound to address the technical, nan-cial and administrative problems whichinhibit appropriate risk reduction andmonitoring at the sites.
Leading mining nations have built up awide array o good practice, experienceand research in policy making, en orce-ment and technical approaches. Interna-tional partners can provide valuable sup-
B l
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
D a n u b e
Sardinia
Corsica
S i c i l y
(France)
(Italia)
A U S T R I A
S L O V A K I A
H U N G A R Y
C R O A T I A
BOSNIA ANDHERZEGOVINA
S L O V E N I A
S E R B I A
MONTENEGRO
A L B A N I A
F.Y.R. of MACEDONIA
B U L G A R I A
R O M A N I A
U K R A I N E
T U R K E YG R E E C E
MALTA
MONACO
LIECHTENSTEIN
SAN MARINO
VATICAN CITY
S W I T Z E R L A N D
M O L D O V A
I T A L Y
Antalya
Bursa
Kosovo
Berne
Rome
Vienna
Ljubljana Zagreb
Bratislava
Budapest
Sarajevo
Belgrade
Chisinau
Bucharest
Sofia
SkopjePodgorica
Tirana
Athens
Munich
Istanbul
Izmir
Thessaloniki
Lviv
MilanTurin
Naples
Palermo
Zurich
GenoaVenice
Cagliari
Ajaccio
Triesdorf
Salzburg
Heraklion
Burgas
Brashov
Tunis
Map produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010
0 200 400 kmMediterranean Sea basin Black Sea basin
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port to South East European countriesby trans erring related knowledge andassisting Governments to adopt suitablemechanisms and approaches. Te inter-national community will be needed to
1995
1 000
2 000
3 000
4 000
5 000
6 000
7 000
8 000
9 000
10 000
11 000
12 000
13 000
14 000
1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
F.Y.R. of .Macedonia
Albania
Bosnia andHerzegovina
Serbia
Slovenia
Croatia
RomaniaBulgariaMontenegro
Source: The World Bank, Washington DC.Note: In 2006, Serbia and Montenegro split to form independent states
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capitaIn constant USD (2000)
support this knowledge exchange, pro- vide access to in ormation and acilitatedemonstrations o environmental reme-diation on the ground.
UNEP and its partners have establisheda targeted programme to reduce trans-boundary environmental and humansa ety risks posed by sub-standard min-ing and mineral processing operations both active and abandoned in SouthEastern Europe. Related work has beenassessed and a wide range o mining
sites in the Western Balkans prioritized.Mining sites were visited and analyzed,accompanied by mining experts romCanada, Germany and Australia. Tishas resulted in detailed remediationplanning or several mining sites whichwill serve as a pilot exercise or similarsites in the region. Mining sites havealso been addressed as part o the indus-trial hotspots project carried out by theUNDP-led Western Balkans Environ-ment Programme with the support o theDutch Government and others.
Te ndings o this work in the regioncreate unique possibilities or improvedenvironmental management and envi-
ronmental protection throughout theregion built on past experience and newinsights as well as regional partnerships.
o capitalize on these outcomes and in-crease their benets, this approach needsto continue, taking into consideration im-portant developments such as the recentglobal economic slowdown and increasedunderstanding o climate change impactswhich may pose novel threats, hinderingefforts to improve the situation.
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U K R A I N E
R O M A N I A
S E R B I AB U L G A R I A
MONTENEGROKosovo
G R E E C ET U R K E Y
I T A L Y
S L O V A K I A S L O V A K I AU K R A I N E
R O M A N I A
YUGOSLAVIA B U L G A R I A
SLOVENIA
BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
C R O A T I ASLOVENIA
BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
C R O A T I A
MACEDONIA
MOLDOVA MOLDOVA
G R E E C ET U R K E Y
I T A L Y
S O V I E T U N I O N
R O M A N I A
Y U G O S L A V I A
G R E E C ET U R K E Y
I T A L Y
A U S T R I A A U S T R I A
H U N G A R Y
A U S T R I A A U S T R I A
H U N G A R Y H U N G A R Y
H U N G A R Y
CZECHOSLOVAKIA CZECHOSLOVAKIASOVIET UNION
R O M A N I A
Y U G O S L A V I A
G R E E C ET U R K E Y
I T A L Y
POLAND
A U S T R I A - H U N G A R Y
S E R B I A B U L G A R I A
B U L G A R I AB U L G A R I A
ALBANIA
ALBANIAALBANIA
ALBANIAMACEDONIA
FYR of
ALBANIA
G R E E C EO T T O M A N
I T A L Y
MONTENEGRO
E M P I R E
A U S T R I A - H U N G A R Y
R U S S I A R U S S I A
R O M A N I A R O M A N I A
S E R B I A
O T T O M A N E M P I R EI T A L Y
MONTENEGRO
FYR of
ViennaBudapest
Zagreb
Sarajevo
Belgrade
Sofia
Bucharest
Budapest
Bratislava Bratislava
Zagreb
Sarajevo
Belgrade
Chisinau Chisinau
SofiaSkopje Skopje
Bucharest
Istanbul Istanbul
Budapest
Zagreb
Sarajevo
Belgrade
Sofia
Bucharest
Istanbul
Vienna
Vienna
Ljubljana Ljubljana
ViennaBudapest
Zagreb
Sarajevo
Belgrade
Sofia
Bucharest
Constantinople
ViennaBudapest
Zagreb
SarajevoBelgrade
Sofia
Bucharest
Constantinople
ViennaBudapest
Zagreb
Sarajevo
Cetinje CetinjeTirana
Tirana
Tirana TiranaPodgorica Pristina
Tirana
Belgrade
Sofia
Bucharest
Constantinople
Occupied by Austria-Hungary
20101995Dayton Agreement
1945After World War II1923Treaty of Lausanne
1913After the Balkan Wars
1878Congress of Berlin
Development of national boundaries in South Eastern Europe
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Policy
requirementsThe Mining forClosure principles
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Economic growth is still the main crite-rion or social development so ecologicalprinciples are ofen neglected. It cannotbe expected that mining operations willbecome completely environmentallyneutral but with environmentally soundplanning and increasing economic ca-pacity, the chances are that mining aswell as overall environmental stan-dards will substantially increase in theWestern Balkans.
Country-specic reviews o the en- vironment show that mining-relatedproblems, in particular mine water is-sues, are amongst the most severe andwidespread. Short and long-term pollu-tion rom active and abandoned mines
Policy requirementsis one o the most serious threats to thewater environment in South EasternEurope.
With numerous ore deposits in SouthEastern Europe still unexploited or un-sustainably developed in both technicaland environmental terms, considerablewealth with high added value may bederived rom systematic exploitation othe deposits or restructuring o indus-
trial activities. Exploitation o the orecould promote the development o thisregion, which has endured poverty, warand political instability in the past. Ex-traction industries are in this sense vitaland despite their numerous environ-mental implications.
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All around the world one can nd exam-ples o mines that were not closed prop-erly, or ran out o money be ore comple-tion o cleanup and rehabilitation o land.Developed nations, as well as the devel-oping and emerging economies, ace de-cades, i not centuries o work with theclean-up o mines and mining debris.Te Western Balkans is a prime exampleo a region acing such challenges.
Regardless o whether state-run opera-tions or the private sector lef mininglegacies, it is usually governments thatmust pay or responsible mine closureand rehabilitation. Governments usuallyhave to pay the social costs lef behind byclosing mines too.
However, new types o practice in lead-ing mining nations have shown that theseproblems and the associated nancial andhuman costs are ofen avoidable. Tis re-quires a process o intelligent planning pri-or to mining or at least well in advanceo cessation o mining activities. We callthe avoidance o uture mining legacies via good planning mining or closure.
Others call it best environmental practiceor mining, integrated mine planning orindeed sustainable mining practice.
Regardless o the name, a growing num-ber o countries have shown that suchgoals can be achieved through soundgovernance. In short, corporate prac-tice, regulatory rameworks, governanceguidelines, nancial markets and insur-ance sectors can be developed to support
What is Mining for Closure?a modern mining industry and protectthe environment and society. Moreover,there is increasing evidence that win-winsituations are possible i done the rightway, mining or closure can benet theState, society and mining companies.
Success ul mining or closure requiresplanning or the entire li e cycle o amine and the environmental and socialeffects o the operation. In its simplest
orm, this means the mine closure planshould be an integral part o the projectli e cycle and be ramed to ensure that:
uture public health and sa ety are notcompromised;
environmental and resources are notsubject to physical and chemical dete-rioration;
the afer-use o the site is benecialand sustainable in the long term;
any adverse socio-economic impactsare minimized; and
socio-economic benets are maximized.
It also requires legislators to strictly ap-ply the polluter-pays principle, withmine operators setting nancial resourc-
es aside be ore and during mine opera-tion to pay or the costs o closure.
Te role o government is to ensure that theexpectations o all stakeholders are met.Furthermore, it should be borne in mindthat stakeholder expectations are inherent-ly uid and that in the Western Balkans the views and demands o social stakeholdersare likely to become much more importantin coming years than at present.
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denes the end result or mining land and sets orth concrete objectives orimplementation;
ensures that the mine closure plan is an integral part o the project li e cycle; prepares the mine closure plan early in the process o mine development and in
consultation with the regulating authority and local communities; explicitly includes environmental, social and economic aspects in planning or
mining operations; allows or review and evolution stretching rom the pre-mine planning phase,
through construction, mining and mine closure to post-mine stewardship.
As more specic items, such processes should incorporate:
the concerns and participation o other stakeholders in reclamation objectives; plans or action i ownership reverts to the state despite all efforts to ensure
otherwise; the preservation o mine management and geological records; early delineation o project creditors claims on the site; legal considerations or ownership, both now and in the past;. maintenance o control over tenure i leases expire and another party wants to
obtain rights to the sur ace or sub-sur ace; adequate capacity among regulatory personnel; ongoing research and testing o remediation strategies and technologies and in-
tegration o results in mining or closure review processes; surveillance o the views and desires or the involvement o local communities
(in particular where such parties wish to check the quality o in ormation theyare receiving demanding a role in site-monitoring and access to in ormationto ensure accountability o the operator and governments, or example);
the maintenance o communication between private and public bodies to im-
prove closure policy and regulations; ongoing searches or nancing measures or clean-up; disaster response; spills
management and so orth, particularly or orphaned sites.
Te Mining for Closure approach...
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A vibrant mining sector can yield manybenets to a country with mineral re-sources. For the Western Balkans themining sector has long been an integraland vital part o its industrial in rastruc-ture. oday, in the light o economicrestructuring and industrial moderniza-tion, the mineral resources o the regionmay again become important contribu-
tors to economic development.However the environmental and socialcosts associated with past mining activi-ties have lef intractable and expensivelegacies in environmental and socialterms. As the shutdown o mines hasbeen relatively sudden and unplanned,the State has been lef responsible orproper mine closure and rehabilitationo mines.
Despite the reality o such difficulties,work in leading mining countries aroundthe world has clearly demonstrated thatmany o the legacy issues associated withmining can be prevented. It has also
been shown that as long as a mine con-tinues to operate, its subsequent legacycan be reduced. Indeed there is growinginternational expectation that miningcompanies will always dealt with suchlegacies while they are still mining. Fu-ture mining legacies can be prevented bymining or closure activities and princi-ples. Prevention is easible and desirable via sound governance. Governmentsshould ocus on preventive measures
Why governments benet fromMining for Closure practices
i society is to benet rom a countrysmineral resources.
Some o the advantages or Governmentsyielded by mining or closure methods
all within the ollowing broad categories: lower nancial burden on the national
purse or mine closure and rehabilita-tion;
lower risks or signicant post-closureliabilities; prevention o harm ul environmental
and social impacts and reduction othe signicant associated costs;
lower risk o non-compliances by op-erators;
greater acceptance and/or lower re-sistance rom key stakeholders (inparticular local communities and landowners) to plans to open new mines,re urbish old mines, change land-use etc.;
improved national access to projectnance on reputable international -nance markets.
In the context o developing and restruc-turing economies such preventive strat-egies are just as relevant as or leadingmining nations the jurisdictions thatalready benet rom such approaches.But i governments lack sufficient s-cal resources to deal with legacies, evengreater invention and exibility will ob- viously be needed to protect the publicand the environment rom the hazardslef by mining legacies.
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Te mining or closure approach placesa number o demands on mining com-panies. It requires achievement o manyplanning items, many types o reha-bilitation work, and consideration o anumber o social parameters that havenot traditionally been carried out bymine operators. On the contrary gov-ernments have had to pick up the costs
afer mines stopped working. Amongother things, mining or closure requiresconcrete targets to be set or how siteswill be closed long be ore closure isanticipated; it requires ongoing site re-habilitation during mining operations;it demands explicit inclusion o envi-ronmental, social and economic issues
Why business benets fromMining for Closure practices
in planning o mining operations. Tepolluter-pays principle means miningenterprises are responsible or the costso damage their activities cause this isthe best incentive or such damage to beavoided in a cost-effective manner. Ac-countability or all or a signicant part othe environmental and social impacts omining is thus the new norm or mining
organizations.Initially mining companies may retortthat such demands will make it difficultto run a competitive mining business.Fortunately, the costs and benets aredynamic and i mines are operated intel-ligently they may still be competitive.
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Leading mining companies worldwidehave shown that it also makes good busi-ness sense to adopt best environmentalpractice in mining, and mine or closure.Among other things, this is a vital argu-ment or governments to have in mindwhen engaging in the privatization pro-cess. Importantly or mining organizations,these benets are apparent during miningoperations and at the end o a mines li e.
Te benets or mining companies all theway through a mine service li e include:
steady reduction in liability by opti-mizing rehabilitation work during theproductive phase o mining operationsrather than de erring costs to the endo the project, with required rehabili-tation achieved at a lower overall cost;
increased efficiency in execution owork (reduction o double-handling
As mine decommissioning usually occurs at a stage in the li e o an operation whenthe economically viable recovery o minerals has ceased, and cash ows are minimalor non-existent, it is no time to be undertaking the bulk o rehabilitation operations.
Te mine decommissioning process should be integrated with the overall mine-operation planning process. Te best actors to rehabilitate a mine site are com-monly the operators. Tey can achieve the best result at the lowest cost. Te besttime or this to be planned is be ore the impacts occur, and the best time or reha-bilitation activities to be carried out is during the mines service li e. Furthermore,i decommissioning and closure are not undertaken in a planned and effectivemanner, the results will very probably also be sub-standard.
While the benets o such methods are maximized when planning or the start o
a new mine, experience has shown that tangible benets also exist or mines thathave operated or many years. It is never too late to start.
Integrated mine closure planning
or waste materials and topsoil, costsavoided in spoil-dump re control,etc.);
lower ongoing responsibilities or thesite and easier timely relinquishmento tenements and bond recovery;
lower risk o regulatory non-compli-ances and less exposure to contingentliabilities linked to public sa ety andenvironmental hazards and risks;
greater acceptance and/or less resis-tance or mining operations rom keystakeholders (in particular local com-
munities and land owners) throughlower environmental, social and eco-nomic impacts on local communities
rom mine operations; improved access to capital rom repu-
table lending institutions and poten-tial reduction in cost o capital andliability insurance.
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Environmental
problems atmine sites
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Waste
Mines generate large volumes o waste,involving materials that must be removedto gain access to the mineral resource,such as topsoil, overburden and wasterock, as well as tailings remaining aferminerals have been largely extracted romthe ore. Some o this waste is inert andconsequently unlikely to be a signicant
environmental hazard apart rom smoth-ering river beds and the risk o collapse istored in large quantities. However other
ractions, in particular those generated bythe non- errous metal mining industry,may contain large quantities o dangeroussubstances, such as heavy metals.
Structures such as waste dumps, tailingsimpoundments and/or dams, and con-tainment acilities should be planned,designed, and operated in such a waythat geotechnical risks and environmen-tal impacts are appropriately assessedand managed all the way through themine cycle.
Water use and quality Management o water use and qualityin and around mine sites can be a sig-nicant issue. Potential contaminationo water sources may occur early in themine cycle during the exploration stageand many actors including indirect im-pacts (e.g. population migration) can re-sult in negative impacts to water quality.Trough the extraction and subsequentprocessing o minerals, metals and metal
Environmental problems atmine sites
compounds tend to become chemicallymore available, which can result in acidor alkaline drainage. Reduction o sur-
ace and groundwater availability is alsoa concern at the local level and or com-munities in the vicinity o mining sites,particularly, in arid regions, or in regionso high agricultural potential.
Land use and biodiversity Habitat alteration is one o the mostsignicant potential threats to biodiver-sity associated with mining. It may oc-cur at any stage in the mine cycle withthe greatest potential or temporary orpermanent alteration o terrestrial andaquatic habitats during construction andoperation. Additionally, exploration o -ten requires the construction o accessroutes, transportation corridors andtemporary camps to house workers, allo which may result in land-clearing andpopulation inux to a varying extent.
Air quality Managing ambient air quality at mine
sites is important at all stages o the minecycle. Airborne emissions may occurduring each stage o the mine cycle, butparticularly during exploration, develop-ment, construction and operation. Temain sources include dust escaping romblasting, exposed sur aces such as tail-ings acilities, stockpiles, waste dumps,haul roads and in rastructure, and to alesser extent, gases rom combustion o
uels in equipment and vehicles.
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Hazardous materialsHazardous materials may be used at various stages o mineral extraction, orexample cyanide or gold leaching. Suchmaterials should be handled, stored andtransported in such a way as to avoidleaks, spills or other types o acciden-tal release into soils, sur ace water andgroundwater resources.
Other environmental concerns includenoise and vibration, energy use and vi-sual impacts created by mining opera-
tions.Transboundary pollution
Mining and minerals processing op-erations share a number o pathways inwhich the surrounding environmentand communities can be exposed to theharm ul effects o pollutants which canbe o transboundary nature. Once pol-lution travels across boundaries, it addsthe potential or political conict be-tween the affected countries. Relevanttransboundary pathways include:
airborne transport o pollutants such asdust, smelter emissions, gases, vapours;
mass movement o solid wastes(generally tailings containing heavymetals and toxic compounds);
mass movement o liquid, or semi-liquid wastes (again, generally tailingscontaining heavy metals and toxiccompounds);
waterborne transport o wastes assuspended solids and as dissolvedmaterials.
It has shown that the dominant pathwayo exposure at all levels o interest is
via waterways (uvial transport). A sec-ond exposure pathway, airborne toxicemissions rom smelters transportedin the atmosphere, has been a very sig-nicant issue in the past. However, asa number o smelter operations haveceased operations, or are closed untilsuch time that acceptable levels o emis-sion can be achieved through upgradingo plant, the regional and transbound-ary importance o airborne emissionsappear to have generally reduced inimportance. A third important pathwayappears to be toxic particulate pollutanttransport as dust this is a largely localand sub-regional effect.
Fluvial transport mechanisms or tailings wastes have a pivotal importance orboth regional and transboundary pollution risk in the Western Balkans. Tisbears several implications with it. o name but a ew very large volumes o ma-terials can be involved with catastrophic damage to downstream land, propertyand ecosystems associated with the physical impacts o such accidents; biochemi-cal, and eco-toxicological effects o these pollutants can be catastrophic and canextend ar beyond the zone physically affected by such materials; the physical andbiochemical, and eco-toxicological effects can be long term.
Te importance of river transport
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ailings management acilities, also o -ten re erred to more simply as tailingsdams, are waste storage sites or millingand extraction residues and some o themost common sources o concern in re-lation to mining activity at a site.
ailings are the ne-grained waste mate-rial remaining afer the metals and miner-
als have been recovered (extracted) rommineral ores via various technical pro-cesses. Te material is rejected at the tailend o the process with a particle sizenormally ranging rom 10 m to 1.0 mm.
A tailings management acility ( MF)includes all the structures which dealwith tailings: the tailings dam, tail-ings impoundment, clarication ponds,stormwater diversion structures, deliv-ery pipelines and so on. Many environ-mental problems in mining are related totailings management and storage as their volume and contaminant content can be very high and securing the structures re-liability a major challenge.
Te MF is used to contain tailings andgenerally includes a tailings dam (im-poundment and pond), decant struc-tures and spillways. Te tailings damcomprises embankments, dam walls orother impounding structures designedto retain tailings and process water, andallow tailings to settle. A MF should becare ully designed and built under closesupervision.
Mine structures tailingsmanagement facilities
As can be seen rom the descriptionabove, a MF is an important engi-neered structure. Indeed, it represents alarge capital investment and an integralpart o mining and mineral processingactivities. Its proper operation is a key
actor in the overall operation o a suc-cess ul mining project and its industrialprocesses. But the difference between
the MF and mining activities as suchis that the MF and the associated risksremain afer the mining project ends.As such, there are several reasons orconcern with MFs particularly acil-ities which were not care ully designedand built, or have been lef or any pe-riod o time without monitoring andmaintenance.
MFs entail two main areas o environ-mental risk: rst its potential or losinglarge volumes o water and/or tailingsin a large scale ailure; secondly the eco-toxicity o the tailings themselves. Teycontain the remains o complex mineralor metal compounds which could not
be removed, and ofen residual processchemicals that may be toxic in them-selves. Te effluents rom tailings damsare ofen either markedly acidic or alka-line and generally carry dissolved metalsor other contaminants.
Tere is growing understanding that en- vironmental degradation o national andtransboundary watercourses, interna-tional lakes and seas can be caused by un-
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intended large scale movement o hazard-ous materials as a result o MF ailures;these can have ar-reaching consequences
or the environment and environmentalservices, or human health and the socialacceptance o mining activities.
Furthermore there is growing aware-ness that all categories o MF pose
such risks: active, idle or inactive, ne-glected, temporarily or permanentlyclosed, abandoned or orphaned. Ashas been mentioned, there is particu-lar concern regarding the large numbero neglected, abandoned or orphaned
MFs where active monitoring ormaintenance is not being undertaken inthe Western Balkans.
Dam wall
Tailings drainage
Tailings(coarse)
Tailings(fine)
Process water
Seepage
Tailingsinfeed
Water decant structure
Surface water
collection damWater diversion
Produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010
Produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010
Tailings management facility
Surface runoff Infiltration into soiland groundwater
Evaporation
Precipitation
Seepage through
dam wall
Drainingsystem
Tailings
Processwater
Seepage belowdam
Dam wall
Tailingsinfeed
Waterdecantstructure
Tailings management facility - cross section
Surface water collection dam Water
diversion
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Frequent technical prob-lems at tailings dams
Water diversion structure failureso obtain a structure that will actually
hold tailings, water inows such as sur-ace runoff and streams must be diverted
to limit seepage and erosion. A dam maythere ore be built upstream rom the tail-ings, with a channel (tailrace) or pipe tocarry inow around, or in some cases un-der, the tailings impoundment. Problemsgenerally arise with such diversion struc-
tures when they are not maintained orwhen ooding occurs that exceeds theirdesign capacity. With time lack o main-tenance leads to increasingly poor per or-mance as structures ll with sediment orleak and erode. Tis is ollowed by even-tual ailure. A ood event on the otherhand can lead to immediate ailure. Whenwater is no longer diverted away rom the
MF, new types o problems arise.
Decant structure problemsDe ective decant systems affect the nextline o de ence in a MF. Under nor-mal operating conditions a MF decantstructure is supposed to prevent the levelo liquid (generally contaminated water
called supernatant) rom rising abovea certain level, compromising structuralstability o the dam (or overtopping o thedam crest). I the pipes or ductwork in thedecant structure are blocked or not largeenough to remove liquid ows into thedam, then the level continues to rise.
Overtopping failures
Overtopping ailures occur when waterbuilds up in a MF to a level higher than
the dam crest. Several things can occur atthis point. In some tailings dams, the crest
may have a spillway allowing the water tocascade over the top without eroding thestructure o the dam itsel . In such cases, aslong as the structural stability o the damitsel is not threatened by the high waterlevels (with potential saturation o the damstructure), a ailure can be avoided. But inmany cases the dam crest is not designedto cope with overtopping. Te water ow-ing over the structure quickly erodes thematerial o the dam wall. Depending onthe volume and speed o the ow tailingsmaterial is then carried downstream. Insome cases, the whole dam may ail.
Chronic leakage of pollutionChronic leakage re ers to ongoing ows
o effluents or transportation o waste inrelatively small quantities. An ecosystemmay be able to assimilate one such ow,but the net result o many such ows inparticular over a long period o time may well exceed that capacity. Day aferday the effluents rom substandard MFscarry acidic water containing dissolvedmetals. Tese ows enter river systemsand eventually the sea, making water un-suitable or agricultural or public use.
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Contaminated mine water, ofen re erredto Acid Mine Drainage (AMD), can be aconsequence o mining coal or mineraldeposits. A large amount o scientic re-search has been conducted to determinethe chemical reactions that create acid-ity and lead to the precipitation o dis-solved metals, but despite improvementsin prediction and prevention methods,acid mine drainage problems persist.Te acidity o mine drainage is caused
primarily by the oxidation o pyrite, amineral containing Iron and sulphide,commonly ound in tailings, overburdenand other mine waste piles. Te rate ooxidation depends on the ollowing: re-active sur ace area o the pyrite, the oxy-gen concentration and pH o the water,and the presence o Iron-oxidizing bac-teria (e.g. Tiobacillus erroxidans).
Te potential toxicity o mine water andits adverse affects on the environmentcan be ascribed to its our main char-acteristics that are acidity, iron and itsprecipitates, trace metals (e.g. cadmium,zinc, copper, lead etc.) and turbidity.Sulphate is another regular component
in mine water as it is ormed during py-rite oxidation. Not all o these compo-nents have to be present in mine waterin order to cause harm but in most casesthey are ound in combination witheach other.
More distinct are the terms Acid MineDrainage and Alkaline Mine Drainage.Te ormer is acidic water (pH
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Determinant
Type of studyReconnaisancestudy
Geologicalinvestigation
Routine datafor design
Site-specificdeterminats
Guideline values
Copper 0.3 mg/l
Nickel 0.5 mg/l
Cobalt
Arsenic 0.1 mg/l
Cyanide 1 mg/l
Nitrate 50 mg/l*
Uranium 0.015 mg/l*
Radium
Radon
BOD5 50 mg/l
User identified
pH 6-9Conductivity
Temperature < 3 degree differential
Alkalinity
Dissolved oxygen
Chromium (VI) 0.1 mg/l
Calcium
MagnesiumSodium
Potassium
Lead 0.02 mg/l
Iron 2 mg/l
Manganese Aluminum
Zinc 0.5 mg/l
Mercury 0.002 mg/l
Sulphate
Ammonina
Cadmium 0.05 mg/l
Source:Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines for Mining, World Bank, 2007*WHO Guidelines for drinking water quality, 2006
What to analyze in mine water?
ing water supply and degradation o liv-ing conditions or most organisms in anatural waterway. But the indirect effects
urther aggravate the risk through metal
solubility. Tis means that the lower thepH in water, the more likely it is thathigh concentrations o heavy metals willoccur, because acidity dissolves metals.
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Iron and iron precipitates
Iron is ofen the most abundant con-taminant in mine water, particularly incoal mine drainage. Apart rom its con-tribution to acidity, excess iron in water-courses can have several other environ-mental impacts.
Iron, much as many other metals, is a
trace element needed by humans andother vertebrates. But when organismstake up large amounts o iron, acute andchronic toxic reactions occur, such asperoxidation o lipids ollowed by dam-age to protein structures. As a chronictoxin, iron can cause haemochromatosis,cirrhosis o the liver, vascular congestionand eventually death. Moreover, turbid-ity caused by iron precipitates (ochre) re-duces the incidence o light in the water
body, impeding photosynthesis in theseareas and causing ood chains to breakdown. Te biodiversity o affected areasdeclines and may nally upset the bal-ance o the ecosystem, a readily visibleeffect o mine water contamination.
Trace metals
Apart rom iron, other ecotoxic elements
(such as Cd, Zn, Cu, Pb, etc.) can causehealth risks and serious ecosystem de-gradation.
When trace metals are released romtheir stable, isolated state in the geo-sphere, they are disseminated via wa-terways where they are available to thebiosphere. Until they are trans erredback into sediments and eventually rock,metals can persist through cycles and
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reactions where they may cause toxic e -ects. Small amounts o these elements
are common in the environment butelevated amounts o any o them maycause acute or chronic toxicity. Possibleeffects occurring under exposure to suchmetals are, among others, damage to thehuman nervous system, blood composi-tion, lungs, kidneys, liver and other vi-tal organs. In streams where mine wateris discharged with high levels o one ormore ecotoxic metal present, signicantloss o biodiversity has been observed in
several cases.race metals are mainly a problem where
metal ores are mined. Tis is the case ormany mining sites in the Western Bal-kans where copper, lead, zinc and otherelements are requent.
Sulphate
Sulphate is usually not a contaminanto major concern except under special
Chemistry Environmental impactParameter
Low pH H+ Degradation and death of animals andplants, reduction in drinking water quality,mobilization of metal ions,corrosion of man made structures.
Ironprecipitates
Fe3+, Fe2+, Fe(OH) 3 Discoloration and turbidity,clogging up of fish gills,encrustation of man made-structures.
Tracemetals
Cu, Pb,Zn,Cd,Co,Ni,Hg,As,Sb Degradation and death of animals and plants,bioaccumulation, reduction in drinking waterquality, soil and sediment contamination
Total
dissolved solids
Ca, Mg,K,Na, Fe, Al, Mn,Si, SO 3 Reduction in drinking water quality,
soil and sediment contamination.
Environmental impacts from pollution
Source: Mine wastes: characterization, treatment, and environmental impacts by Bernd G. Lottermoser, 2007
conditions. Te recommended limitor sulphate in drinking water is about
250 mg/l. Tis value has largely beenchosen or aesthetic reasons (i.e. tasteand odour) but at higher concentrationssulphate does have power ul, temporar-ily laxative effects.
Sulphate can also constitute a large pro-portion o the total amount o dissolvedsolids. In arid and semi-arid regionswhere watercourses may already displayhigh salinity due to evaporation, urther
salinization by mine water can signi-cantly decrease water quality, making itunsuitable or human uses such as irriga-tion and livestock watering.
With regard to the Western Balkans, sev-eral areas eature low atmospheric pre-cipitation and high evapotranspiration.In such places, high sulphate concentra-tions are likely to have a negative impacton water usability and consequently onthe quality o li e in the region.
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As we all know, prevention is better thancure so avoiding or at least reducing theoutput o contaminated mine water inthe rst place is a goal in itsel . Preven-tive measures should consequently seekto reduce the amount o contaminantsbeing released into the water and the to-tal amount o water leaving a mining site.Un ortunately prevention is not alwayspossible due to technical restrictions andlocal conditions.
Te goal o mine-water prevention is tominimize contaminant release. Tis canbe achieved by eliminating one or moreo the actors relevant to mine-watergeneration. Te essential components
or sulphide weathering are sulphideminerals, water and oxygen.
Passive prevention o pollutant release isachieved by the installation o physicalbarriers (requiring little or no long-termmaintenance) on or below the sur ace toinhibit chemical reactions which pro-duce pollution and prevent the migra-tion o existing polluted waters.
Possible techniques for mine water pre- vention: dry covers, water covers, selective diversion o sur ace water, inundation, alkaline addition, alkaline injection, coating/encapsulation, biocides, separation o sulphides.
Remediation approachesIn the Western Balkans the preventiono mine-water generation in the rst in-stance is o course o very high impor-tance where easible. At many high-risksites the situation could be substantiallyimproved by implementing preventivemeasures such as clay capping to reducewater ingress rom atmospheric precipi-tation and water diversion channels toreduce ingress o sur ace run-off romthe surrounding area.
Re-mining, i.e. the processing o minewaste or metal extraction, may be anoth-er viable option in the Western Balkansas much mine waste contains a relativelyhigh concentration o marketable materialdue to the inefficient metal extraction pro-cesses applied at the time o ore benecia-tion. In some instances, the revenue romsuch operations could cover a portion othe expenses generated by remediationmeasures or the site and thereby acili-tate urther improvement. At a numberproblematic o sites, the rst considerationshould be mine-water prevention becauseit is a very efficient measure to reduce tail-ings dam instability and pollution.
Active treatment
As water treatment is not tackling thecontamination source, but only pre- venting the spread o contaminantsinto the environment, this counts as anend-o -pipe technology. So treatment isnot a genuinely sustainable solution tothe problem, but it is ofen the only onewhere negative effects cannot be avoided.
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Active treatment techniques rely onconventional, well-recognized technolo-gy and are regarded as proven technol-ogy. Tey have been used or decadesall over the world and the experiencegained over time has lead to reliabletechniques.
Apart rom the current state-o -the-arto the two treatment approaches, theyalso differ in where they may be ap-plied. Te most striking advantage oactive treatment plants is the high con-
taminant load they can handle and theirreliability or compliance with regula-tions on effluent quality. Tis is pos-sible because the variables are adjustedto suit changing mine water qualityand quantity.
A major drawback o active systems isthat they are very expensive. Te maincosts arise during the operational phaseo the plant. Active treatment systemsneed constant energy and/or chemicalinput, and monitoring and maintenancethat has to be undertaken permanentlyby staff on the spot. Moreover, a relevantcost actor in an active treatment systemis the disposal o the resulting metal lad-en sludge which can accumulate in verysignicant amounts over long periods otime. It is not uncommon or water treat-
ment costs to exceed $200,000 per yearat sites using active treatment. Te costsassociated with operating an active mine-water treatment plant are ongoing or theli etime o the plant, or rather, or as longas mine-water output continues.
Produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010
Inflow Oxidation
Mixing with alkali
Metalprecipitates
Mine water
Sedimentation
Outflow
Fe2+ Fe3+ Fe3++3OH- Fe(OH)3
NaOHCa(OH)2
Active mine water treatment scheme
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Currently, chemical precipitation is themost widely used technique or metal re-moval rom mine waters. Although it isan attractive process, there are also severaldisadvantages, such as the production olarge amounts o sludge, the need or ur-ther treatment o sludge to meet disposalcriteria, and the loss o valuable metals.
In principle, the mine water issues thatarise in the Western Balkans could beaddressed with active mine water treat-ment plants but so ar, they have not yet
been widely used in the region.Passive treatment
Te principle o passive treatment in- volves using natural processes to im-prove the quality o incoming water withminimal operation and maintenance re-quirements. Tese processes are chemi-cal, biological and physical in nature.
Chemical removal processes: oxidation,reduction, coagulation, adsorption, ab-sorption, hydrolysis, precipitation.
Physical removal processes: gravity,aeration, dilution.
Biological removal processes: biosorp-tion, biomineralization, bioreduction,alkalinity generation.
Genuinely passive systems work withoutany regular input o cost-intensive re-sources, such as manpower, energy andchemicals. But in reality, a completelypassive system is hard to achieve as manysites ofen require active componentssuch as pumping or aeration. However,
even when systems are not entirely pas-sive according to the denition, overalloperational li e cost prole is lower than
or adequate, ully active systems.
With active treatment, the costs are dis-tributed over time, i.e. operating costs arehigh and exceed by ar the cost o design-ing, building and commissioning a plant.Tese operating costs are caused by needssuch as constant energy and/or chemicalinput, staff and high maintenance costs.Passive systems, on the other hand, re-
LimestoneMine water
Inflow
Vegetation
Organic material(e.g. compost)
Outflow
Metal
absorbtion
pH riseMetal sulphide precipitationpH rise
Example for passive mine water treatment installation
Produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010
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quire the main nancial input to be madewhen the system is being built.
Estimates suggest that the up ront in-stallation costs or a passive system are,depending on the size o the application,similar or at times marginally higher thanan active system. As the nature o passivesystems is to be sel sustaining, at least toa certain degree, the cost ollowing suc-
cess ul commissioning o the plant willbe low compared to an active solution.
Compared to conventional treatment,research suggests that passive systemsentail about hal the capital outlay andless than 1/20 o the maintenance costso active systems. Other calculations areless positive but still indicate that the costadvantage is only small in the early yearso operation but then starts to increase.
In general these systems are less cost-intensive in their li e-cycle, require lesstechnical assistance and have a coststructure which avours external und-ing. On the other hand they are not yetas reliable and predictable as conven-tional techniques. Passive systems havea background o less than 20 years, sothere is a signicant need or more ex-perience.
A number o innovative mine-watermanagement measures have been de- veloped and have been shown to suc-cess ully address common contaminantsin mine water. rack records and the
requency o application vary stronglywithin the available techniques. Te ap-plicability o the techniques varies withincoming water quality, surroundingconditions and managerial issues.
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Mining in
the WesternBalkans
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Mining in the Western BalkansTe mineral extractive industries, ocus-sing primarily on mining or base andprecious metals and metallurgy, havea long history in the Western Balkans,reaching back through historical recordsto at least the 5th century BC. In Serbia
or example, copper mining at the Bordeposit is believed to have prehistoricbeginnings,. It is also believed that theCrveni Breg lead and silver mine and
the uplja Stena mercury mine on theAvala in the vicinity o Belgrade werein operation prior to recorded history.By the time o the Roman empire, thereis evidence that many o the depositsmined today were already being exploit-ed and almost all known lead and zincdeposits were being mined by the 13thand 14th century.
S E R B I A
R O M A N I A
B U L G A R I A
C R O A T I A
B O S N I A &
H E R Z E G O V I N A
A L B A N I A
G R E E C E
M A C E D O N I A
M O N T E N E G R O
F ORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF
K o s o v o
A D
R I
A T
I C S
E A
D a n u b
e
S a v a
D r a v a
T i s a
O l t
M u r e s h u
l
K u pa
U n
a
C e t i n a
V r b
a s
B o
s n a
N e r e t
v a
D r i n a
S a v a
M o r a a
D r i n
V a r d a r
A x i o s
S t r u m a
M e s t a
S t r i m o n a s
Zagreb
Belgrade
Sarajevo
Podgorica
Tirana
Skopje
Sofia
Osijek
Split
Lecce
Arad
Sibiu
RamnicuValcea
Craiova
Drobeta-Turnu Severin
TimishoaraSubotica
Novi Sad
Ni
Pritina
Pleven
Pernik
Thessaloniki
Bitola
Banja Luka
Kyustendil
Blagoevgrad
Alba IuliaDeva
ReshitaPetroshani
Vidin
MontanaVratsa
SerresKavala
Kastoria
Ohrid
Vlor
Durrs
Bar
Zrenjanin
Smederevska
PalankaPoega
Novi Pazar
LeskovacBijelo Polje
GjeganKurbnesh
Zenica
Slavonski BrodKarlovac
Zadar
Brindisi
Brko
Panchevo
Jajce
Mostar
VaresSrebrenica
Bardh-Mirash
Suplja-Stijena
Zletovo
Kavadarci
Sasa
Zajaca
TetovoVeles
Kolubara
Podgarec
Jegunovce
Zvecan
Leposavic
Bor complex
Mojkovac Stan Terg
Novo Brdo
Lojane
Rreshen
Fushe-Arrez
Reps
Bucim
Elbasancomplex
Map produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010
Mining sites in the Western Balkan
Serious water pollution
Assessed mining site
River
National boundary
Prioritized mining site
Note: Map based on site assessment conducted by ENVSEC in 2006-8
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While traces o very old mining exploi-tation and metallurgy are still visible atmany localities, and are likely to contrib-ute to the environmental risk port olioo mining sites in some ways, it is post-1945 activities which have generated themost serious mining legacies or the re-gion. Tese areas will pose a task or boththis and or coming generations.
By the early 1930s mineral deposits inthe region were well-dened, with in-
creasing levels o exploitation. Te majorbase metals mined have included alu-minium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron,lead, magnesium, manganese, nickel,and zinc. Precious metals such as gold,silver, palladium and platinum are oundmainly in association with base metalssuch as copper, lead and zinc. Industrialminerals, represented by a broad range ocarbonate and silicate rocks, gravels, andsands as well as clays and volcanic mate-rials have also been important. Mineral
S E R B I A
R O M A N I A
B U L G A R I A
C R O A T I A
B O S N I A &
H E R Z E G O V I N A
A L B A N I A
G R E E C E
M A C E D O N I A
M O N T E N E G R O
F ORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF
K o s o v o
A D
R I
A T
I C S
E A
D a n u b
e
S a v a
D r a v a
T i s a
O l t
M u r e s h
u l
K u pa
U n
a
C e t i n a
V r b
a s
B o s n
a
N e r e t
v a
D r i n a
S a v a
M o r a a
D r i n
V a r d a r
A x i o s
S t r u m a
M e s t a
S t r i m o n a s
Zagreb
Belgrade
Sarajevo
Podgorica
Tirana
Skopje
Sofia
Osijek
Split
Foggia
Szeged Arad
Sibiu
RamnicuValcea
Craiova
Drobeta-Turnu Severin
TimishoaraSubotica
Novi Sad
Ni
Pritina
Pleven
Pernik
Thessaloniki
Larisa
Bitola
Banja Luka
Kyustendil
Blagoevgrad
Alba IuliaDeva
ReshitaPetroshani
Vidin
MontanaVratsa
SerresKavala
Kastoria
IoanninaKerkyra
Ohrid
Vlor
Durrs
Bar
Zrenjanin
SmederevskaPalanka
Poega
Novi Pazar
LeskovacBijelo Polje
Giegan
Kurbnesh
Zenica
Slavonski BrodKarlovac
Zadar
Manfredonia
Brko
Panchevo
Jajce
Mostar
VaresSrebrenica
Bardh-Mirash
Suplja-Stena
Zletovo
Kavadarci
Sasa
Zajaca
TetovoVeles
Kolubara
Podgarec
Jegunovce
Bor complex
Mojkovac Stan Terg
Novo Brdo
Lojane
Rreshen
Fushe-Arrez
Reps
Bucim
Elbasancomplex
Map produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010
Watersheds in the Western Balkans
Serious water pollution
River
National boundary
Watershed boundary
River flow directionMine site
Note: Map based on site assessment conducted by ENVSEC in 2006-8
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uels extracted in the region include coal
(lignite), natural gas and petroleum.In the period up until the early 1990s,mining, minerals processing and down-stream exploitation o the base metals cit-ed above established the region as a majorEuropean source o copper, lead and zinc.Te region, in particular Albania, was alsoa major international source o chromate.
Te use o low grades o coal and lignite inthe regions industrial and electric powergeneration acilities had raised the emis-sion o sulphur dioxide in some areas tolevels that were reportedly twice thoserecorded in Western Europe. Concentra-tions o SOx and NOx consistently exceeded
sa ety guidelines set by the World HealthOrganisation (WHO) and uncontainedemissions rom the non errous metalsprocessing plants and smelters contributedto regional acid rain. Moreover, such sitesofen contributed to serious local and sub-regional heavy-metal contamination o theenvironment due to allout.
Mining was one o the agship indus-trial sectors, inuencing the area more
extensively than in simply economic
terms. Afer the disintegration o theYugoslav common market, economicconditions in the region aggravated andin the early 1990s the Balkan economydeclined sharply. Industrial outputdropped signicantly, with a widespreadshutdown o operations such as mining.In environmental terms this cut bothways. With a dramatic drop in indus-trial output, pollution decreased. But atthe same time plants were either aban-doned or privatized under conditionsthat did not clearly establish environ-mental liability.
Such long association with mineral ex-tractive industries indicates that both a
long-established culture o mining activ-ity and a socio-economic dependency onmining and metallurgical activities canbe expected in many parts o the region.Un ortunately, it is also indicative o ahigher likelihood o multiple abandonedmining sites that may constitute pointsources o pollution. Furthermore, broadacceptance o such industries and theirpollution is likely at many levels withinthe societies in the region.
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Situation today Te environmental legacy associated withextraction industries is all too amiliar.Badly operated or abandoned mining siteshave already caused severe pollution, somewith impacts reaching across nationalboundaries: heavy metal spills rom BaiaBorsa tailings in Romania; the cyanidespill rom Baia Mare in Romania; heavymetal spills rom Sasa tailings in Mace-donia; and various releases at Majdanpekand Veliki Majdan in Serbia, and Mojko-
vac in Montenegro. Watercourses are themain vector or transboundary pollution,whether it is ongoing and chronic, or in-
requent, acute and accidental. Smeltersalso contribute to air pollution, with seri-ous consequences or human health.
Tousands o old abandoned or or-phaned sites, with no liable legal own-er, are scattered all over the region. InBosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro,Serbia, Albania, Macedonia and Kosovo( erritory under Interim UN Admin-istration) alone the ENVSEC initiativeidentied over 180 separate operations,some with many individual sites o activ-ity. About a third o these appeared to beo signicant environmental and security
concern, and nearly a fh was deemedto involve potential transboundary risks.
On many abandoned sites the necessarymeasures or proper closure (e.g. stabili-zation, water management, replanting o
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A D
R I
A T
I C
S E
A
D a n u b e
S a v a
D r a v a
T i s a
O l t
M u r e s h
u l
K u pa
U n a
C e t i n a
V r b
a s
B o s n
a
N e r e t
v a
D r i n a
S a v a
M o r a
a
D r i n i i Z i
D r i n
V a r d a r
A x i o s
S t r u m
a
M e s t a
S t r i m o n a s
B a l a t o
n
Zagreb
Belgrade
Sarajevo
Podgorica
Tirana
Skopje
Sofia
Osijek
Split
PcsSzeged Arad
Cluj-Napoca
Sibiu
RamnicuValcea
Craiova
Drobeta-Turnu Severin
TimishoaraSubotica
Novi Sad
Ni
PritinaPernik
Thessaloniki
Larisa
TetovoGostivar
Bitola
Banja Luka
Kyustendil
Blagoevgrad
t Dunajvros Bkscaba
Alba IuliaDeva
ReshitaPetroshani
Vidin
MontanaVratsa
SerresKavala
Kastoria
IoanninaVolos
Kerkyra
Veles
Ohrid
KorVlor
Durrs
Shkodr Bar
Zrenjanin
SmederevskaPalanka
Poega
Novi Pazar Leskovac
Bor
Bijelo Polje
TuzlaZenica
Mostar
Slavonski BrodKarlovac
Zadar
Dubrovnik
BrkoPanchevo
Map produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010Sources: LandScan Global Population Database. OakRidge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory; World Gazetteer
1 100 00
500 000
200 000100 00020 000
Population
Population density(inhabitants per km)
1 10 100
Population density in the Western Balkans
vegetation, etc.), to minimize the risk oaccidents and to prevent environmentalpollution were never taken. Implement-ing them now is very expensive.
Coping with the present situation iscomplicated, with a large number osites with serious environmental im-pacts, high remediation costs and the
liable owners missing. In most cases thegovernment is held accountable. But thehuge nancial liability attached to anysystematic rehabilitation programmerepresents a challenge that ar exceedsthe nancial or organizational resourceso any one regional actor. Te situationis urther aggravated by the lack o ex-pertise required to take practical respon-
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Te region has almost the ull range o risks entailing large-scale environmental
damage, in particular: ore types and rock with signicant acid mine drainage (AMD) generating po-
tential; absence o mine planning or AMD control, and/or closure; large (historical) milling and concentration plants with signicant tailing im-
poundments mountainous terrain; periods o heavy rain and/or snowmelt; numerous rivers and catchment areas shared by several countries; signicant seismicity (earthquakes); abandoned and orphaned sites with little or no closure or control; lack o ongoing physical and/or biochemical monitoring o operational and/or
abandoned sites; lack o ongoing maintenance, both proactive and reactive; absence o institutionalized accident/disaster response procedures; apparent ocus upon site jurisdictions rather than natural boundaries such as
watersheds
Factors contributing to environmental risks at mine sites
sibility or dealing with abandoned sitesand the associated issues.
Most modern mining operations conse-quently include a bonding system whichensures that sufficient nancial resources
are set aside during the active period othe mine. I appropriate such resourcesare released when mining stops andthe measures mentioned above need tobe taken.
In the Western Balkans, the situation isar away rom that. Funds necessary or
even routine maintenance o hazardoussites such as tailings ponds and hazard-ous waste dumps have been very limited.
As an inevitable result, the likelihood oenvironmental accidents has increasedmarkedly.
Governments in the Western Balkans arein the process o preparing and imple-
menting the privatization and closure omines. Tis appears to provide a soundbasis or cleaning up a substantial num-ber o mining sites as part o new andongoing operations. As such, the re-opening o sites under modern industrialpractices, as stipulated by the EuropeanUnion (BREF documents), could makeurgently required mitigation and rehabil-itation programmes much more easiblethan was assumed a ew years ago.
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Rehove
Podgarec
Martanesh
Bulqize
Rubik
Rreshen
Kurbnesh
Reps
Fushe Arrez
Kalimash
Giegan
Burrel Lac
Elbasan
Korfu
D r i n
M o r a c a
Z e t a
L i m
C e m
B o j a n
a
Be l i D r i m
J u z n a M
o r a v a
V a r d
a r
T r e
s k a
C r n a
R e k a
Ma t
M a t
F a n
E r z
e n
S h k u m b i n
S e m a
n D e v o l l
O s u m
V i j o s e
S h u
s h i c
e
V i j o s e
D r i n
T h i a m i s
A r a t
o s
H a l i a c m
o n
Lake Skadar
Lake Ohrid
Lake Prespa
M O N T E N E G R O
A L B A N I A
F O R M E R Y U G O S L A V
R E P U B L I C O F M A C E D O N I A
K o s o v o
(UN administered Territory under UNSC 1244)
G R E E C E
Podgorica
SkopjeBar
Shkoder
Lezhe
Lac Burrel
Kukes Tetovo
Gostivar
Kumanovo
PristinaPec
Prizren
Plav
CetinjeKotor
Ulcinj
Dakovica Orahovac
Gnjilane
Urosevac Presovo
Prilep
Bitola
Struga
Ohrid
Debar Kicevo
Tirana
Kruje Bulqize
Peshkopi
Shijak
Durres
KavajeElbasan
Pogradec
Lushnje
Fier
Patos
Kucove
Berat
Corovode
Korce
Vlore
Tepelene
Gjirokaster
Sarande
Korfu
Igoumenitsa
Ioannina
Florina
Kastoria
Gravena
Trikala
25 50 75 km0
Map produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010
Mining site
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AlbaniaAlbania is situated on the Adriatic andIonian coast between Greece and the or-mer Yugoslavia. It has rich biodiversitywith a landscape o coastal plains and alargely orested mountainous interior.Albania aces serious anthropogenicthreats to its environment. Erosion, il-legal cutting and harvesting o orestand vegetation resources, urban waste,industrial pollution and rapid popula-tion growth have led to severe environ-
mental degradation. Te coastal plaincontinues to be used or extensive, un-sustainable agricultural practices to sup-port the population. Current agriculturaland grazing practices have led to severeerosion, environmental destruction andpollution in Albanias watersheds.
In the period rom 1945 to 1991 Alba-nias industry and general economy de- veloped under a system o central eco-nomic planning with a la