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TROUBLESwith
TONALTERMINOLOGY
Textoriginallysubmittedasacontributiontothe
FestschriftforCORINAHARONINANDGRACIELAPARASKEVADIS,NovemberDecember2011,withslightchangesinApril2012andmoresubstantialrevisioninFebruary2013)
PhilipTagg
Preliminaries
Formalconventions
AllsourcereferencesarelistedinasingleReferencesappendix. Thefollowingtypefaceconventionsareused:
[1]Courier Boldfornotenames,e.g.b, c, d;[2]Tahomaforchordnames,e.g.E7Am;
[3]romannumeralsfornonkeyspecifictertialchordsbasedonequivalentscaledegreeinmonomodalheptatonicmusic,e.g.VIIIVI.
[4]arabicnumeralsfornonkeyspecificscaledegrees,e.g.12345671(ascendingharmonicminorscale).
Acknowledgements
IwouldlikethankBobDavis(Huddersfield),DavidMcGuinness(Glasgow)andLuanaStan(Montral)forvaluableinputduringthewritingoftheoriginalversionofthistext.
,
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Background
Iamverypleased tobepartof thisvolumededicated toCorin
and Graciela because Corin was one of those whose ideasencouraged my efforts to reform and democratise the study ofmusic. I see this text as part of those efforts in that it addressesfundamentalproblemsoflogicanddemocracy inthedenotationofmusicalstructure.Myownawarenessofthoseproblemsstemsfromfortyyearsofworkasamusicologistofthepopular.Backinthe1970sIwascertainlyawareofincongruitieswhentryingtoapply the terminology of conventional music theory to popularmusic,butitwasnotuntilthe1990sthatIstartedtofullyrealisetheextenttowhichthatterminologycanbebothinadequateanddeceptive. It was a gradual process of awakening that, summarisedinthefollowingsixstages,willhopefullymakeforinstructivehistoricalreadingforanyoneinterestedinmusictheoryortheepistemologyofmusic.
Sixstages[1]WhenIwasveryyoung,mymotherusedtosingtheminorhex
atonictuneTheTailorandtheMouse.Ialsorememberherhummingionian minichromatic musichall numbers like If You Were TheOnly Girl In The World. My father, a selftaught amateur pianist,couldmuddlethrougheasyarrangementsofminuetsfromMozartsymphoniesandaccompanytraditionaltuneslikethedorianWhatShall We Do With The Drunken Sailor?, as well as ionian nurseryrhymes likeHickoryDickoryDock.1Hecouldalsooccasionallybeheard doodledooing a Glenn Miller orJack Hylton horn riff.
Then,asateenager,mypianoandorganteacher,KenNaylor,notonlyintroducedmetobebopandBartkbutalsotaughtmetoplayjazzstandardsandtodocloseharmonyarrangements.Withthatmusicalbackground,whichIlaterdiscoveredwasconsideredunusuallyeclecticbyothers,IbecameamusicstudentatCambridgeUniversityintheearly1960sandwasconfrontedbyanalmostex
1. References:[1]TheTailorandtheMouse(Eng.trad.,Tagg2009c);[2]IfYouWereTheOnlyGirl(Como1946);[3]WhatShallWeDoWithTheDrunkenSailor?
(Eng.trad.);[4]HickoryDickoryDock(Eng.nurseryrhyme).
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clusivelyeuroclassicalworld.Duringmythreeyearsatthatinstitution (196265) I had to actively seek out musical opportunitiesoutsidetheacademy,notonlyforprosacfinancialreasonsbutalso
topreservemyownpsychosociomusicalsanity.Ijoineda aScottish country danceband and a soul/R&B combo while trying tofind the time,even if Irarely found the inclination,to completethis motet in the style of Palestrina.2 Before studying at Cam
bridgeIhadnotmetmanywhoheardonesortofmusicasintrinsicallysuperiortoanother,butduringmytimeinthatprivilegedDisneylandoftheEnglishRenaissanceIfoundmyselfrepeatedlytrying to convince those who held such onesided views of aes
theticexcellencethattheyweremissingsomething.Therein,Isuppose,lietheoriginsofmysubsequentcareerasmusicologistofthepopular.ThefirstcoherentwritingIproducedonthatsubjectwasmydoctoralthesis(Tagg1979).
[2] One of the main points in the explanation of popular musicanalysismethodpresented inmyPhDwas that thehierarchy ofprimary(scribal)andsecondary(nonscribal)parametersofexpressionwasinapplicabletomusicwhosemediationrarelyrelied
onnotationandwhoseexpressivedynamicresidedinboutsoftheextended present (intensional aesthetic) rather than in longtermharmonic and melodic narrative (extensional).3 Another criticalpointwasinsistenceonasemioticapproachtomusicanalysisandonthenotionthatthoughtsaboutmusicalstructurationshouldincludediscussionofitsmeanings.
[3]Invitedin1984byCorintorunpopularmusicanalysisseminarsattheCursoslatinoamericanosdemsicacontemporneainTatu,
Brazil,IwassalutarilyobligedtoconfrontmyEuroNorthAmericanculturallimitationsandtolistenwithopenearstopreviouslyunfamiliartypesofmusic.Withhelpfromotherteachersandfromcourseparticipants,Igainedinsightsintohowtheactualsoundsofpopular musics in Latin America, like those of many popularstylesfrommyownpartoftheworld,couldnotbeadequatelyde
2. CompletethismotetinthestyleofPalestrina,thisinventioninthestyleofBach,thispianoquartetinthestyleofBrahmsetc.weretypicalendofyear
compositionexamquestions.
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scribed using the terminology of conventional music theory.Corin alsobrought to my attention the work of Carlos VegawhosewritingsonpopularmusicIlaterfoundusefulinexplaining
thefunctionsofharmonyinchordshuttlesandloops.4[4]Whenquestioningreductionistandethnocentricassumptionsabout the structural traits of black and white in music (Tagg1989), I stumbled on strange contradictions in terminology descriptiveofrhythmandmetre.Firstly,the1958HarvardDictionaryofMusicentryonDottedNotesreferstotheScotchsnapasthereverseoftheordinarydottedrhythm,notingthat[i]nverteddottingisveryfrequentinOrientalandinprimitive[sic]music,where
thenormaldottedrhythmisratherrare.Whoops!Ifordinaryandnormalarerareandifthereverseorinverseisveryfrequent,linguisticlogichasbrokendown,unlesstheoxymoronisintendedasa rhetorical device.5 Secondly, if syncopation is, according to thesame Harvard Dictionary, any deliberate upsetting of the normalpulseofmetre,accentandrhythm,andif[o]ursystemofmusical
3. SeeExtendedpresentinChapter8ofTagg(2012).AccordingtoHall(1992:209),[b]asicto[LeonardB]MeyersargumentarethedifferencesbetweenprimaryandsecondaryparametersTheprimaryparametersmelody, rhythm,harmonyaresyntacticbecausetheycandefineclosureThesecondaryparameterstempo,dynamics,texture,timbrearestatisticalratherthansyntacticbecausetheychangeonlyinquantityandthereforecannotcreateclosureAcentraltheme[ofMeyer(1989),underreview]isthatsecondaryparametersgainincreasingdominanceoverprimaryparametersandsyntacticprocessesthroughthenineteenthcenturyandintothetwentieth.Thistrendleadstotheincreasingstructuralimportanceofstatisticalplansasopposedtosyntacticscripts,andtotheoverwhelmingstatisticalclimaxesbywhichunrealizedimplications[and]unresolvedtensionsareabsorbedand
absolved(p.268).SinceMeyerhimselfseemswellawareoftheincongruity(theincreasingdominanceofsecondaryoverprimaryparameters,etc.),itisnothishistoricalobservationsthataretheproblembuttheactualtermsprimaryandsecondary.TheConciseOxfordDictionary(1995)presentsthefirstmeaningsofprimaryasofthefirstimportance,chief;fundamentalwhilesecondaryisprimarily(sic)definedascomingafterornextbelowwhatisprimary;derivedfromordependingonorsupplementingwhatisprimary.Ifwhatseemedoncetobeprimaryandsecondarycan,inthelightofmusicalevidence,nolongerbeusefullyconceptualisedinsuchclearlyhierarchicalterms,moreaccurate,nonhierarchicalconceptsbecomeanecessity.Perhapsweshouldbetalkingaboutscribalandnonscribal,ornotatable(transcriptibleinFrench)
andnonnotatable(nontranscriptible)parameters.
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rhythmrestsuponthegroupingofequalbeatsintogroupsoftwoandthree,witharegularlyrecurringaccentonthefirstbeatofeachgroup,then [a]nydeviationfromthisschemeisfeltasadistur
banceorcontradictionbetweentheunderlying(normal)pulseandtheactual(abnormal)rhythm.Thisdefinitionmeansthat syncopationcanonlyoccurinmonometricmusicbecause,assoonastwometrescooccur, disturbanceinonebeatpattern(the abnormalrhythm)isnormallythenormintheother,andbecausetogetherthosetwopatternsproduceacompositenormofcrossrhythm,asinglemetricunitinapermanentstateofcontradiction.Itssimplywrongtoqualifyassyncopatedwhateverthoseofusfromamono
metricbackgroundhappentohearasmetricallyabnormal.6[5]Duringthe1990sanincreasingnumberofstudentsinmypopularmusicanalysisseminarscamefromdisciplinesotherthanmusic[ology]. I soon discovered that these students were highly
4. SeeChapters1012inTagg(2009a).Shuttle=lanzadera,vaivn(repeatedtoandfrobetweentwochords);loop=lazo,vuelta(short,repeatedcircleofusuallythreeorfourchords).Vegasconceptofbimodalitywasusefulinexplainingharmonyinmanydifferenttypesofpopularmusic.
5. Allitalicsandunderliningsaremine.ForathoroughdiscussionoftheScotchsnap,seeTagg(2011a).
6. NeitherSubSaharancrossrhythmnotthefluctuatingtoandfropatternsofdownbeatplacementinstyleslikecandombe,merengue,rumbaorsonmontunoconstitutesyncopationbecausewhatsoundslikemetricdisturbanceinourearsisanintrinsicpartoftheongoingnorm.Itshouldalsobenotedthatthetermpolyrhythm(literally=morethanonerhythmatthesametime)isoftenusedconfusinglytodenoteSubSaharancrossrhythm.Unlessthemusicisstrictlyhomophonicandcontainsnocontrapuntalelements,allpolyphonicmusicfeaturesmorethanonesimultaneousrhythmandisthereforepolyrhy
thmic.Polymetricity(morethanonemetreatthesametime)maybeaviabletermforpeoplebroughtupinamonometricmusicculturewhowanttograsptherhythmicprinciplesofSubSaharanmusicsbutthatisnothowthemusicsusersandscholarshearit.Forthemitscrossrhythm,asinglemetreinapermanentstateofcontradiction(Tagg,2013:457465,quotingLadzekpo(1995)andPealosa(2009)).Moreover,medieval,baroqueandTudormusicperformancepractice,withitsuseoftactusinsteadofmetricconducting,suggeststhatsymmetricmonometricity,visualisedinlatertypesofnotationbytheubiquitousbarline,isforeigntothemusicofthattime.Thetermsyncopation,appliedtoconsistenthemiolashifts(asintheGalliard),isinotherwordsquestionable,especiallyincontrapuntalsectionswheredupleandtriplemetre
occursimultaneouslyindifferentvoicesascompositecrossrhythm.
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competent members of the music culture[s] to which theybelonged. They could identify significant aspects of musical structureintermslikethechordat1minute37seconds(unequivocal
timecodedesignation),orwhatthedrummerdoesjustbeforethechorus (designationbyparamusicalsynchrony).Theywerealsooftenbetterthanmusicstudentsatidentifyingtheexpressivequalitiesofthestructurestheyidentifiedinthissortofwaytheprincessvoice,thedetectivechord,thesexophone,thetiptoebass,forexample.Itbecameclearthattherewasasharpdividebetweenstructuraldescriptorsderivingchieflyfromtheproductionofmusicpoetic descriptors like head voice tessitura and minor major
ninechordandthosebasedonperceptionaesthesicdescriptorslike the princess voice and the detective chord. Itbecame increasinglyobviousthatmusictheorysstructuraldescriptors,unlike those used in, say, the visual arts, were almost exclusivelypoeticandgobbledygooktothosewithnoformaltraininginconventionalmusictheory.Themostdisturbingsymptomsofthiscontradictionareofcourse:[i]thatmusicalanalysisismoreoftenthannotabsentinmediaeducation;[ii]thatfilmdirectorsandfilmcom
posers often have difficulties understanding each other; and [3]thatvernacularmusicalcompetenceasinreferencesto,say,thesexysaxortiptoebassistrivialisedandacademicallydisqualified.Wemusicologistshave,Ifear,largelyfailedtorecognise,letalone systematise, this ubiquitous type of cultural competence.Theneedforademocraticreformofstructuralterminologyinmusiciscriticalinthisageofdigitalmedia,smartphones,gaming,ca
bleTV,audioandvideostreamingordownloading,etc.7
[6]Thefinalstageintheprocessofawarenessunderreviewherestartedinthelate1990swhenIhadtowritesubstantialentriesonmelody,harmony,polyphonyandmodesforvolume2ofEPMOW(2003), the Continuum Encyclopedia of PopularMusic of the World.ThistaskforcedmetodirectlyconfrontthesortofproblemsIhadexperiencedearlier.Itbecameimpossibletoevenpretendthinkingthat the terminology of conventional music theory might some
7. Formoreonpoeticandaesthesicdescriptors,seeunderMusicalknowledges
inchapter3andunderAesthesicfocusinchapter6ofTagg(2013).
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howsortitselfout.Ifeltobligedtoraisesomesortofalarm.Mysubsequenteffortstobringatleastsomesemblanceoflogictovery
basictermsofstructuraldenotationstartedwithasmallbutsignif
icant anomaly what to call chordsbased on stacked thirds ifthosebasedonstackedfourthsarecalledquartal.8IagonisedforweekswhenwritingthearticleonharmonybeforerealisingthatIhad no alternativebut to propose the neologism tertial, as explainedinthenextsection.Then,whenaskedbyFrancoFabbriin2006tousethoseencyclopaediaarticlesasthebasisforahandbookinmusictheory(Tagg2009a,2011b)andbyCorintocontributetothe conferenceMuscologiay colonialismo (Tagg 2009b), I finally
managedtoconnectthedots.Itwasnotonlyamatterofscholarlylogicbutalso,asbothFrancoandCorinwerewellaware,ofcomingupwithalternativestoanethnocentricandclasscentricterminology that is also colonialist (Aharonin 1992). The rest of thisarticlefocusesonafewsuchproblemsoftonalterminology.
Triadsandtertialharmony
Ex. 1. Four tertial and five quartal chords
Example 1 shows nine chords, the first fourbased on stackedthirds([1]c e g,[2]c e ginvertedase g c,[3]c e g band[4]f a c inverted),the last fiveonstackedfourths([5]g c finvertedasc f g,[6]beaaseab,[7]f beasef
b,[8]g c f basc f g b,and[9]d g c f barrangedc df g b.Chordnumbers1,2,4,5,6and7aretriadsbecauseeachcontainsthreedifferentlynamedtones,chordnumbers3and8aretetrads(fourdifferentlynamedtones)andnumber9 isapentad(five).Sofar,sogood:chords5,6and7arequartaltriads,chord8aquartal tetradandchord9aquartalpentad.The troublestarts
8. Otherseriousconceptualproblemswerewithpolyphonyandcounterpoint(Tagg
2009a:8182,8689).
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whenyoutrytobeequallypreciseaboutchords14becausemanymusictheoristsinsistoncallingthemtriadiceventhoughchords57 are no less triadic than chords 1, 2 and 4. It is, I suppose,
understandable that the stacking of thirds seemed to need noqualification as long as it was considered the single norm fromwhich all other tonalities were assumed to diverge, but thatassumptionisclearlyuntenableassoonasavarietyoftonalidiomsneeds tobe described using the same terminology. Therefore, ifharmonybasedonstackedfourthsiscalledquartal,harmonycharacterisedby the stacking of thirds has tobe called TERTIAL.9 Thesupposedbinary triadic/quartal is falsebecause it confuses two
distinct criteria for chord denotation the number of notes in achord (triadic, tetradic) and theprinciple of interval stacking in achord(tertialforthirds,quartalforfourths).Itisworthnotingthatwhereas quartal harmony, the abnormal idiom in euroclassicalears, was assigned an adequate qualifier (quartal) the normalidiom(tertial)seemstohaverequirednosuchqualification.
Euroclassicaltertialharmonyisalsosometimesreferredtoasfunc
tional as if other types of tonal polyphony had no function. Thefact that the chord loops, shuttles, matrices and turnarounds ofpopular music styles so often function as tonalmotoric gesture(partofgroove),orasmarkersofperiods,andthatchangefromonetonalpatterntoanothercanbeinstrumentalinestablishingasense of narrative (diataxis or episodic form) seems to escapedyedinthewoolSchenkerians.Iveevenhearddiatonicusedasalabelfortertialharmonyasifnoquartalpolyphonyevervisited
allnotesinadiatonicheptatonicmode:itsasifHindemith,Bartk,FreddieHubbard,MilesDavisandMcCoyTynerhadnevermademusic.Euroclassicaltertialharmonyissimplyoneparticular(andintermsofnarrativeconstructionparticularlyinteresting)idiomoftonalpolyphony.Therearemanyothersbuttheirdenota
9. Itgoeswithoutsayingthatchordsconsistingofstackedfifthsarealsoquartal,notquintal,becausethefifthistheoctavecomplementofthefourth,justasnoonereferstosextalharmonywhenasixth,theoctavecomplementofa
third,isfeaturedinatertialchord.
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tioncan,likethatofeuroclassicaltertiality,oftenbeproblematic,sometimestothepointofabsurdity.ParticularlymuddleheadedinthiscontextarethetwobinariesTONALV.ATONALandTONALV.
MODAL.
Problematicconcepts
Basictonalterms
Before disentangling the contradictorybinariesjust mentioned Ineedtopositsixaxiomaticworkingdefinitions.
[1]NOTE:[i]anysingle,discretesoundoffinitedurationinapiece
ofmusic(MIDIdefinition);[ii]anysuchsoundwithaudiblefundamentalpitch(forexamplec1,alowe3,a440Hz,ahighf5);[iii]theduration,relativetothemusicsunderlyingpulse,ofanynoteaccordingtodefinition[i]or[ii](e.g.quarternote,Viertel).ThefirstdefinitionofNOTEwillbeusedinthistext:anysingle,discretesoundoffinitedurationinapieceofmusic.
[2]TONE:notewithaudiblefundamentalpitch(definition[ii]ofNOTE).TONALmeanshavingthecharacteristicsofatoneoroftones.
[3]TONIC(n.):referencetone,keynoteortoneofcentralimportanceinapieceorextractofmusic.
[4]TONALITY:system,codifiedornot,accordingtowhichtonesareconfiguredinamusicalculture.
[5]MODE:tonalvocabulary,oftenabstractedandarrangedinscalarformfortheoreticalpurposes,ofapieceorextractofmusic.
[6]POLYPHONY: [i]music inwhichat least twosoundsofclearlydifferingpitch, timbreormodeofarticulationoccurat thesametime(MIDIdefinition);[ii]musicinwhichatleasttwosoundsofaudiblefundamentalpitchoccursimultaneously(tonalpolyphony);[iii]aparticulartypeofcontrapuntaltonalpolyphonyusedbycertain European composersbetween c.1400 and c.1650 (restrictiveeuroclassicalmeaning).InthisarticlePOLYPHONYwillrefertomusicinwhichatleasttwosoundsofclearlydifferingpitch,timbreormodeof articulation occur at the same time and POLYPHONIC will qualify
music exhibiting those traits. Drumkit patterns (nontonal poly
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phony),melodieswithdroneoranyother formof tonalornontonalaccompaniment,fourparthomophony,rockrecordings,etc.,aswellasaByrdKyrieorBachfugue(alltonalpolyphony),arein
otherwords(unlike,say,anaccompaniedmonophonicmelodyorclavepatternsoundingonitsown)allconsideredpolyphonic.
Tonalandtonical
The most glaring terminological anomaly in coventional musictheoryisperhapsthatbetweenTONALandATONALmusic.Schn
berg, for one,objected to the label atonalbecausehiscompositional norms were definedby tonal rules,by TWELVE TONE tech
niques.Besides,neitherhe,norBerg,norWebernwerefamousfortheiruseofatonalsounds(atonalinthelogicalsenseofnontonal):youwontfindmuchhihat,snaredrum,maracasorsampledtrafficintheiruvre.Itisindeedbizarrethateuroclassicalmusictheorists managed to confuse the notion of music with no intendedtonic, as in the work of twelvetone composers or in Herrmannsmusicfortheshowerscene inPsycho(1960),withmusiccontaining no tones, as in, say, taiko drumming (e.g. Kod 1985). Using
appropriatelinguisticderivatives,therearetwoconceivablesolutionstothisembarrassingproblem:theAL,ALITY,ALISTandtheIC,ICALpatternssetoutinTable1(p.11).
TONE,TONALandTONALITYfollowthelinguisticlogicofCENTRECENTRAL CENTRALITYandFORM FORMAL FORMALITYbut,unlikethose examples of that pattern, TONE has no adjective derivingfromtheabstractnounTONALITY.UnlikeCENTRALISTorFORMALIST,TONALISTorTONALISTICjustdoesntexist.Ifitdiditmightbe
used to qualify tonal music with a tonic, while nontonalistmightbeused todenotetonalmusicwithnone.However,apartfromsoundinglikethenameofapoliticalmovementwetonalists will introduce free mobile phone ringtones for pensionersafterthenextelectionNONTONALISTwoulderroneouslyimplythat tonal music without a keynote had no tonality in the sensedefinedearlier,nosystemaccordingtowhichtoneswereconfigured.Sincethatispatentlyuntrue,theonly logicalsolutionisto
usethesecondpatternofderivationtocreateanadjectiveending
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in AL on thebasis of a noun ending in IC. So,just as CLINICALthings happen in CLINICS,just as the weather is TROPICAL in theTROPICS, andjust as RHETORICAL devices (like the just as ana
phoraofthissentence)areusedinRHETORIC,tonalmusicthatusesa TONICoughtconsequently tobe TONICALand tonalmusic thatdoesnotshouldbecalledeitherATONICALorNONTONICAL.Thatwouldatleastridusofthesillyusesofatonalandatonality.Table 1. Linguistically conceivable solutions to the terminological confusion
between tone and tonic
Thenextitemofwidespreadterminologicaldisorderislessobviouslyabsurdbutitis,Ibelieve,justasquestionable.Itisalsomoreinsidious.
TonalandmodalLetmestartwithananalogy.IonceoverheardaFrenchstudentonexchangeattheUniversitdeMontralsayingtooneofherclassmatesMaisvousaveztousunaccentici.Iwasstruckbythechauvinismofherobservation,notleastbecauseshewasattendingtheoldestfrancophoneuniversityinthefrancophoneworldssecondlargestcity.Itisprobablylessofasurprisetolearnthat,hereintheUK, itwasonlyrecently that talkingwithanaccent (i.e. inany
other way than that considered correct at public (i.e. private)
Pattern1: ,al,ality,alist[ic]
rootnoun adjective1 abstractnoun adjective2
centre central centrality centralistform formal formality formalistcrime criminal criminality criminalisticsense sensual sensuality sensualist
TONE TONAL TONALITY TONALIST[IC]?Pattern2:ic,ical
noun adjective noun adjectivecomic comical clinic clinical
ethic[s] ethical magic magicalmusic musical rhetoric rhetorical
polemic polemical tropic[s] tropicalstatistic[s] statistical TONIC TONICAL
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schools or at Oxbridge) was considered acceptable for BBCannouncersandnewsreaders.
Theanalogybetweenthenotionofspeakingwithanaccentandmaking modal music shouldbe clear. According to such chauvinist thinking itmattersnot,so tospeak, ifmorepeople speakwithanaccentthanusereceivedpronunciation,oriftheymakemusicusingtonalvocabularies(modes)differingfromthoseoftheeuroclassicalcanon.Inbothcasestheformer,usuallypractisedbyamajority,isgivenalabelimplyingdivergenceordeviationfroman assumed norm usually establishedby a minority.10 Indeed,
modalmusicinconventionalmusictheorycametomeanmusicinanyothermodethanthoseusedintheeuroclassicalrepertoireoftheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.Thosetwomodesareof course the heptatonic major scale (ionian) and the heptatonicminorscalewith its ionianisedmixtureofdorianandolianthatproducesthreevariants,twoofwhichcontainmajorsevenths[1]theascendingmelodic1234567;[2]theharmonic1234567andonlyoneofwhich[3]thedescendingmelodic8765
4 3 2 1 corresponds to any of the other European heptatonicmodes(olian).Inconventionalmusictheory,tonalvocabulariesusing the euroclassical major and ionianised minor modes areoftenqualifiedastonal,asifallothermodeswere notalsotonal,asiftheirdistinctivetonaltraitswerenotalsodefinedbythewaytheirconstituent tonesareconfigured inrelationtoatonic.Thatclearlymakesnosensebecauseallmodesarebydefinitiontonalinthattheyconsistoftonesandaredefinedbythewayinwhichthosetonesareconfigured.
Conversely,theionianmode,themostcommontonalvocabularyintheeuroclassicalrepertoire,israrely,ifever,consideredamodebecause, tautologically, its tonal,notmodal!This terminologi
10. ModeswereoftennamedaftertheregionsornationsofwhichtheywereconsideredtypicaltheIonianandDorianmodes,forexample,ortheHijjazandKurdajnas,or,invernacularEuropeanparlance,aGypsyscale.Seealsothesemanticcontortionofinversev.normaldottingaccordingtotheHarvard
DictionaryofMusic under4,pp.45,above.
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cal travesty not only ethnocentrically relegates modality to astate of alterity divergent from a unilaterally hijacked tonalnorm;also,byexcludingtheionianfromtherealmofmodality,it
preventsusfrominvestigatingwhichparticularcharacteristicsofthatmodemayhaveledtoitsgeneraladoptionandpopularityinEuropeintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.ItisinthiscontextworthrememberingthatonlytwoofthesevenEuropeanheptatonic modes (ionian and lydian) contain raised subtonics(leadingnotes,7)and,intermsofharmony,thatonlytheionianmodefeaturestertialmajortriadsontheprime,theperfectfourthandtheperfectfifth.Didthesemitonalpulltowardsthetonictriad
ofnotesinsidetheothertwotertialmajortriads,onedescending(43 in IVI) and the other ascending (78 in VI), make for astronger type of tonal directionality than those found in otherEuropean heptatonic modes? Did the popularity of the ionianmode,withits7,leadtoalterationofthesubtonicintwooftheeuroclassical traditions three minormode variants? Did theionianmodestwoleadingnotes,onerisingandtheotherfalling,make it more conducive to modulation than other available
modes? Could any of those other modes have ever led to thedevelopmentofextensionalharmonic narrative, as in the sonataform of the first movement in a Beethoven symphony? I cannotansweranyofthesequestionsbutIalsofailtoseehowanylightcanbeshedonsuchmattersiftheionianisnotconsideredasonemodeamongseveral.
Theterminologicalappropriationoftonaltorefertojustonesetoftonalpracticesduringabriefperiodinthehistoryoftheworlds
smallest continent is, to say the least, problematic. The falsedichotomy tonal v. modal is one example of the confusion, thetermspretonalandposttonalanother,sincetheybothpatentlyimply that medieval and early Renaissance music (pre) is asdevoid of tones as twelvetone music (posttonal, atonal, etc.).Andwhatshouldwemakeof,forexample,anhemitonicpentatonicism inwidespreaduseallover thisplanetbefore,duringandafterthesocalledtonalperiod,orofthewidespreaduseofter
tial ionian harmony in todays supposedly posttonal era? This
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unilateralconfiscationoftonalhasobviousrepercussionsonthenotionofTONALITY.
Tonality,Grammaticality,Tonart,TonalitTONALITY is stillusedbysomescholars of music todenote thepracticestheyconsidertonalintherestrictivesensejustcriticised.Used in that way, tonality refers to one system, and one only,according to which tones are configured.Just imagine if GRAMMATICALITYcouldonlyrefer to thegrammaticalrulesofjustonelanguageorgroupoflanguages,forexampletoEnglishortoNeoLatin and Germanic languages, in which correct use of definite
andindefinitearticlesisacentralelementofgrammaticality.SuchrestrictiveuseofthetermwouldmeanthatChinese,Farsi,Hindi,Indonesian,Japanese,Russianandhundredsofotherwidelyspokenlanguageswhichusenodefinitearticleswouldnotbeconsideredgrammatical.SuchanimplicationwouldcauseconsiderableuproaramongcomparativelinguistsbutIhaveyettocomeacrossuproaramongmusicologistsagainstanequallyrestrictiveuseofthe word TONALITY. Thats why I propose that TONALITY should
meanthesystemorsetofnormsaccordingtowhichtonesareconfiguredinanymusicalculture.However,evenifthatmuchlessethnocentricdefinitionsolvesoneimportantproblem,itraisesanother.
ThebroaderdefinitionjustpresentedworkswellinEnglishandinGermaniclanguageswhereTONALITY/TONALITTisdistinguishedfrom the concept of KEY/TONART. In NeoLatin languages, however, TONALIT, TONALIT, TONALITATE, TONALIDAD and TONALIDADEtendtomeanKEY/TONARTratherthanTONALITY/TONALITT
which, consequently, requires another expression to clarify thedistinction.As a native anglophone Iamhardly in a position toadvisespeakersofFrench,Italian,Spanish,PortugueseandRomanianhow TONALITY/TONALITTshouldbe translatedbut IwouldhavesuggestedtostudentsatthefrancophoneUniversitdeMontralwhowereuncomfortableusingTONALITinbothsensesthattheymightconsider,atleastasastopgapsolution,anexpressionlikeIDIOMETONALorSYSTMETONALtocovertheconceptTONAL
ITY/TONALITTandsticktothemorecommonuseofTONALITas
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equivalenttotheAngloGermanicconceptofKEY/TONART.Ifullyrealisehowunsatisfactory thissuggestionmaybeandwouldbegratefultohearsuggestionsfromcolleaguesinIberia,Italy,Latin
America,Romaniaandthefrancophoneworldastohowthisconceptualproblemmightberesolved.11
Morenorms
Theconfusion and culturallyrestrictivecharacterof centralconceptsreferringtotonalityinconventionalmusictheoryrunsdeepinthedetailsofstructuraldescription.IvealreadymentionedtheproblemsofTONAL,ATONALandTONICAL,aswellofTERTIALandQUARTAL.Iwillendthiscentralpartofmytextwithaverybriefaccountof two interrelated problems: harmonic cadence nomenclatureandmonomodality.
Cadencenomenclature
Therearefourmaincadencetypes intheconventional theoryofeuroclassicalmusic.Twoofthosecadencetypestakeonestepflatwards, the other two one step sharpwards round the circle of
fifths. The centrality of the flatwards VI PERFECT or FINALCADENCE in euroclassical tonality needs no introductionbut thethreeotherswarrantsomediscussionthatcanshedlightonconceptualproblemswiththenomenclatureofallfourtypes.ThetwocadenceswhichproceedclockwiseroundthecircleoffifthsaretheHALForIMPERFECTCADENCEandthePLAGALCADENCE.ThesecondanticlockwisetypeisusuallycalledanINTERRUPTEDCADENCE.
The HALF CADENCE is so calledbecause it marks the harmonicchangefromItoVinextremelycommonharmonicschemeslikeIV V Ioveraperiodof,say,four,eightorsixteenbarsinwhichVisobviouslythehalfwayhouse(ex.2,p.16).Atypicalhalfcadence,
11. ManythankstoLuanaStan(Montral)whoinformedmebyemail(111204)thatsistemtonalisusedinRomanianmusictheorycirclestodenotesolelyeuroclassicalioniantonalityincontradistinctiontoothertonalitiessuchassistematonal,asintwelvetonemusic(!),andsistemmodal(allthosenontonalmodes!).IfsimilarlymuddleheadednotionsexistinotherNeoLatinlan
guagesthisproblemwillnotbeeasilysolved.
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likethatinbars34ofexample2,whichproceedsclockwisefromItoV isacadencebecause itmarksarestingpointonadifferentchordtotheprecedingone;andit is halfbecause itmarksthat
change halfway through a longer harmonic scheme or process,such as the eightbar period of ex.2. It is an imperfect cadence
because,inthiscontextofioniantertialtonality,ithasnofinality.Bymarkingtheendofaphraseorsmallerpartofalargerunit,ofwhichhalfisstilltocome,ithastheoppositeeffectoftheperfectcadence VI. Put simply, half or imperfect cadences (IV) inioniantertialtonalityserverathertoopenupharmonicprocessesandperfectcadences(VI)toclosethem.12
Ex. 2. Half/imperfect cadence : E viva Espaa(Vrethammar, 1973).
PLAGAL CADENCES also run clockwise,but not from I to V: theytake insteadthesinglesharpwardsstepIVI.Sincetheyendonthetonic,plagalcadencesinvolveharmonicclosure,asisevidentfrom their use as the AMEN chord formula par excellence. Thatsaid,itissignificantthatmedievalmusictheoristschosetheLatinword for oblique (plagius, from Greekplgio meaning sideways,slanting,askance,misleading)todistinguishcertainmodes,not chords, from their authentic variants and its interesting tonotehowthesameadjectiveconnotingfalsitycametoqualifythechordalAmenendingIVI.Plagalcadencesmayinotherwords
beendingsbutEuropeanmusictheoryclearlydoesnotconsiderthemtrue,authentic,direct,complete,full,finalorperfect.Thoseadjectives are of course reserved for theperfect cadence leadingVI.
12. CadencesuspendueandcadenzasospesaaretheFrenchandItaliannamesforhalf
cadence:harmoniccompletionhasbeensuspended,lefthangingintheair.
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INTERRUPTED CADENCES in euroclassical tonality do exactly whattheirnamesuggests:theyinterruptaVIcadencebysubstitutingIwithacloselyrelatedchord,usuallythecommontriadondegree
6 of the relevant key, Vvi, or sometimes VVI, or, less commonly,VVI.ProceedingfromVtovi(orVI)isofcourseanefficient way of interrupting euroclassical finalitybecause, in thattonal tradition, vi or VI leads anticlockwise round the circle offifths, via ii or IIback to V again and the FINAL/FULL/PERFECTCADENCE VI. Its worth noting that the interrupted cadence(Vvi) is also referred to as deceptive (cadence trompeuse, Trugschluss,cadenzadinganno),broken(cadencerompue)andavoided
(vite).13If anything demonstrates the normality of VI closure in conventionalnotionsofeuroclassicalharmony itmustsurelybe thedistinctionbetweenqualifierslike,ontheonehand,HALF,INCOMPLETE, PLAGAL/OBLIQUE, INTERRUPTED, DECEPTIVE and FALSE and,ontheother,PERFECT/FINAL/FULL(VI).However,
Ex. 3. Uninterrupted final cadence on vi: Um Um Um Um Um(Wayne Fon-tana and the Mindbenders, 1964): final refrain and ending.
Iveincludedexample3asevidencethatthereneedbenothing interrupted, oblique, deceptive, false, unauthentic, incomplete, orimperfectabouta finalcadence landingonvi (Fm), therelativeminor triad of the songs previous tonal centre (I in A major).
Theresevenaritenutoandchangeofrhythmicarticulationtounderlinefinality |insteadoftheusual .14Inshort,euroclassicalcadencecategoriesandassumptionsaboutharmonicdirectionmaybefineforthemusicalculturalpracticesonwhich
13. Trompeuse,rompue,viteareFrench,TrugschlussisGermanandingannoItalian.14. UmUmUmUmUmwaswrittenbyCurtisMayfieldandfirstrecordedby
MajorLance(1963).TheversesareresoundinglyinAmajoras,indeed,isthefirsthalfofeachrefrain.TheLanceoriginalendswithafadeoutbuttheFon
tanacoverleavesnodoubtabouttheidentityofthetunesfinalchord.
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such conceptualisation isbasedbut it is absurd to assume thatthosecategoriesandconceptsapplytoanyotherbodyofmusic
Tomakethispointquiteclear,example4presentsanunambiguouslyuninterruptedfinalmelodiccadencefrompretonaltimes.Thats followedby two equally uninterrupted interrupted cadencesfromposttonaltimes(examples5and6).15
Ex. 4. Psalm tone 2 (end of final Gloria Patrisimplified)
Ex. 5. Beatles: Not A Second Time(1963c: uninterrupted olian cadence
and I-vi/III-i shuttle in fade-out)
Ex. 6. Los Calchakis: Quiquenita (Argentinian trad.); La flte indienne,1968) bimodal loop: VII III V i or IV I III vi?
Monomodality Whileexamples3and4 illustratefinal uninterruptedcadences,examples5and6donot:theyaresimplyuninterruptedandcarrynodefinitesenseoffinality.TheBeatlestune(ex.5)fadesoutoverashuttlebetweenGmajorandEminorandalthough theactual
15. Thecontradictoryexpressionuninterruptedinterruptedcadenceisintendedtohighlighttheabsurdityofapplyingeuroclassicalcadencenomenclaturetononeuroclassicalmusics.Preandposttonalareincludedhereas
jokesonthosenonsensicalterms.
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Flteindiennerecording(ex.6)endsonEminoritcouldgoonrepeatingtheloopCGBEminaeternam.Now,studentsofconventional music theory are expected to identify the key of any
tonicalmusictheyareaskedtoanalyse.Oneobviousclueineuroclassicalmusicisofcoursethefinalchordofthepiecebutinexample3 thatcluewouldbequitemisleadingbecause therecordingspendsmoretimeinAmajorthanFminorevenifitcadenceseachverseandthewholeperformanceonthelatter.WiththefadeoutoveraGEmshuttleinexample5andwiththeconstantloopofexample6thenotionofasingletonicbecomesevenmoredubious.AsCarlosVeganoted(1944:160)withreferencetocriollosong:
Nohaymelodiasenmayorymelodiasenminor:haysimplementemelodiasbimodales.16
BimodalityiscommoninmanypopularstylesfromLatinAmericaandtheBritishIsles.ApartfromtheIviorIIIishuttleofexamples5and6,anothervariantofharmonicbimodality inLatinAmericaisthefamiliarharmonicminorloop i iv V V(e.g.FmBmCinex.7,b.112,theminorLaBambamatrix)which,whenthepolesarereversedfromascendingtodescending(e.g.FmED
C,ex.7,b.1316)becomesaphrygiansequence(iv III II I).17Ex. 7. Carlos Puebla: Comandante Che Guevara: olian and phrygian.
Thenextexample (no.8,p.20) iscloser tomyhome (Yorkshire)andprovidesadifferentslantontheissueofbimodality.Whatisthetonalityofthistune?Whatkeyormodeisitin?Well,ifthestart
16. =Therearenomajorandminortunes:therearejustbimodaltunes.
17. Formoreonolian/phrygianreversibility,seeTagg(2009a:227234).
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andendingplustherecurrenceofopenfifthCdyads(C5) intheguitarpart(bars1,3,7,11,15,16)areanythingtogoby,itsinC.Afewofmymusicstudentshaveonfirstlisteningheardthetune
asCdorianbutIhavetopointoutthatnothird,neitherenore,occursanywhere in therecording: itmightjustaswellbemixolydianwithnomajorthird.Inshort,nooneintheclassroom,includingmyself,isreallysurehowthepiecestonalityshouldbedescribed.Apparentlyhexatonic(c d f g a b)andneithermajornorminor,itdefiesdescriptionusingthesortofeuroclassicalmusictheorythatmostofushavelearnt.Onewayoutofthisconceptual impasse is to consider the tune as having two modes, each
based on its own tonal centre: [1] as an anhemitonic pentatonicscalebasedonthetonic(c)andincludingheptatonicscaledegrees1,2,4,5and7(c d f g b);[2]asapentatonicmajormodebasedonthefirstmodessubtonic(b)andincludingthesamefivenotes(b c d f g)inrelationtothatb as(heptatonic)scaledegrees1,2,3,5and6plustheadditionalhexatonic7(a).18
Ex. 8. Steeleye Span: The Female Drummer(Eng. trad., rec. 1971)
18. Thesecondarymodemighttheoreticallybelydian,butIamunawareofany
traditionalmelodyfromtheBritishIslesbeinginthatmode.
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Table 2. Configuration of tonal poles in The Female Drummer(ex. 8)
AsshowninTable2,thefirstmode,basedonc,occupiesbars1,3,7,11,15and16,whilethesecondmode,withitstonalcentreb,is
heardinbars2,4(includingthefinalainbar3),5,10,12(includingtheaupbeat)and13.Thatleavesbars6,8,9and14whichtheguitaristmarkswitheitherthefifthabovec(ginbars6,8and14)orthefifthaboveb (finbar9).ThissortoffluctuationbetweentwotonalpolesthatIcallthe(MAIN)TONICandtheCOUNTERPOISE(candb inexample8)istypicalformanytunesfrompreindustrialBritainandIreland.Itcanbeconfiguredinalargevarietyofwaystogenerateinterestingpatternsoftonalmovementandofpe
riodicity regular or irregular, equal or unequalthat,judgingfromtheobviousdifficultyImhavingindescribingthephenomenon,seemstohavenoreadystructuraldescriptors.
Moreover,whiletheb mode(b c d f gwithouttheadditionala)hastworelativelyfamiliarnamesanhemitonicMAJORPENTATONIC or, to use Kodlys terminology, DOHPENTATONIC, thepentatonicmodeoncinexample8c d f g bisvirtuallyunknown in tonal traditions where the presence of heptatonic
scaledegree3isessential.Containingscaledegrees1,2,4,5and7,itsneithermajornorminorbut,asshowninTable3andcontinuingwithKodlysnamingsystem,RPENTATONIC(rmisolladoh).Itcoversa toa ontheblacknotesofapianokeyboard(ab de g)ordtod(d e g a c)onthewhitenotes.Andwhataboutthemelodyinbars6,8,9and14,noneofwhichcanbeunequivocallyassignedtoeitherrpentatonicmode1ortohexatonicallyextended dohpentatonic mode 2 even if the tune in thosebars
theoreticallyfitsboth?AreweperhapshearingpartofaGminor
bar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
c g
g
b
tonalpole 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16
c
f
g
b
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pentatonicmode(lapentatonicong)inbars6,8and14,andanFmajorpentatonicmode(dopentatoniconf)inbar9?Theguitaristclearlyseemstobehearingthingsthatwayinthosebars.Theques
tionishowthesevariantsofthetwounderlyingpentatonicmodesandtheshiftsintonalnuancetheyproduceshouldbedenoted.Idontknow.Doesanybody?
Table 3. The five anhemitonic penatonic modes
Numerousotherquestionsofstructuraldesignationarisefromtheproblemspresentedabove.Forexample,howdothetwothirdlessanhemitonicpentatonicmodesonsolandr(dd andaa respectivelyonthepianosblacknotes)relatetoprinciplesofquartalharmony? How can different quartal chordsbe denoted, ideally inabbreviatedform,insteadofbeingmistakenlyidentifiedintertialtermslikesus4whenharmonicsuspensionisneitherintendednorheard?Whydohexatonicmodesseemtolack labelswheneachofthesevendiatonicheptatonicmodeshasitsownname?CouldtheGuidonianhexachordbeofanyuseinthesystematisationofhexatonicmodesand,ifso,how?OrshouldwebethinkingintermsofArabic, Persian or European medieval tetrachords? How useful
mightGlareanshypomodesbeinunderstandingthedifferenttypesofbimodalityofexamples38?Couldtheconceptsofvadiandsamvadi in the theory of classical music from Northern Indiabe applied in any useful way to the dynamicbetween what I earliercalledmaintonicandcounterpoise?Whatdowecall(tertial)ioniantonalityintheeuroclassicaltraditionandhowdowedistinguishitfrom the (also tertial) ionian tonality of tunes like La Bamba orGuantanamera?Idontknowhowtoansweranyofthesequestions
either.
Modename Blacknotesonly Heptatonicscaledegrees Whitenotes
dohpentatonic [] [8] []
rpentatonic [] [8] []
mipentatonic [] [8] d[]
solpentatonic [] [8] []
la pentatonic [] [8] []
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Idontknowandsowhat?
IdontknowhowmanyIDONTKNOWSIveutteredorimpliedin
this text, nor how many problems of structural designation Ivetriedtoidentify,norhowmanyissuesofstructuralconceptualisation are left to confront. Theresbeen no room to discuss thedescriptionoftimbre,vocalpersona,orperiodicityandIvedoneno more than supeficially skimjust one issue issue relating torhythm and metre.19 I have also yet to mention conventionalmusictheoryslopsidedinsistenceondiachronic,extensional,episodic, narrative or horizontal FORM asprocess (DIATAXIS) and its
neglect ofFORM
as a dynamic, kinetic, synchronic, intensional,textural, tactile, spatial or vertical state contained within theextendedpresent(SYNCRISIS).20
Nevertheless,Ihopeitisclearthatitisunreasonabletousetermslike dominant, subdominant, perfect cadence, half cadence andinterrupted cadence when describing tonality in the countlesspieces of widely heard music in mixolydian, dorian, olian orphrygianmodes,wherehalfcadencesandinterruptedcadences
areoftenfinal,andwheremajortertialtriadsonscaledegree5(V)are either altered from modespecific minor triads or nonexistent?Inmixolydian,dorianandolianrockharmony,forexample,adominanttertialtriadismostlikelybasedonthefourth(IV,thesubdominantineuroclassicalmusictheory)andasubdominantchord on the unaltered subtonic (VII) which, according to themusictheoryIwastaught,apparentlyeitherhasnofunctionorisa subdominant to thesubdominantwhichcannotexistbecause
thereisnodominanttowhichitcanreasonablybesub.Inshort,difficultiesinthestructuraldesignationofnoneuroclassicaltonalitycanbecrippling.
Butdotheseproblemsreallymatter?,objectsmypopulistmusoalterego. Afterall,heargues, weretalkingaboutmusicthatisplayed,heardandenjoyed.Andbesides,hesays,ifyoustartto
19. Seepp.45,esp.ftnt.6,p.5.
20. SeeTagg(2013:272273,383385,chapter12,esp.pp.417425).
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codifyityoulljustendupwithanothersetoffixedrulesthatcanbetaughtyearafteryearintheacademy.Thatllbenobetterthanthesystemyourecurrentlycriticising.
Mymusiciandevilsadvocateisbothrightandwrong.Hesrightto point out the dangers of institutionalised codification butwrongtosingleoutcodificationratherthanitsinstitutionalisationas the problem. Obviously, codified rules extrapolated fromexistingpracticeseasilybecomefixedandnormativeiftheyareused to maintain a status quo of power established after theirintroduction into the institution. Among mechanisms conducive
to such entrenchment are: [1] managerial inertia and shorttermcostcutting (the same courses with the same teacher is cheaperandlesshassle);[2]notgivingteachersenoughtimeforresearchand innovation (itsmoreprofitable to teachmorestudentswithfewer teachers); [3] discouraging or marginalising teachers whomight upset the apple cart; [4] preoccupation with leaguetablescams that force institutions to conform to a relatively homogenous set of activities so as to facilitate comparison on a scale of
quantifiable excellence (a conservative mechanism intrinsic tothe magic markets credo of free competition). In addition tothosefourpointsitshouldalsoberememberedthatteachersandresearchershavetoearnalivingbyworkinginsuchinstitutions,thattheyneedtopaytheirrentormortgage,sendtheirchildrentoschool, etc., and that a few colleagues may have personal problems relating to careerism, selfaggrandisement, financial gain,positionsofpower,etc.Allthesefactorsmeanthattheriskofepistemicentrenchmentandinertiaishigh.Indeed,mymusoalteregoisrighttotheextentthatsuchmechanismsofinstitutionalisationareprerequisitesfortheterminologicalchaoscriticisedinthisarticle.However,asItrytoexplainnext,noneofthismeansthatnecessaryterminologicalreformiseitherdangerousorpointless.
Ifthetonalpracticesofmusicotherthantheeuroclassicalanditsoffshoots remain uncodified, the terminology of conventionaleuroclassicalmusictheorywillstayunchallengedandcontinueto
marginalise, trivialise and falsify all types of tonality exhibiting
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importanttraitsforwhichithaseitherflawedconceptsornoconceptsatall.Notonlywouldthatprolongtheundemocraticdisrespectandembarrassinglyethnocentricignoranceitseemstoshow
towards tonality in so many musics usedby a majority of theworlds population; it would also, as I argued earlier, obstructeffortstounderstandwhatmadethemusicaltraditiononwhichit
based that same terminology so interesting and so influential.Moreover, even though noone can ever possibly understandevery musical tradition existing at any time anywhere in theworld, less inadequate concepts of musical structuration can atleastgiveusabetterchanceofunderstandinghowdifferenttypes
ofmusicactuallywork.Forexample,insightintotheworkingsofphrygian tertial harmony, as usedby master flamenquistas likeSabicas(n.d.),orbyCarlosPueblaandhissonmusicians(ex.7),or
byChileangoodtimebandLosTrukeros(2007),couldhavepreventedat leastoneotherwisegiftedyoungguitaristfromattaching an extra perfect cadence (EAm) to the end of a malagueaperformance that he had already ended with a III phrygiancadence(FE),completewithitsthreesimultaneouslydescending
leadingsemitones(cb,ag,fe).21
Finalreflexions
Thisarticlehasdealtwithonlyaverysmallnumberofconceptualproblemsinconventionaleuroclassicalmusictheory.DespitedifficultyinpresentingsomestructuralpointsbecauseIcouldfindnovocabularywithwhichtodesignatethem,Ichosetolimitthedis
cussion toa fewaspectsof tonality for two interrelated reasons.The first ispurely logistic in the sense that tonalparametersareeasiertoputintothescribalformintrinsictothemediumofthisarticlethanareparametersof,say,timbreorauralmiseenscne.
21. olianphrygianbimodalityisdiscussedinbTagg(2009a:227234)andillustratedinTagg(2009b)whichalsoincludesthebizarreperfectcadenceaddon.PhrygianfinalcadencesareofcoursetwoapennyintertiallyharmonisedmusicfromtheBalkan,forexampleinsuchpopularrecordingsasAlexiou/
(1976),ErMalyk/ (1992),Mlamas/ (2006).
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Theotherreasonisthatconventionalmusictheoryhasdevelopednumeroustermstodenotetonalstructuresspecifictotheeuroclassicalrepertoire,fewertodenotestructuresrelatingtotime,speed,
rhythm, metre, periodicity, etc., and far, far fewer to denoteaspectsoftimbreandspatiality.Tonalityisinotherwordsanareaofstudyinwhichmusictheoristsaresupposedtothinkandactasexperts. I can in other words reasonably assume that they willfullyunderstandwhatIwriteorsayonthetopic.Butwillthey?
Having,inOctober2011,giventhefirstlivepresentationofideascontained in thistext, Icanreport thatreactionswere ingeneral
encouragingontenoftwelveoccasions.22
Ononeoftheothertwooccasions(adepressinglyconservativeinternationalmusicanalyisconference)Iwasmetwithcompactsilence.Aftermytalk,ahelpfulresearchstudenttoldmeinthecorridorthatmostparticipantsthought I was causing unnecessary trouble and that theyjustwantedtoregressintothebusinessasusualoftheirivorytowers.TheothernegativeexperiencewasatapostgraduateseminarinauniversitymusicschoolwhereIspoketoanaudienceofthree.On
that occasion I learnt from one of the three that my ideas werelikelytobeinterpretedasanattackontheauthoritarianintellectualagendapromotedbyinfluentialmembersofstaffattheinstitution.23 Inboth instances I was clearly living on an epistemicplanetradicallydifferenttothatinhabitedbytheintellectuallyorliterallyabsentaudience.
Theothertenoccasionsweredecidedlylessalienating.ThatdoesnotmeanImetnocriticalcommentsindiscussionsfollowingmy
presentation.Forexample,onestudentfearedthatcleaningupthe
22. BetweenOctober2011andNovember2012IgavepresentationsrelatingtothistextatconferencesinRome,Edinburgh,GranadaandCceres,aswellatuniversityschoolsofmusicand/ormediainGlasgow,Aarhus,Durham,Newcastle,Liverpool,Lancaster,NottinghamandHuddersfield(12occarions).Imalsobookedin2013totalkabouttheseandsimilarissuesinCambridge,Keele,Trento,Turin,Paris,Nantes,OviedoandSantiagodeChile.
23. Thetwoconservativeagendaswere:[1]oldstylemusicalabsolutism(seeTagg,2013:83100);[2]1990sstylepoststructuralisttheorising,i.e.thesortofmeta
contextualabsolutismcritiquedinTagg(2013:101115).
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terminology wouldjust create another set of rules that studentswould have to followand thatwould eventuallybecomejustasuseless. On another occasion, a senior professor of composition
expressedadifferentkindofscepsis.Ofcourseyourerightandwhatyousayisperfectlylogical,hesaid,buttheresnotahopeinhell that anything will come of it!. That comment seemed quiterealisticinthelightofwhatIdexperiencedonthetwooccasionssketchedonthepreviouspage.Iwas,however,abletoassurehimthat I would notbe dissuaded from efforts tobring some sem
blance of reason and socioethnicjustice into the terminology ofmusic theory. Ive drawn considerable encouragement in this
questfromthesortofreactionssummarisedbelow.
Atoneseminaranexperiencedteacherrecountedhisembarrassmentathavingtouse,asheputit,thestupidwordatonalwhenteachingcompositionandthehistoryoftwentiethcenturymusic.TONICAL,heagreed,mightsolvethatproblem.Elswehere,thosewith experience in music outside the euroclassical and avantgardespherestendedtogostraighttotheheartofthematter,sev
eralofthemraisingspecificquestionsaboutdesignatingparticular structural features of noneuroclassical tonality. In fact thediscussion of tonality in The Female Drummer (example 8 in thistext) is largely the result of a question asked in the seminar atGlasgow University and of subsequent email correspondencewiththememberofstaffwhoaskedit.24
AtGlasgow,withitsstrengthsincompositionandperformance,attheAarhusmusicdepartmentwith itsattachment to theuniversitysSchoolofMedia,aswellasonalltheothereightoccasions,25several teachers and students wanted to discuss other ways inwhichmusictheorymightbereformed.Ofparticularimportance,theythought,wasthedevelopmentofconceptsdenotingaspectsoftimbre,kinetics,tactilityandspatiality,avocabularyacknowledging the vernacular competence of the listening majority who
24. ThankstoDaveMcGuinness(davidmcguinness.com/ [13-02-18]).
25. Seefootnote22,p.26.
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areexposedtoanaveragedailydoseofmusiclastingmorethantwo hours.26 I agree with them and have elsewhere suggestedwaysinwhichmusicologycancontributetothatsortofdevelop
ment.27Nevertheless,therecanbenodoubtthatthetonalterminologyofmusictheory,asitisstillwidelytaught,isindireneedof a reform that opens up to all sorts of music and that suchreform goes hand in hand with the interdisciplinary and democratic process requestedby many of those I met when speakingaboutthistopic.
AndyetIstillfindmyselfemittingsighsofdespairanddisbelief
eachtimeIreadorhearTONALopposedtoMODAL,TRIADICinsteadofTERTIAL,etc.Thatsaid,IhavetoadmitthatImprobablymorefrustratedwithmyselfthanwiththosewhostillperpetuatesuchconceptualfalsehoodsbecause,withmyunusuallyeclecticmusicalbackground,28 I wasbetter placed much earlier in life thanthosewithamoreexclusivelyeuroclassicalupbringingtoregistertheproblemsandtotryandsolvethem.Thefactthatittookmenearly thirtyyears todoso toanysignificantextent isshameful
and I can offer no valid excuse for such sluggishness. However,nowthatbasicproblemsareoutintheopen,Iwouldurgeeveryoneinmusiceducationandresearchtothinkatleasttwicebeforeapplyinganyconceptoftonalitytoanytypeofmusicifthoseconcepts derive from conventional euroclassical music theory. Afterall,whereasImayhavebeenunusuallyeclecticin1971,Iam,ifthestudentsIvemetsincethelate1980sareanythingtogoby,nolongertheexceptionbuttherule.Itwouldsimplybeembarrass
ing, ifnothingelse,formusicstudies topersistwith its illogical,undemocratic, outdated, ethnocentric and muddleheaded businessasusual.
26. SeeChapter1inTagg(2013)forstatisticaldetails.27. SeeChapters6(Intersubjectivity),10(NotesonVocalPersona)and12(Ana
lysingFilmMusic)inTagg(2013).Seealsostage5(p.5)inthisarticle.
28. Seestage1atthestartofthisarticle.
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References
Notes
Thisappendixcontainsalltypesofreference.Tosavespace,thefollowingsymbolsareused:
bbibliographicalsource(writtenword).audiovisualsource;DVD;audiosource;YouTubefile.
Pleasealsonotethat: Theprefixisremovedfrominternetreferences. replacesthestringsothat,forexample,rWlt9Is1nmsmeansthecompleteURL. Datesofaccesstomaterialsontheinternet,includingYouTubefiles,areexpressedintheformatyymmddsothat,forexample,[111111]means11November2011,[100521]21May2010,etc.
Listing
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30 Tagg:Troubles with tonal terminology (2011/2013)
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ThememaybemusicallyasmuchtheworkofJohnBarryandDonBlack.
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32 Tagg:Troubles with tonal terminology (2011/2013)
b TAMLYN,Garry(1998)TheBigBeatOriginsandDevelopmentofSnareBackbeatandotherAccompanimentalRhythmsinRocknRoll.PhDThesis,2volumes,InstiuteofPopularMusic,Uni
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