Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-1Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Perception and Emotions
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-2Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Chapter Outline
• Perception Defined• Factors Influencing Perception
• Perceptual Errors• Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter?
• Personality• Emotions
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-3Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Perception, Personality, and Emotions
1. What is perception?
2. What causes people to have different perceptions of the same situation?
3. Can people be mistaken in their perceptions?
4. Does perception really affect outcomes?
5. What is personality and how does it affect behaviour?
6. Can emotions help or get in the way when dealing with others?
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-4Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Perception
• What Is Perception?– The process by which individuals organize and interpret
their impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
• Why Is It Important?– Because people’s behaviour is based on their perception
of what reality is, not on reality itself. – The world as it is perceived is the world that is
behaviourally important.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-5Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Why We Study Perceptions
• To better understand how people make attributions about events.
• We don’t see reality. We interpret what we see and call it reality.
• The attribution process guides our behaviour, regardless of the truth of the attribution.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-6Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Factors Influencing Perception
• The Perceiver• The Target
• The Situation
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-7Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Exhibit 2-1 Factors that Influence Perception
Perception
The Target
• Novelty• Motion• Sounds• Size• Background• Proximity
The Perceiver
• Attitudes• Motives• Interests• Experience• Expectations
The Situation
• Time• Work setting• Social setting
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-8Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Perceptual Errors
• Attribution Theory• Selective Perception
• Halo Effect• Contrast Effects
• Projection• Stereotyping
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-9Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Attribution Theory
• When individuals observe behaviour, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.– Distinctiveness
• Does the individual act the same way in other situations?
– Consensus • Does the individual act the same as others in same situation?
– Consistency • Does the individual act the same way over time?
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-10Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Attribution Theory
• Fundamental Attribution Error– The tendency to underestimate external factors
and overestimate internal factors when making judgments about others’ behaviour.
• Self-Serving Bias– The tendency to attribute one’s successes to
internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-11Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Exhibit 2-2 Attribution Theory
Observation InterpretationAttribution
of cause
External
High(Seldom)
Low(Frequently)High
Low(Seldom)High(Frequently)
Low(Seldom)
Internal
rna l
Individualbehaviour
Distinctiveness(How often does the
person do this inother situations?)
Consensus(How often do other
people do this insimilar situations?)
Consistency(How often did theperson do this in
the past?)
External
Internal
Internal
External
(Frequently)
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-12Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Perceptual Errors
• Selective Perception– People selectively interpret what they see based on their
interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
• Halo Effect– Drawing a general impression about an individual based
on a single characteristic.
• Contrast Effects– A person’s evaluation is affected by comparisons with
other individuals recently encountered.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-13Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Perceptual Errors• Projection
– Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.
• Stereotyping– Judging someone on the basis of your perception
of the group to which that person belongs.
• Prejudice– An unfounded dislike of a person or group based
on their belonging to a particular stereotyped group.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-14Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Why Do Perceptions and Judgment Matter?
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy– A concept that proposes a person will behave in
ways consistent with how he or she is perceived by others.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-15Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Locus of Control
• The degree to which people believe they are in control of their own fate.– Internals
• Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them.
– Externals• Individuals who believe that what happens to them
is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-16Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Exhibit 2-5 The Effects of Locus of Control on Performance
Condition Performance
Information Processing The work requires complex information processing and complex learning
Internals perform better
The work is quite simple and easy to learn Internals perform better than externals
Initiative The work requires initiative and independent action
Internals perform better
The work requires compliance and conformity Externals perform better
Motivation The work requires high motivation and provides valued rewards in return for greater effort; it offers incentive pay for greater productivity
Internals perform better
The work does not require great effort and contingent rewards are lacking; hourly pay rates are determined by collective bargaining
Externals perform at least as well as internals
Source: J. B. Miner, Industrial-Organizational Psychology (New York: McGraw Hill, 1992), p. 151. Reprinted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-17Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Machiavellianism
• Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-18Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Self-Esteem
• Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking of themselves.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-19Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Exhibit 2-6 Branden’s Six Pillars of Self-Esteem
1. Living consciously: Be aware of everything that affects your values and goals, and act with awareness.
2. Self-acceptance: Accept who you are without criticism and judgment.
3. Personal responsibility: Take responsibility for the decisions you make and the things you do.
4. Self-assertiveness: Honour your wants, needs, and values, and don’t be afraid to speak up for things that are important to you.
5. Living purposefully: Develop short- and long-term goals, and make realistic plans to achieve your goals.
6. Personal integrity: Live up to your word and your values.
Source: Adapted from N. Branden, Self-Esteem at Work: How Confident People Make Powerful Companies (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), pp. 33-36).
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-20Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Self-Monitoring
• A personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust behaviour to external situational factors.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-21Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Risk-Taking
• Refers to a person’s willingness to take chances or risks.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-22Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
What Are Emotions?
• Two related terms:– Emotions
• Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.
– Moods• Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions
and that lack a contextual stimulus.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-23Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour
• When an employee expresses organizationally- desired emotions during interpersonal interactions.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-24Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Emotional Intelligence
• Noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person's ability to interact with others.
• Five dimensions– Self-awareness– Self-management– Self-motivation– Empathy– Social skills
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-25Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Negative Workplace Emotions
• Negative emotions can lead to negative workplace behaviours: – Production (leaving early, intentionally working
slowly)
– Property (stealing, sabotage)
– Political (gossiping, blaming co-workers)
– Personal aggression (sexual harassment, verbal abuse)
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-26Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Summary and Implications
1. What is perception? – Perception is the process by which individuals
organize and interpret their impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
1. What causes people to have different perceptions of the same situation?
– Perceptions are affected by factors in the perceiver, in the object or target being perceived, and in the context or situation.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-27Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Summary and Implications
3. Can people be mistaken in their perceptions?– Shortcuts, such as attribution theory, selective
perception, halo effect, contrast effects, projection, and stereotyping are helpful and even necessary, but can and do get us in trouble.
3. Does perception really affect outcomes?– Perceptions often affect productivity more than
the situation does.
Common Perceptual Errors
• Perceptual defense: the tendency for people to protect themselves against ideas, objects, or situations that are threatening
• Stereotyping: the tendency to assign attributes to someone solely on the basis of the category of people, of which that person is a member
• Halo effect: the process by which the perceiver evaluates another person solely on the basis of one attribute, either favorable or unfavorable
• Projection: the tendency for people to see their own traits in others
• Expectancy effects: extent to which expectations bias how events, objects, and people are actually perceived– Self-fulfilling prophecy: expecting certain things to happen will
shape the behavior of the perceiver in such a way that the expected is more likely to happen