Geography Handbook GH1Geography Handbook GH1
Saharan sanddunes, Morocco
▼The Gui River,Guilin, China
▼
The Amazon, Brazil ▼
The story of the world begins with geog-raphy—the study of the earth in all of itsvariety. Geography describes the earth’sland, water, and plant and animal life. It isthe study of places and the complex relationships between people and theirenvironment.
The resources in this handbook will helpyou get the most out of your textbook—andprovide you with skills you will use for therest of your life.
GH1(t)Dallas and John Heaton/CORBIS, (c)Jamie Harron/CORBIS, (b)Owen Franken/CORBIS
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GH2 Geography Handbook
Places and RegionsPlace has a special mean-
ing in geography. It meansmore than where a place is.It also describes what a placeis like. It might describephysical characteristics suchas landforms, climate, andplant or animal life. Or itmight describe human characteristics, including language and way of life.
To help organize theirstudy, geographers oftengroup places into regions.Regions are united by one or more common characteristics.
To understand how our world is connected,some geographers have broken down the studyof geography into five themes. The Five Themesof Geography are (1) location, (2) place, (3)human/environment interaction, (4) movement,and (5) regions. You will see these themes high-lighted in the Chapter Assessment GeographySkills of Journey Across Time: The Early Ages.
Six Essential ElementsRecently, geographers have begun to look at
geography in a different way. They break downthe study of geography into Six EssentialElements. Being aware of these elements willhelp you sort out what you are learning aboutgeography.
The World in Spatial TermsGeographers first take a look at
where a place is located. Locationserves as a starting point by asking“Where is it?” Knowing the loca-tion of places helps youdevelop an awareness ofthe world around you.
Physical SystemsWhen studying places
and regions, geographersanalyze how physicalsystems—such as hurri-canes, volcanoes, andglaciers—shape theearth’s surface. They alsolook at communities ofplants and animals thatdepend upon one anotherand their surroundingsfor survival.
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Geography Handbook GH3
Environment and SocietyHow does the relation-
ship between people andtheir natural surroundingsinfluence the way peoplelive? This is one of the questions that the theme of human/environmentinteraction investigates. It also shows how people use the environment andhow their actions affect the environment.
Human SystemsGeographers also examine
human systems, or howpeople have shaped ourworld. They look at howboundary lines are deter-mined and analyze whypeople settle in certainplaces and not in others. Akey theme in geography isthe continual movement ofpeople, ideas, and goods.
The Uses of GeographyKnowledge of geography
helps us understand therelationships among people,places, and environmentsover time. Understandinggeography and knowinghow to use the tools andtechnology available tostudy it prepares you for life in our modern society.
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Geography Handbook
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GH4 Geography Handbook
HemispheresTo locate a place on the earth, geographers
use a system of imaginary lines that crisscrossthe globe. One of these lines, the Equator, cir-cles the middle of the earth like a belt. Itdivides the earth into “half spheres,” or hemi-spheres. Everything north of the Equator is inthe Northern Hemisphere. Everything south of the Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere.
Another imaginary line runs from north tosouth. It helps divide the earth into halfspheres in the other direction. Find this line—called the Prime Meridian on a globe.Everything east of the Prime Meridian for 180 degrees is in the Eastern Hemisphere.Everything west of the Prime Meridian is inthe Western Hemisphere.
GH4 Geography Handbook
Northern Hemisphere
North Pole South Pole
Asia
Asia
NorthAmerica
NorthAmerica
SouthAmerica
SouthAmerica
PacificOcean
PacificOcean
PacificOcean
IndianOcean
IndianOcean
Antarctica
AtlanticOcean
AtlanticOcean
AtlanticOcean
Australia
Australia
Europe
Europe
Africa
Africa
Africa
Southern Hemisphere
Western Hemisphere Eastern Hemisphere
Hemispheres
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LatitudeLines of latitude, or parallels, circle the
earth parallel to the Equator and measurethe distance north or south of the Equatorin degrees. The Equator is at 0° latitude,while the North Pole lies at latitude 90°N(north).
LongitudeLines of longitude, or meridians, circle the earth
from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distances eastor west of the starting line, which is at 0° longitudeand is called the Prime Meridian. The PrimeMeridian runs through the Royal Observatory inGreenwich, England.
Lines on globes and maps provide informationthat can help you easily locate places on the
earth. These lines—called latitude andlongitude—cross one another, forming a patterncalled a grid system.
Absolute LocationThe grid system formed by lines of latitude and
longitude makes it possible to find the absolutelocation of a place. Only one place can be foundat the point where a specific line of latitudecrosses a specific line of longitude. By usingdegrees (°) and minutes (') (points betweendegrees), people can pinpoint the precise spotwhere one line of latitude crosses one line of longitude—an absolute location.
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GH6 Geography Handbook
The most accurate way to depict the earth is as aglobe, a round scale model of the earth. A globe
gives a true picture of the continents’ relative sizesand the shapes of landmasses and bodies of water.Globes accurately represent distance and direction.
A map is a flat drawing of all or part of theearth’s surface. Unlike globes, maps can show smallareas in great detail. Maps can also display politicalboundaries, population densities, or even votingreturns.
From Globes to MapsMaps, however, do have their limitations. As
you can imagine, drawing a round object on aflat surface is very difficult. Cartographers, ormapmakers, use mathematical formulas totransfer information from the round globe to a flat map. However, when the curves of aglobe become straight lines on a map, the size, shape, distance, or area can change or be distorted.
Great Circle RoutesMapmakers have solved some problems of
going from a globe to a map. A great circle isan imaginary line that follows the curve of theearth. Traveling along a great circle is calledfollowing a great circle route. Airplane pilotsuse great circle routes because they are theshortest routes.
The idea of a great circle shows one impor-tant difference between a globe and a map.Because a globe is round, it accurately showsgreat circles. On a flat map, however, the greatcircle route between two points may not appearto be the shortest distance. Compare Maps Aand B on the right.
Mapmaking With TechnologyTechnology has changed the way maps are
made. Most cartographers use software pro-grams called geographic information systems(GIS). This software layers map data fromsatellite images, printed text, and statistics. AGlobal Positioning System (GPS) helps con-sumers and mapmakers locate places based oncoordinates broadcast by satellites.
GH6 Geography Handbook
60°N
30°N
30°S
0°
120°E 180° 120°W
PACIFICOCEAN
Map A
LosAngelesTokyo
EW
N
S
True Direction Distance5,795 mi. (9,324 km)
Great Circle Distance5,450 mi. (8,769 km)
Mercator projection3,000
3,0000 mi.
0 km
Map B
PACIFICOCEAN
60°N
40°N
180°
120°W
60°W
0°
60°E
120°E
Great Circle RouteLosAngeles
Tokyo
North Pole
EW
N
S
Polar Gnomonic projection3,000
3,0000 mi.
0 km
True Direction Route
Great Circle Route
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Geography Handbook GH7Geography Handbook GH7
Imagine taking the whole peel from an orange andtrying to flatten it on a table. You would either
have to cut it or stretch parts of it. Mapmakers facea similar problem in showing the surface of theround earth on a flat map. When the earth’s surfaceis flattened, big gaps open up. To fill in the gaps,mapmakers stretch parts of the earth. They chooseto show either the correct shapes of places or theircorrect sizes. It is impossible to show both. As aresult, mapmakers have developed different projec-tions, or ways of showing the earth on a flat piece of paper.
0°
0°60°W 60°E 120°E120°W
30°N
30°S
60°S
60°N
TROPIC OF CANCER
ARCTIC CIRCLE
MER
IDIA
N O
F G
REE
NW
ICH
(LO
ND
ON
)
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
EQUATOR
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CANCER
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
ARCTIC CIRCLE
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
MER
IDIA
N O
F G
REE
NW
ICH
(LO
ND
ON
)
0°
60°E60°W 120°E120°W 0°
30°N
30°S
60°N
60°S
0°
30°N
60°S
30°S
60°N
60°W 60°E90°W90°E 120°W120°E 150°W150°E 180° 30°W 30°E0°
ARCTIC CIRCLE
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CANCER
MER
IDIA
N O
F G
REE
NW
ICH
(LO
ND
ON
)
A map using the Robinson projection has minor distortions. Landon the western and eastern sides of the Robinson map appearsmuch as it does on a globe. The areas most distorted on this projection are near the North and South Poles.
▼
The Winkel Tripel projection gives a good overall view of the continents’ shapes and sizes. Land areas in a Winkel Tripelprojection are not as distorted near the Poles as they are in theRobinson projection.
▼Take a second look at your peeled, flattened orange. You mighthave something that looks like a map based on Goode’sInterrupted Equal-Area projection. A map with this projectionshows continents close to their true shapes and sizes. This projec-tion is helpful to compare land areas among continents.
▼
0°
30°N
30°S
60°S
60°N
EQUATOR
ANTARCTICCIRCLE
TROPIC OF CANCER
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
ARCTIC CIRCLE
Mercator Projection
The Mercator projection shows true direction and land shapesfairly accurately, but not size or distance. Areas that are locatedfar from the Equator are quite distorted on this projection. Alaska,for example, appears much larger on a Mercator map than it doeson a globe.
▼
Winkel Tripel Projection
Robinson Projection
Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection
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GH8 Geography HandbookGH8 Geography Handbook
DesertHighlandHumid continentalHumid subtropicalMarine
MediterraneanSteppeSubarcticTropicalTundra
Climate Regions of the United States
Map Key An important first step in reading a map is to note the mapkey. The map key explains the lines, symbols, and colors used on amap. For example, the map on this page shows the various climateregions of the United States and the different colors representing them.Cities are usually symbolized by a solid circle (•) and capitals by a (�). On this map, you can see the capital of Texas and the cities of Los Angeles, Seattle, New Orleans, and Chicago.
Scale A measuring line, often called ascale bar, helps you figure distance onthe map. The map scale tells you whatdistance on the earth is represented bythe measurement on the scale bar.
Compass Rose A map has a symbolthat tells you where the cardinal directions—north, south, east, andwest—are positioned.
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Geography Handbook GH9Geography Handbook GH9
General Purpose MapsMaps are amazingly useful tools.
Geographers use many different types ofmaps. Maps that show a wide range ofgeneral information about an area arecalled general purpose maps. Two of themost common general purpose maps arephysical and political maps.
Physical MapsPhysical maps call out landforms and
water features. The physical map of SriLanka (below) shows rivers and moun-tains. The colors used on physical mapsinclude brown or green for land and bluefor water. In addition, physical maps mayuse colors to show elevation—the heightof an area above sea level. A key explainswhat each color and symbol stands for.
8°S
Bayof
Bengal
INDIANOCEAN
Gulf of
Mannar
Pidurutalagala8,281 ft.
(2,524 m)
Point Pedro
Trincomalee
Matara
Matale
KattankudiChilaw
Colombo
Jaffna
SRI LANKA
100
1000
0
mi.
km
EW
N
S
80°E
Sri Lanka: Physical
Mountain peakNational capitalMajor city
Feet3,2801,640
650380
0
Meters1,0005002001000
Elevations
Political MapsPolitical maps show the names
and boundaries of countries, thelocation of cities and other human-made features of a place, and oftenidentify major physical features.The political map of Spain (above),for example, shows the boundariesbetween Spain and other countries.It also shows cities and riverswithin Spain and bodies of watersurrounding Spain.
10°W
40°N
0°
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
Strait of Gibraltar
Bay of Biscay
ATLANTICOCEAN
Ebro R.
Tagus R.
Guadalquivir R.
Douro R.
BalearicIslands
SevilleM´alaga
Valencia
Madrid
ZaragozaBarcelona
U.K.
S P A I N
PORTUGAL
F R A N C E
ANDORRA
GIBRALTAR
A F R I C ALambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection
200
2000 mi.
0 km
EW
N
S
Spain: Political
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GH10 Geography HandbookGH10 Geography Handbook
Special Purpose MapsSome maps are made to present specific
kinds of information. These are called thematic or special purpose maps. Theyusually show themes or patterns, oftenemphasizing one subject or theme. Specialpurpose maps may present climate, naturalresources, and population density. They mayalso display historical information, such asbattles or territorial changes. The map’s titletells what kind of special information itshows. Colors and symbols in the map keyare especially important on these types ofmaps. Special purpose maps are often foundin books of maps called atlases.
One type of special purpose map uses colorsto show population density, or the averagenumber of people living in a square mile orsquare kilometer. As with other maps, it isimportant to first read the title and the key. The population density map of Egypt showsthat the Nile River valley and delta are verydensely populated.
Some other special purpose maps such as theone of China’s Defenses are not presented incolor. They are printed in black and white. Thisis an example of a map you might find on astandardized test or in a newspaper.
Boundary claimedby Sudan
TROPIC OF CANCER
Re d
Se a
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
Nile R.
SuezCanalCairo
Alexandria
El Giza30°N
30°E
20°N
E G Y P T
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Areaprojection
300
3000 mi.
0 km
EW
N
S
Egypt: Population Density
CitiesCity with more than5,000,000 people
City with 1,000,000 to5,000,000 people
sq. kmsq. mi.Persons per
Uninhabited
Under 2
2–60
60–125
125–250
Over 250
Uninhabited
Under 1
1–25
25–50
50–100
Over 100
Great Wall of ChinaGreat Wall of China
HimalayaTaklimakanAltay Mountains
GobiManchurianPlain
YellowSea
EastChinaSea
SouthChinaSea
CHINA
NEPAL
MONGOLIA
RUSSIA
China’s Defenses
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Geography Handbook GH11
Bar, Line, and Circle Graphs
A graph is a way of summarizingand presenting information visually.Each part of a graph gives usefulinformation. First read the graph’stitle to find out its subject. Then readthe labels along the graph’s axes—the vertical line along the left side ofthe graph and the horizontal linealong the bottom. One axis will tellyou what is being measured. Theother axis tells what units of meas-urement are being used.
Graphs that use bars or wide linesto compare data visually are calledbar graphs. Look carefully at thebar graph (right) which compares world lan-guages. The vertical axis lists the languages.The horizontal axis gives speakers of the lan-guage in millions. By comparing the lengths ofthe bars, you can quickly tell which languageis spoken by the most people. Bar graphs areespecially useful for comparing quantities.
A line graph is a useful tool for showingchanges over a period of time. The amountsbeing measured are plotted on the grid aboveeach year and then are connected by a line.Line graphs sometimes have two or more linesplotted on them. The line graph (below) showsthat the number of farms in the United Stateshas decreased since 1940.
Number of Native Speakers (in millions)Source: The World Almanac, 2003.
Languages
Chinese (Mandarin) 874
Hindi 366
English 341
Spanish 322
Bengali 207
Portuguese 176
Russian 167
Japanese 125
German 100
Korean 78
Comparing World Languages
Source: The World Almanac, 2003.
1940 1950 1960 1970 1990 20001980
1
0
7
6
5
4
3
2
Nu
mb
er
of
farm
s (i
n m
illi
on
s)
Year
U.S. Farms, 1940–2000
Geography Handbook GH11
Line graph
Bar graph
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GH12 Geography Handbook
You can use circle graphs when you want to show how the whole of some-thing is divided into its parts. Because oftheir shape, circle graphs are often called pie graphs. Each “slice” represents a part orpercentage of the whole “pie.” On the circlegraph at right, the whole circle (100 percent)represents the world’s population in 2002.The slices show how this population isdivided among some of the most heavilypopulated areas of the world.
ChartsCharts present facts and numbers in an
organized way. They arrange data, espe-cially numbers, in rows and columns foreasy reference. To interpret the chart, firstread the title. Look at the chart on page 91.It tells you what information the chart con-tains. Next, read the labels at the top ofeach column and on the left side of thechart. They explain what the numbers ordata on the chart are measuring.
PictographsLike bar and circle graphs,
pictographs are good for mak-ing comparisons. Pictographsuse rows of small pictures orsymbols, with each picture or symbol representing anamount. Look at the picto-graph (left) showing the num-ber of automobiles producedin the world’s five major auto-mobile-producing countries.The key tells you that one carsymbol stands for 1 millionautomobiles. The total numberof car symbols in a row addsup to the auto production ineach selected country.
GH12 Geography Handbook
Source: The World Almanac, 2003.
Pro
du
cti
on
fig
ure
s fo
r fi
vem
ajo
r a
uto
-pro
du
cin
g c
oun
trie
s Japan
UnitedStates
France
South Korea
Germany
= 1,000,000 passenger cars
Major Automobile-Producing Countries, 2001
Asia 61%Africa 13%
Europe12%
Source: World Population Data Sheet, 2003. *Excluding Australia
Latin America 9% North America 5%
World Population*
Using Graphs, Charts, and Diagrams
Pictograph
Circle graph
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Geography Handbook GH13Geography Handbook GH13
ClimographsA climograph, or climate
graph, combines a line graph and a bar graph. It gives an overall picture of the long-termweather patterns in a specific place.Climographs include several kindsof information. The green verticalbars on the climograph of Moscow(right) show average monthlyamounts of precipitation (rain,snow, and sleet). These bars aremeasured against the axis on theright side of the graph. The red lineplotted above the bars representschanges in the average monthlytemperature. You measure this lineagainst the axis on the left side.
DiagramsDiagrams are drawings that show steps in
a process, point out the parts of an object, orexplain how something works. An elevationprofile is a type of diagram that can be helpfulwhen comparing the elevations—or height—of
an area. It shows an exaggerated side view ofthe land as if it were sliced and you were view-ing it from the side. The elevation profile ofAfrica (below) clearly shows sea level, lowareas, and mountains.
Source: World Weather Guide.
°F
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Ave
rag
e m
on
thly
te
mp
era
ture
Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
°C
37.8
32.2
26.7
21.1
15.6
10.0
4.4
–1.1
–6.7
–12.2
–17.8
in.
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Ave
rag
e m
on
thly p
rec
ipita
tion
mm
508
457.2
406.4
355.6
304.8
254
203.2
152.4
101.6
50.8
0
Climograph: Moscow, Russia
5,000 m
4,000 m
3,000 m
2,000 m
1,000 m
16,404 ft.
13,123 ft.
9,842 ft.
6,562 ft.
3,281 ft.
Sea level
Atlantic OceanCongo River
Margherita Peak16,763 ft.(5,109 m)
Mt. Kenya17,058 ft.(5,199 m)
LakeVictoria
IndianOcean
0 mi.
0 km
300
300
0˚ latitude (Equator)
Africa: Elevation Profile
Geography Handbook
Climograph
Diagram
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GH14 Geography Handbook
Island
Strait
Isthmus
Cape
Seacoast
Gulf
Bay
Ocean
VolcanoMountain peak
Sound
Peninsula
Delta
Harbor
Cliff
Island
Strait
Isthmus
Cape
Seacoast
Gulf
Bay
Ocean
VolcanoMountain peak
Sound
Peninsula
Delta
Harbor
Cliff
ValleyValley
absolute location exact location of a place on the earth de-scribed by global coordinates
basin area of land drained by a given river and its branches;area of land surrounded by lands of higher elevation
bay part of a large body of water that extends into a shore-line, generally smaller than a gulf
canyon deep and narrow valley with steep wallscape point of land that extends into a river, lake, or oceanchannel wide strait or waterway between two landmasses
that lie close to each other; deep part of a river or otherwaterway
cliff steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice continent one of the seven large landmasses on the earthcultural feature characteristic that humans have created in a
place, such as language, religion, housing, and settlementpattern
delta flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried down-stream by a river and deposited at its mouth
divide stretch of high land that separates river systems downstream direction in which a river or stream flows from
its source to its mouthelevation height of land above sea levelEquator imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway
between the North and South Poles; used as the startingpoint to measure degrees of north and south latitude
glacier large, thick body of slowly moving icegulf part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline,
generally larger and more deeply indented than a bayharbor a sheltered place along a shoreline where ships can
anchor safelyhighland elevated land area such as a hill, mountain, or
plateauhill elevated land with sloping sides and rounded summit;
generally smaller than a mountainisland land area, smaller than a continent, completely sur-
rounded by wateristhmus narrow stretch of land connecting two larger land
areaslake a sizable inland body of waterlatitude distance north or south of the Equator, measured in
degreeslongitude distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, meas-
ured in degreeslowland land, usually level, at a low elevationmap drawing of the earth shown on a flat surfacemeridian one of many lines on the global grid running from
the North Pole to the South Pole; used to measuredegrees of longitude
mesa broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides; smallerthan a plateau
As you read about world history,you will encounter the termslisted below. Many of the termsare pictured in the diagram.
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Geography Handbook GH15
Canyon
Tributary
Source of river
Lowland
UpstreamDownstream
Highland
Glacier
Basin
Mountain range
Hills
LakePlateau
River
Mouth of river
Plain
Channel
Desert
Canyon
Tributary
Source of river
Lowland
UpstreamDownstream
Highland
Glacier
Basin
Mountain range
Hills
LakePlateau
River
Mouth of river
Plain
Channel
Desert
mountain land with steep sides that rises sharply (1,000 feet[305 m] or more) from surrounding land; generally largerand more rugged than a hill
mountain peak pointed top of a mountainmountain range a series of connected mountainsmouth (of a river) place where a stream or river flows into a
larger body of waterocean one of the four major bodies of salt water that surround
the continentsocean current stream of either cold or warm water that
moves in a definite direction through an oceanparallel one of many lines on the global grid that circle the
earth north or south of the Equator; used to measuredegrees of latitude
peninsula body of land jutting into a lake or ocean, surroundedon three sides by water
physical feature characteristic of a place occurring naturally,such as a landform, body of water, climate pattern, orresource
plain area of level land, usually at a low elevation and oftencovered with grasses
plateau area of flat or rolling land at a high elevation, about300–3,000 feet (91–914 m) high
Prime Meridian line of the global grid running from the NorthPole to the South Pole through Greenwich, England; start-ing point for measuring degrees of east and west longitude
relief changes in elevation over a given area of landriver large natural stream of water that runs through the landsea large body of water completely or partly surrounded by
landseacoast land lying next to a sea or oceansea level position on land level with surface of nearby ocean
or seasound body of water between a coastline and one or more
islands off the coastsource (of a river) place where a river or stream begins,
often in highlandsstrait narrow stretch of water joining two larger bodies of
watertributary small river or stream that flows into a larger river
or stream; a branch of the riverupstream direction opposite the flow of a river; toward the
source of a river or streamvalley area of low land between hills or mountainsvolcano mountain created as liquid rock or ash erupts from
inside the earth
Geography Handbook
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