Policy Guidelines for ReducingVehicle Emissions in Asia
Vehicle EmissionsStandards andInspection andMaintenance
Asian Development Bank 2003All rights reserved
This publication was prepared by staff of the Asian Development Bank. Thefindings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in it do not necessarilyrepresent the views of ADB or those of its member governments. ADB does notguarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts noresponsibility whatsoever for any consequences of their use.
The term “country” does not imply any judgment by ADB as to the legal or otherstatus of any territorial entity.
Publication Stock No. 110602
Published by the Asian Development BankP.O. Box 789, 0980 Manila, Philippines
Preface iv
Abbreviations vi
Executive summary vii
Introduction 1
Integrated strategies to reduce vehicle emissions 3
Vehicle emissions standards 7
Inspection and maintenance (I/M) 13I/M structure 14Institutional and administrative set-up 16Technical issues 18Public participation in I/M 24Quality assurance audit 25Roadside testing programs 26The “M” in I/M 28
Alternative approaches to reduce in-use vehicleemissions 31
Regional cooperation 33
Appendix on recent European Union emissions standards 35
Notes 39
Contents
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIAiv
Concerned with the increasing levels of air pollution caused by
motor vehicles in Asia’s major cities, Asian Development Bank
initiated a project on Reducing Vehicle Emissions in November
2000. The project collected and disseminated information on
policies to reduce vehicle emissions through the Reducing Ve-
hicle Emissions in Asia website (http://www.adb.org/vehicle-
emissions), an information portal on international, regional, na-
tional and city level experiences in reducing vehicle emissions.
Through five workshops, the project provided a venue for the
sharing of experiences between countries in Asia and the intro-
duction of best practices on reducing vehicle emissions from
other regions—
� Fuel Quality, Alternative Fuels, and Advanced Vehicle
Technology held on 2–4 May 2001 in New Delhi, India,
� Reducing Emissions from Two and Three Wheelers held
on 5–7 September 2001 in Hanoi, Viet Nam,
� Strengthening Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance
held on 7–9 November 2001 in Chongqing, PRC,
� Transport Planning, Demand Management and Air
Quality held on 26–27 February 2002 in Manila, Philip-
pines, and
� Concluding Workshop on Reducing Vehicle Emissions
held on 28 February–1 March 2002 in Manila, Philippines.
The project supported the formation of multi-sector action
plan groups and the formulation of three action plans—”Inte-
grated Vehicle Emission Reduction Strategy for Greater Jakarta,
Indonesia,” “Strengthening Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance
in Chongqing, People’s Republic of China,” and “Integrated Ac-
tion Plan to Reduce Vehicle Emissions in Viet Nam.” It provided
Preface
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE v
resources for two studies—“Study on Air Quality in Jakarta, Indo-
nesia: Future Trends, Health Impacts, Economic Value and Policy
Options” and “Pricing and Infrastructure Costing for Supply and
Distribution of CNG and ULSD to the Transport Sector in Mumbai,
India.”
The Policy Guidelines for Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia con-
sist of five main books with these titles:
� Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia
� Cleaner Fuels
� Cleaner Two and Three Wheelers
� Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspection and Mainte-
nance
� Transport Planning and Traffic Management for Better Air
Quality
These books come with a common appendix on the Adverse
Health and Environmental Effects from Vehicle Emissions printed
as a separate book to clearly demonstrate the health and envi-
ronmental impacts caused by air pollution from vehicles.
These policy guidelines, which are based on the five workshops
organized by the project, provide an in-depth analysis of the dif-
ferent components of an integrated strategy to reduce pollution
from vehicles in Asia. Policymakers in Asia will have to combine
the general principles outlined in the policy guidelines with their
knowledge of the local situation in their countries and cities to
arrive at effective strategies.
The Reducing Vehicle Emissions project produced its final re-
port in a CD-ROM containing the workshop presentations, action
plans, studies, and policy guidelines.
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIAvi
ADB Asian Development Bank
CO carbon monoxide
ECE Economic Commission for Europe
EU European Union
HC hydrocarbon
I/M inspection and maintenance
NGO nongovernment organization
NOx
nitrogen oxides
OBD onboard diagnostic system
PM particulate matter
RSD remote sensing device
UN United Nations
US United States
US EPA US Environmental Protection Agency
WP29 Working Party 29
Abbreviations
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE vii
Air quality problems in Asian cities are increasingly caused or
exacerbated by emissions from the growing number of motor
vehicles. Appropriate vehicle emissions standards for new and
in-use vehicles and a well-designed and op-
erated inspection and maintenance (I/M)
program are important elements of an over-
all strategy to reduce vehicle emissions and
air pollution.
As part of its Regional Technical Assis-
tance (RETA) project to reduce motor vehicle
air pollution, Asian Development Bank
(ADB) organized a workshop on vehicle
emissions standards and strengthening ve-
hicle inspection and maintenance pro-
grams. The workshop was held in
Chongqing, People’s Republic of China on 7–9 November 2001.
The Policy Guidelines on Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspec-
tion and Maintenance summarize the most important policy con-
clusions and recommendations from the workshop.
In setting new vehicle standards, policymakers should be
guided by the following principles:
� New vehicle standards must be closely linked to fuel qual-
ity requirements, as more advanced technologies are pre-
cluded or diminished by certain fuel parameters such as
lead in gasoline or high sulfur levels in gasoline or diesel.
� If the air pollution problem is serious, as it is in most major
Asian cities, policymakers should strongly consider jump-
ing forward to the most stringent standards possible after
examining what quality of fuel could be made available.
Executive summary
New vehicle standards must be
closely linked to fuel quality
requirements, as more advanced
technologies are precluded or
diminished by certain fuel parameters
such as lead in gasoline or high sulfur
levels in gasoline or diesel
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIAviii
� Short- and long-term plans for adopting vehicle and fuel
standards should be developed so that the vehicle and
fuels industries have sufficient time to adapt. The long-term
goal for each country in Asia should be parity with Euro-
pean new vehicle and fuel standards by 2010 at the latest.
Vehicles complying with 2010 United States standards
should also be acceptable.
� An active dialogue between the motor and oil industries
should be strongly encouraged to ensure that vehicle tech-
nologies and available fuels are closely linked.
� As new vehicle standards are tightened, in-use vehicle stan-
dards for new models should also be tightened and these
in turn should form the basis for routine vehicle inspec-
tions. Onboard diagnostic systems (OBD) linked to new ve-
hicle standards can also play a critical role in controlling
in-use vehicle emissions.
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ix
Combustion-powered vehicles naturally tend to deteriorate
with age and usage, and as a result, emission levels can rise sig-
nificantly. Good maintenance is required to keep emission levels
at or near design levels. Such maintenance is not always per-
formed or performed properly. Targeted I/M programs, however,
can identify problem vehicles and assure their repair, thereby
contributing substantially to lower emissions and improved air
quality. In introducing I/M programs, certain overriding principles
have emerged which should guide policymakers in developing
and implementing such programs:
� I/M program designs should be comprehensive and must
address a variety of important aspects from inception, in-
cluding:
– There must be a well-thought out public awareness
campaign that explains the public health need for the
I/M program, the potential benefits and how the pro-
gram works.
– Roadside apprehension or remote sensing programs to
intercept vehicles that slip through the system or have
problems in between periodic tests must be included.
– Different pollutants of concern should be carefully ac-
counted for in the program design. These include par-
ticulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and smoke
from diesel-fuelled vehicles; and carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrocarbon (HC) and NOx from gasoline-fuelled vehicles.
– An effective enforcement mechanism to assure motor-
ist participation in the program is essential for success.
In areas where motor vehicle registration requirements
are routinely and effectively enforced, registration-
based I/M enforcement systems have been very effec-
tive.
– Policies should be developed to prevent, root out and
penalize any corruption that might creep into the sys-
tem.
– Sufficient flexibility should be built in to allow variations
in inspection frequency for vehicles with different mile-
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIAx
age accumulation rates and with rela-
tively durable emission control systems.
– Quality assurance including covert
and overt auditing and quality control.
– The service industry must have suf-
ficient equipment to properly repair ve-
hicles. In addition, adequate training
must be made available so that the me-
chanics and technicians are sufficiently
skilled, and careful attention must be
paid to assuring that the service indus-
try has sufficient lead time to properly
equip itself.
– Referee stations are one mechanism
for resolving disputes or difficulties with individual ve-
hicles, as owners can get a second opinion and advice
about appropriate repairs. Policymakers should carefully
consider the provision of one or more referee stations
in the overall program design.
� So as not to overwhelm the service sector or create a strong
political backlash, I/M stringency should be gradually
phased in. The worst 15 to 20% of the vehicle fleet should
fail with the periodic tightening of the in-use standards as
the service industry and maintenance practices adapt.
Inspection and maintenance (I/M)structure
� Centralized I/M systems (sometimes called “test only” sys-
tems), where the inspection and maintenance functions
are separated, have consistently been proven much more
effective than decentralized systems, where inspection and
repair are combined. It is very difficult to supervise and
audit the “test and repair” systems and to prevent corrup-
tion and poor quality control. Policymakers must resist the
adoption of programs that combine testing with repair and
The service industry must have
sufficient equipment to properly
repair vehicles. In addition, adequate
training must be made available so
that the mechanics and technicians
are sufficiently skilled, and careful
attention must be paid to assuring
that the service industry has sufficient
lead time to properly equip itself
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE xi
those that are very unlikely to achieve significant emission
reductions.
� A careful and thorough dialogue among all relevant stake-
holders including providers, regulators, enforcers/police,
vehicle manufacturers, the driving public and media must
be facilitated at the earliest stages of program develop-
ment and subsequently maintained throughout the pro-
gram implementation.
� While governments should regulate I/M programs, the ac-
tual implementation of I/M programs is best carried out
by the private sector. Policymakers should assure that a
bidding document is carefully designed and prepared in
an open and transparent manner, and that all potential
bidders are given a fair opportunity to compete for the
final contract. Contractor selection should be based on
technical merit and ability to perform the services, and the
number of contractors selected should be kept small.
Institutional and administrative set-up� An adequate fee structure must be developed where the
affected vehicle owners pay the full costs of the I/M pro-
gram. This must include not only the cost of testing ve-
hicles, but also of auditing and oversight, roadside appre-
hension, data management, nongovernment organization
(NGO) capacity building, public awareness campaigns, and
others. Such a structure must still allow private sector op-
erators to make a sufficient profit to maintain, replace and
upgrade equipment as required.
� Where multiple ministries (e.g., Environment, Police, Trans-
port) or different levels of government (e.g., national and
local) will be involved in the program, special care must be
taken to assure a full dialogue with all appropriate minis-
tries or departments in the early stages of program design,
and full agreement with regard to specific roles and re-
sponsibilities.
As part of its Regional Technical Assistance (RETA) project to re-
duce motor vehicle air pollution, Asian Development Bank (ADB)
organized and hosted a workshop focused on vehicle emissions
standards and strengthening vehicle inspection and mainte-
nance programs. The workshop was held in Chongqing, People’s
Republic of China on 7–9 November 2001. The Policy Guidelines
on Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspec-
tion and Maintenance summarize the most
important policy conclusions and recom-
mendations from the workshop.
There are three main international ap-
proaches to standards setting: European,
American and Japanese. Most countries in
the Asian region have tended toward the
European standards for new cars and
trucks, relying largely on the UN Economic
Commission for Europe (ECE).1 With re-
gard to motorcycles and scooters, how-
ever, the standards adopted by India, Thai-
land and Taipei,China are seen as the most
advanced. These standards are discussed
in a separate policy paper, the Policy Guide-
lines on Cleaner Two and Three Wheelers.2
Emissions standards exist for carbon monoxide (CO), hydro-
carbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx), smoke and particulate mat-
ter (PM) from vehicles because each of these, along with second-
ary by-products such as ozone, can cause serious adverse effects
to health and the environment. Because of the growing vehicle
population and high emission rates from many of these vehicles,
Introduction
Emissions standards exist
for carbon monoxide
(CO), hydrocarbons (HC),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), smoke
and particulate matter (PM)
from vehicles because each
of these, along with
secondary by-products such
as ozone, can cause serious
adverse effects to health and
the environment
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA2
serious air pollution and health effect problems have become in-
creasingly common phenomena in modern life.3 The adverse
health effects and environmental damage can cause substantial
economic impacts as well.
New vehicle standards are only beneficial to the degree that
they result in actual emission reductions from vehicles as they
are driven in use. To minimize the deterioration of emissions con-
trols that result from new vehicle standards and to assure that
vehicles achieve the full emission reductions that they are ca-
pable of, an in-use vehicle focus must include in-use standards
and ongoing testing programs.
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 3
In developing strategies to clean up vehicles, there must be a clear
understanding of the emission reductions required from all
sources to achieve healthy air quality. Depending upon the air
quality problem and the emissions contribution from vehicles,
the degree of control required will differ by location. As illustrated
in Figure 1, an initial start should be a careful assessment of air
quality and the sources that contribute most to the problem or
problems.
Where vehicles are the major culprits, a broad-based approach
will be needed to formulate and implement policies and actions
Integrated strategies toreduce vehicle emissions
Figure 1Integrated AirQualityManagementFramework
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POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA4
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aimed at reducing their pollution. The following groups of stake-
holders will each have an important role in the development of
appropriate policies and strategies:
� National government agencies and legislative bodies;
� Local government agencies and legislative bodies;
� Industry (vehicle producers, fuel producers, catalyst sup-
pliers, maintenance industry, and others);
� Intermediate groups which can help advocate for and
implement pollution reduction campaigns;
� End users. Within this group it is important to differentiate
between user groups such as rickshaw drivers who depend
on the affected vehicles for a living, and users who require
vehicles for personal transportation;
� Breathers.
Effective and efficient coordination mechanisms for vehicle
pollution management must be established. These mechanisms
should also clearly allocate responsibilities for specific functions
and tasks to individual agencies and organizations.
Reducing vehicle pollution will usually require
a comprehensive strategy. Generally, the
goal of a motor vehicle pollution control
program is to reduce emissions from in-
use motor vehicles to the degree rea-
sonably necessary to achieve
healthy air quality as rapidly as pos-
sible. Failing that for reasons of im-
practicality, the goal is to meet the
practical limits of effective techno-
logical, economic, and social feasibil-
ity. A comprehensive strategy to achieve
such goals includes four key components:
(i) increasingly stringent emissions standards
for new vehicles, (ii) specifications for clean fuels,
(iii) programs to assure proper maintenance of in-use vehicles,
(iv) and transportation planning and demand management.
These emission reduction goals should be achieved in the most
Figure 2Elements of acomprehensivevehicle pollutioncontrol strategy
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 5
cost-effective manner available. Figure 2 illustrates these four el-
ements of a comprehensive vehicle pollution control strategy.
Air quality problems in Asian cities are often caused or exac-
erbated by emissions from the growing motor vehicles fleet. Ap-
propriate vehicle emissions standards for new and in-use vehicles
and a well-designed and operated inspection and maintenance
(I/M) program are important elements of an overall strategy to
reduce vehicle emissions and air pollution.
A well-designedand operatedinspection andmaintenance (I/M)program is animportant elementof an overallstrategy to reducevehicle emissions
The European Union (EU) adopted catalyst-forcing
standards for new gasoline-fuelled cars in the early
1990s (so called Euro 1 standards) and have gradu-
ally tightened them in several steps: Euro 2 in 1996,
Euro 3 in 2000 and Euro 4 in 2005. Similar require-
ments were adopted for diesel cars and light and
heavy commercial vehicles.
In conjunction with the tightening of vehicle stan-
dards, fuel quality improvements were also man-
dated. In some cases, the fuels modifications are nec-
essary to allow the introduction of vehicle technolo-
gies that are required to meet the new vehicle emis-
sions standards. For example, the adoption of Euro 1
standards for gasoline vehicles requires the use of
unleaded gasoline. The adoption of Euro 2 standards
for diesel vehicles will require the use of diesel with
sulfur levels lower than 500 parts per million (ppm). Further re-
ductions in sulfur levels in both gasoline or petrol and diesel fuel
are linked with Euro 3, 4 and, for diesel trucks, Euro 5 standards
(see Table 1). In setting new vehicle standards, policymakers must
Vehicle emissionsstandards
In setting new vehicles
standards, policymakers
must appreciate the close
linkage between vehicle
standards and the resulting
technologies and fuels
requirements, and must
assure that the appropriate
fuel quality will be
available when vehicle
standards are introduced
ppm = parts per million, NA = not applicablea 10 PPM is in the late stages of Adoption by the European Unionb Heavy Duty Diesel Engines Only
Table 1European Standardsfor Gasoline andDiesel Fuel thatCoincide withGasoline- andDiesel-FuelledVehicle Standards
Gasoline Diesel
Standard Lead Sulfur (ppm) Sulfur (ppm)
Euro 1 0 NA NAEuro 2 0 500 500Euro 3 0 150 350Euro 4 0 50a 50a
Euro 5b NA NA 50a
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA8
appreciate the close linkage between vehicle standards and the
resulting technologies and fuels requirements, and must assure
that the appropriate fuel quality will be available when the ve-
hicle standards are introduced.
In setting new vehicle standards, policymakers should be
guided by the following principles:
� Those countries where the appropriate fuel is available can
leapfrog to the Euro 2, Euro 3 or Euro 4 standards quickly.
Depending upon the seriousness of the air pollution prob-
lem, policymakers should strongly consider jumping for-
ward to the most stringent standards possible after assur-
ing that the appropriate fuel quality would be available.
� The implementation of new vehicle emissions standards
will be facilitated if governments announce the schedule
for tightening requirements well in advance. While the
majority of Asian countries have adopted Euro 1 standards
to regulate new car and truck emissions, only a few coun-
tries have announced the time schedule for adopting sub-
sequent Euro 2, 3 and 4 standards. Policymakers should
formulate short-term and long-term plans for adopting
vehicle and fuel standards so that the vehicle and fuels in-
dustries have sufficient time to adapt.
� At the present time, many countries throughout the region
lag behind the European new vehicle standards and fuels
requirements by approximately a decade. Table 2 shows
the emissions standards for new light duty vehicles and
Table 3 shows the emissions standards for new motorcycles
in several countries in Asia. It is strongly recommended that
each country set as a goal achieving parity with Europe,
the United States (US) or Japan by 2010 at the latest.
� As a practical matter, the technology being built into cars
and trucks to comply with the US, European and Japanese
standards is very similar. Therefore, allowing compliance
with any of these current requirements may be an efficient
approach to standards setting for new vehicles for many
countries, and should be considered by policymakers.
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 9
Table 2EmissionsStandards forNew Vehicles(Light Duty)
a Entire countryb Delhi and other cities; Euro 2 introduced in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai in 2001; Euro 2
in Bangalore, Hyderabad, Kanpur, Pune and Ahmedabad in 2003; Euro 3 to be introducedin Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad in 2005
c Gasoline vehicles under considerationd For gasoline vehiclese For diesel vehicles
Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5
� The development of new vehicle standards will require
active dialogue between the motor and oil industries to
ensure that required fuels will be available. Policymakers
should encourage such a dialogue.
� As new vehicle standards are tightened, in-use vehicle stan-
dards should also be tightened and these in turn should
form the basis for routine vehicle inspections.
New vehicle standards are intended both (i) to apply when
the vehicle comes off the assembly line and (ii) to define the ve-
Country 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Bangladesh
Indiaa
Indiab
Indonesia
Malaysia
Nepal
Philippines
PRC
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Taipei,China
Thailand
Viet Namd
Viet Name
Proposed Proposed
Under discussion
Under consideration
US Tier 1 US Tier 2 for dieselc
EuropeanUnion
Hong Kong,China
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA10
97/24/EC = Directive 97/24/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June1997 on certain components and characteristics of two or three-wheel motor vehicles, CO= carbon monoxide, ECE R40 = Economic Commission for Europe Regulation 40 - Emissionof gaseous pollutants of motorcycles, ECE R47 = Economic Commission for EuropeRegulation 47 - Emission of gaseous pollutants of mopeds, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC= hydrocarbons, IDC = Indian Drive Cycle, NOx = nitrogen oxides, ppm = parts per million,US 40 CFR 86.410-80 = United States Code of Federal Regulations (US 40 CFR 86.410-80)emissions standard
Table 3EmissionsStandards forNew Motorcyclesin Asia
Country
Bangladesh
Cambodia
Hong Kong, China
India
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
Philippines
PRC
Beijing
Singapore
Sri LankaTaipei,China
Thailand
Viet Nam
Effectivity
—
currentcurrentcurrent
current
20002005 proposed
20052005200120042007 proposedcurrentcurrent2003 proposed
2003 proposed
current20032003200320012001current
currentcurrent2004, Januarycurrent
2003, July
2004, July
2004 proposed2007 proposed2004 proposed
2007 proposed2007 proposed
Vehicle Type
—
2-stroke4-stroke4-stroke
2-stroke
2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke
3-wheel gas3-wheel diesel2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke2-stroke4-stroke2-stroke
4-stroke
2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke2-stroke4-stroke2-stroke4-stroke2- and 4-stroke
2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-stroke
2- and 4-stroke
2- and 4-stroke
2- and 4-stroke2- and 4-strokeMoped
2-wheel Moped3- and 4-wheelMoped
C O
3.5 g/km
4.0%4.0%13.0 g/km
8.0 g/km
2.0 g/km1.5 g/km
2.25 g/km1.0 g/km12.0 g/km8.0 g/km5.0 g/km14.4 g/km20.0 g/km8.0 g/km
13.0 g/km
6.0%4.5%4.0%4.0%1.50%1.50%12.0 g/km
6.0 g/km4.0%3.0%4.5 g/km
3.5 g/km
3.5 g/km
4.5 g/km3.5 g/km6.0 g/km
1.0 g/km3.5 g/km
HC
—
3,000 ppm2,400 ppm3.0 g/km
4.0 g/km
——
—————5.26 g/km2.93 g/km4.0 g/km
3.0 g/km
——4,000 ppm1,000 ppm3,000 ppm300 ppm—
—6,000 ppm2,000 ppm3.0 g/km
—
—
———
——
HC + NOx
2.0 g/km
——0.3 g/km(NO
x only)
0.1 g/km(NO
x only)
2 g/km1.5 g/km
2.0 g/km0.85 g/km10.0 g/km5.0 g/km3.0 g/km——0.1 g/km(NO
x only)
0.3 g/km(NO
x only)
——————5.0 g/km
————
2.0 g/km
1.8 g/km
3.0 g/km2.0 g/km3.0 g/km
1.2 g/km2.4 g/km
Standards
Remarks
Under discussion test =ECE R40Idle testIdle test
As per IDCAs per IDC; Deteriorationfactor = 1.2
ECE R47ECE R47ECE R47
97/24/EC
97/24/EC
Idle testIdle testIdle testIdle testIdle testIdle testmust comply with US 40CFR 86.410-80Low-idlingIdle warm testIdle cold testFree acceleration; 30%white smokeEvaporative emission 2gtest; 15% white smokeWithout evaporativeemission standard;15%white smoke
For 3 and 4 wheelersmultiply by 2
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 11
hicle manufacturer’s re-
sponsibilities over a rea-
sonable period of actual
in-use driving. For ex-
ample, the current EU re-
quirements stipulate that
vehicle manufacturers are
responsible for assuring
that vehicles meet the in-
use standards for 80,000
kilometers. In the US, they
apply for 160,000 kilome-
ters. If substantial num-
bers of vehicles, which are
properly cared for and
driven, fail to meet their
new vehicle standards in
use over the defined period, they can be subject to a recall pro-
gram whereby defective vehicles will be repaired at the
manufacturer’s costs. Further, defective parts for individual ve-
hicles are covered by a warranty.
To trigger these recall or Conformity of Production programs,
individual member states in the EU and the US Environmental
Protection Agency (US EPA) carry out in-use testing programs
using the same test procedures as the Type Approval or certifica-
tion programs.
The United States has required the introduction of onboard
diagnostic (OBD) systems since 1996, and OBD systems are re-
quired in Europe with the introduction of vehicles meeting Euro
3 requirements. As new vehicle standards in Asia are tightened
to these levels, OBD systems can identify failures to both vehicle
owners and in-use vehicle inspectors. In the meantime, in order
to assure that in-use vehicles are properly cared for, many coun-
tries adopt in-use standards based on short tests that are much
less expensive to operate than typical Type Approval tests. These
in-use programs are discussed in the next section.
Inspection andmaintenance (I/M)
Vehicles that are properly tuned and adjusted tend to be cleaner
than out of tune vehicles. Modern vehicles equipped with ad-
vanced pollution controls are even more dependent on properly
functioning components to keep pollution levels low. Minor mal-
functions in the air/fuel or spark management systems can in-
crease emissions significantly. Major malfunctions can cause
emissions to skyrocket. A relatively small number of vehicles with
serious malfunctions frequently cause the majority of vehicle-
related pollution problems. Unfortunately, it is rarely obvious
which vehicles fall into this category as the emissions themselves
may be unnoticeable and emission control malfunctions do not
necessarily affect vehicle driveability. Effective vehicle inspection
programs based on periodic short tests can identify these prob-
lem cars and, by requiring a re-test after necessary maintenance,
assure their repair. The combination of inspection and remedial
maintenance has become known as I/M. Targeted I/M programs
can contribute substantially to reduce pollution caused by such
vehicles. In introducing I/M programs, however, certain overrid-
ing principles have emerged:
� As vehicle technology advances, more sophisticated test
procedures are necessary. This includes loaded mode tests
that use a dynamometer to simulate the work an engine
must perform in actual driving.
� Tightening of new vehicle emissions standards should be
followed by a concomitant tightening of in-use standards
for those newer model vehicles. Considering that the av-
erage vehicle life in some Asian countries is much longer
than in Europe, the US or elsewhere in the developed world,
this will lead to a growing diversification of in-use stan-
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA14
If the standardsset are toostringent whenan I/M program isinitiated, mostvehicles couldfail, thus, placinga great strain onthe service sectoras well as beingpoliticallyunacceptable
dards in Asian countries. Policymakers must assure that
appropriate in-use vehicle standards are set which account
for the technology advances resulting from tighter new
vehicle standards.
� In addition, policymakers must assure that the in-use stan-
dards applied in I/M programs appropriately reflect the dif-
ferences between each group. In addition, policymakers
must assess whether the I/M test procedures also need to
differ for vehicles with different pollution control technolo-
gies.
� Further, the pollutants of concern will differ between die-
sel-fuelled vehicles (PM, smoke and NOx) and gasoline-fu-
elled vehicles (CO, HC and NOx). Policymakers should ac-
count for these differences when designing I/M programs.
� If the standards set are too stringent when an I/M program
is initiated, most vehicles could fail, thus, placing a great
strain on the service sector as well as being politically un-
acceptable. Policymakers should adopt initial standards
that fail only the worst 15 to 20% of the vehicle fleet and
then, gradually tighten them as the service industry and
maintenance practices improve.
I/M structureThe first decision usually
made regarding an I/M
system is the fundamen-
tal structure of the pro-
gram, and this is often the
key determinant of the
overall success or failure
of the effort. Several
main principles should
guide policymakers in
designing an I/M pro-
gram structure:
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 15
� Experience from outside Asia indicates that centralized
I/M systems (sometimes called “test only” systems) where
inspection and maintenance functions are separated have
produced the best results. Decentralized systems, where
inspections and repairs are combined, are very difficult to
supervise and audit and are subject to corruption and poor
quality control. Policymakers should be especially cogni-
zant of the international experience in this regard and re-
sist the adoption of programs that combine testing with
repair, as these are very unlikely to achieve significant
emission reductions.
� Policymakers should assure that there is a careful and thor-
ough dialogue among all relevant stakeholders when de-
fining the I/M system structure. These
groups include providers, regulators,
enforcers/police, vehicle manufacturers,
the driving public and media.
� Experience from across the world has
demonstrated that while governments
should regulate I/M programs, their ac-
tual implementation is best carried out
by the private sector. Policymakers
should assure that a carefully-designed
bidding document is prepared in an open and transpar-
ent manner, and that all potential bidders are given a fair
opportunity to compete for the final contract.
� Governments contemplating the establishment of an I/M
system or expanding the scope of an existing one need to
consider (i) whether they have adopted the appropriate
in-use vehicle emissions standards and test procedures on
which to base I/M, (ii) whether the institutional capacity
and willingness to enforce an I/M program exists, and (iii)
whether the repair sector is sufficiently trained to carry out
repairs on vehicles which fail the tests. If any of these as-
pects are found to be deficient, policymakers should take
all appropriate steps to rectify the situation.
Experience from across the
world has demonstrated
that while governments should
regulate I/M programs, their
actual implementation is best
carried out by the private sector
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA16
� Vehicle manufacturers can play an important role in pro-
viding training to the repair sector, and policymakers
should take steps to involve them in the development of
an overall strategy to upgrade the repair industry.
Institutional and administrative set-upThe single most important determining factor for I/M success is
support by senior decision-makers and the institutional capacity
to manage and regulate the system. This is often weak and as a
consequence a weak regulatory framework results. Inadequate
funding and weak enforcement frequently lead to a system that
is plagued by corruption and poor quality control. Policymakers
should adhere to the following principles, therefore, in setting
up the I/M system:
� Policymakers must ensure that an adequate fee structure
is developed where the affected vehicle owners pay the
full costs of the I/M program, including the costs of audit-
ing and overseeing the program by government or private
auditors. This follows the “polluter pays” principle.
� Within countries that have a combined roadworthiness
and emission-testing program, the responsibility is often
shared between the Departments of Transport and Envi-
ronment. Very often, there is poor coordination between
these two departments, which hampers efforts to
strengthen I/M. Policymakers should assure that there is
full dialogue with all appropriate ministries or departments
at the early stages of program design, and full agreement
regarding specific roles and responsibilities.
� In countries where responsibility is shared between na-
tional and local government organizations, coordination
problems frequently occur in the implementation of ex-
isting I/M programs as well as in strengthening the I/M
system. Again, policymakers should assure that there is
full dialogue with all appropriate ministries or depart-
ments at the early stages of program design, together
Overall success
of an I/M
program depends in
part on assuring that
all vehicles intended
to participate in the
program are actually
inspected, and
repaired if necessary
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 17
with full agreement regarding specific roles and respon-
sibilities.
� Any I/M system needs to account for new vehicle emissions
standards, which in most cases are issued by national gov-
ernments. Policymakers should strive to develop I/M sys-
tems within a national framework.
� Overall success of an I/M program depends in part on as-
suring that all vehicles intended to participate in the pro-
gram are actually inspected, and repaired if necessary. Ex-
perience from both outside and inside Asia has demon-
strated that the most ef-
fective I/M programs are
those that are linked to ve-
hicle registration, i.e., fail-
ure to present proof of
passing an inspection
leads to denial of registra-
tion. Policymakers should
therefore carefully de-
velop and implement a
registration-based en-
forcement system for all
affected vehicles.
� A well-functioning I/M
system will include a data
management system that
ensures that all test data are transmitted on a regular basis
to a central database. This will be easier if I/M stations are
linked by computers that automatically transmit informa-
tion on a real time basis. This is much easier in a central-
ized system with a limited number of contractors than a
decentralized system with a large number of independent
workshops. Policymakers should assure that a good data
management system is included when designing the pro-
gram, and that sufficient funds are included in the fee struc-
ture to manage and operate the system.
Experience from bothoutside and inside Asiahas demonstrated thatthe most effective I/Mprograms are thosethat are linked tovehicle registration, i.e.,failure to present proofof passing aninspection leads todenial of registration
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA18
� Policymakers should also be aware that increased reliance
on data management centers will make it necessary to
strengthen the quality of the overall database on vehicles
in actual use.
Technical issuesMany I/M systems, which are often government-operated, lack
committed resources. They cannot assure that hardware is main-
tained and upgraded as needed. Funds for calibration of equip-
ment are frequently inadequate, and limited attention is often
paid to ensure the adequate training of inspection staff.
� One remedy that policymakers should carefully consider
is the privatization of such programs and the adoption of
a fee structure that provides adequate funds.
� The shift towards more stringent emissions standards for
new vehicles should be followed by tighter in-use standards
for newer models. The test procedure should be shifted to a
“loaded test” rather than the “idle test” when new vehicle
standards result in the introduction of catalyst technology
on vehicles. This will require new, additional test equipment
including chassis dynamometers. The costs of such equip-
ment will make it difficult for small-scale workshops to take
part in I/M program implementation, yet another reason for
considering a centralized system. Table 4 is a comparative
table of test procedures. Tables 5, 6, and 7 are in-use emis-
sions standards for different types of vehicles.
Table 4Characteristics ofInspection andMaintenance (I/M)Test Procedures
Test CO HC NOx
PM Smoke Cost Timea
Idle X X Very Low Fast2 Stage Idle X X Very Low FastSteady State Loaded (ASM) X X X Low MediumVMass X X X Low MediumTransient Loaded (IM240) X X X High MediumFree Acceleration X Medium FastFull Load X X X X X High Medium
CO = carbon monoxide, HC = hydrocarbon, NOx = nitrogen oxides, PM = particulate matter, X = pollutant being measured
a Time it takes for one test on one vehicle
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 19
Table 5Emissions Standardsfor In-Use GasolineVehicles
Country Effectivity CO (%) HC (ppm) Test
Bangladesh — 24.0 g/km 2.0 g/km Dynamic
Cambodia Current 4.5 10,000 Idle
Hong Kong, China Current 0.5 — Low idle or in accordance with
manufacturers’ specifications
0.3 High idle, λ = 1± 0.03 or in
accordance with manufacturers’
specifications
India Current 3.0 Idle
Indonesia Current 4.5 1200 Idle
Malaysia Current 3.5-4.5 600-800 Idle
Nepal Current 3.0 1000 —
Pakistan Current 6.0 Idle
Philippines Before 1997 January 4.5 800 Idle
Philippines 1997 3.5 600 Idle
Philippines 2003 0.5 100 Low idle
At high idle CO limit = 0.3
(λ = 1± 0.03) or in accordance with
manufacturers’ specifications
PRCa Current 4.5 900 Idle
PRCb Current 4.5 1200 Idle
Singapore Current 3.6-6 Idle
Sri Lanka Before 1998 4.5 1200 Low idling
Sri Lanka After 1998 3.0 1200 Low idling
Thailand Before 1993 November 4.5 600 Idle
Thailand After 1993 November 1.5 200 Idle
Viet Namc Proposed 2002 December 6.0d 1500 Idle
Viet Namc Proposed 2005 4.5e 1200 Idle
Viet Namc Proposed 2008 3.0f 600 Idle
CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, ppm = parts per milliona For light duty vehiclesb For heavy duty vehiclesc Applicable in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Hai Phong, Da Nangd Rest of country CO limit = 6.5%e Rest of country CO limit = 6.0%f Rest of country CO limit = 4.5%
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA20
Table 6Emissions Standardsfor In-Use DieselVehicles
Country Effectivity Smoke (HSU) Test
Bangladesh — 65 —
Cambodia Current 50 —
Hong Kong, China Current 60 Free acceleration
50 Loaded lug down test on a chassis dynamometera
India Current 65 Free acceleration
Indonesia Current 50 Free acceleration
Malaysia Current 50 —
Nepalb Current 65 —
Pakistan Current 40 Free acceleration
Philippines Current 2.5 m-1 Free accelerationc
Philippines 2003 1.2 m-1 Free accelerationd
PRC Current 4.5 Rb Free acceleration
Singapore Current 50 —
Sri Lanka Current 65 Idle
Sri Lanka Current 75 Free acceleration
Thailand Current 45 Free acceleration
Thailand Current 35% Loaded
Thailand Current 50 Filter test – free acceleration
Thailand Current 40% Filter test – loaded
Viet Name Current 72 Idle
Viet Namf Current 85 Idle
Viet Namg 2005 72 Idle
HSU = Hartridge smoke unit, m-1 = light absorption coefficient, Rb = Filter or Bosch smoke meter unita For vehicles apprehended under the Smoky Vehicle Control Programb For vehicles manufactured in 1995 and beyondc For naturally aspirated engines, limit is 2.5 m-1 for turbo-charged engine and 4.5 m-1 for a 1,000 m increase in elevationd For naturally aspirated engines, limit is 2.2 m-1 for turbo-charged engine and 3.2 m-1 for a 1,000 m increase in elevatione Applicable in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Hai Phong, Da Nangf Rest of countryg Limit is 50 HSU for newly registered vehicles starting 2005
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 21
Table 7Emissions Standardsfor In-useMotorcycles in Asia
Country
Bangladesh
Cambodia
India
Indonesia
Philippines
PRC
Beijing
Sri Lanka
Taipei,China
Thailand
Viet Nam
CO = carbon monoxide, HC = hydrocarbons, g/km = gram per kilometer, ppm = parts per million
Effectivity
—
current
current
current
current
current
before 2003 July
before 2003 July
after 2003 July
after 2003 July
before 2001 January
after 2001 January
before 2001 January
after 2001 January
current
current
2004 January
current
current
current
Vehicle Type
—
2- and 4-stroke
2- and 4-stroke
2-stroke
4-stroke
2- and 4-stroke
2-stroke
4-stroke
2-stroke
4-stroke
2-stroke
2-stroke
4-stroke
4-stroke
2- and 4-stroke
2- and 4-stroke
2- and 4-stroke
2- and 4-stroke
2-stroke
4-stroke
CO (%)
24 g/km
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
6
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
2
4.5
2
6
4.5
3.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
HC (ppm)
2 g/km
10,000
9,000
3,000
2,400
—
8,000
2,200
4,500
1,200
8,000
3,500
2,200
500
—
9,000
2,000
10,000
10,000
1,500
Remarks
Under discussion
Idle test
Idle test
Idle test
Idle test
Idle test
Idle test
Idle test
Idle test
Idle test
Idle test
Idle Test
Idle Test
Idle Test
Low-idling
Idle warm test
Idle cold test
Idle test for CO and HC;
30% white smoke limit; free
acceleration for white smoke
Idle test
Idle test
Standards
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA22
Figure 4Typical RemoteSensing Set-up
� Since most countries in Asia have adopted EU standards
for new vehicles, it may be more appropriate to adopt a
European short test rather than the US derived IM240 test.
An example of such a test is shown in Figure 3 below.
� A potentially serious problem, especially where most ve-
hicles are still equipped with simple carburettor technol-
ogy, is the “Clean for a Day” syndrome in which vehicles
are tuned to pass the test and then immediately readjusted
to a high pollution condition afterwards. To address this
problem, policymakers must
give attention to complemen-
tary in-use test programs such as
roadside screening or remote
sensing (see Figure 4 for a typi-
cal remote sensing set-up).
Figure 3Sample ofEuropean ShortTest
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VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 23
� There are certain countries or cities leading the way in Asia
with respect to testing of particular vehicle types. These
include the Smoky Vehicle Control Program in Hong Kong,
China which involves dynamometer smoke testing for light
and heavy duty diesel vehicles. Policymakers should con-
sult with technical leaders in the region as they develop
their programs.
Typical set-upof a chassisdynamometertesting centerin Hong Kong,China
� Emphasis in I/M should be on the identification of gross
polluters within each technology category. Remote sens-
ing devices (RSD) are evolving and may play an important
role in identifying gross polluting vehicles, especially where
most vehicles are low tech. It might be less suitable for
more advanced technologies unless further improvements
are made. Currently, most RSD experience has been with
clean screening as a means to reduce the testing load, al-
though dirty screening programs are also in effect or be-
ing developed.
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA24
� In designing programs, policymakers should assure that
frequency of inspections varies for vehicles with different
mileage accumulation rates and with more or less durable
emission control systems. For example, taxicabs typically
accumulate far more mileage in a given period than do
private cars and therefore, they should be subject to more
frequent inspections.
Public participation in I/MPublic perceptions regarding the effectiveness and transparency
of I/M systems will heavily influence the willingness of the gen-
eral public to cooperate with government-imposed I/M regimes.
To ensure a positive public perception, it is important that soci-
ety understands the public health need for the program and be-
lieves that it is fair and effective.
Experience indicates that, on average, the driving public is
more interested in vehicle roadworthiness and vehicle safety than
emission levels. This is due to the more apparent linkage between
vehicle roadworthiness and the safety of drivers, passengers and
pedestrians. To ensure the required public acceptance of I/M pro-
grams and their willing participation in vehicle I/M, programs will
have to considerably strengthen their public awareness-raising
campaigns. Particular emphasis should be placed on the health
benefits that can result from a successful program.
Environmental NGOs need capacity building and often have
limited understanding of vehicle emissions standards and I/M
issues. This limits the effectiveness of these groups in pressuring
government officials to assure that good quality I/M programs
are put in place.
� Considering the above, policymakers should develop a
strong and ongoing public awareness component that
routinely informs the public of the need for an I/M pro-
gram, its achieved benefits and overall performance. A spe-
cial focus of the public awareness campaign should be on
environmental NGOs that need to increase their under-
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 25
standing of I/M programs. Again, policymakers must assure
that sufficient funds for this effort are included in an in-
spection fee structure.
� Policymakers must develop performance standards for
I/M stations that will guarantee fast and reliable testing
for the public; poorly performing stations must be penal-
ized as well. Performance measures could include typical
waiting times as well as pass/fail rates.
� Policymakers also need to think about useful methods to
achieve better public cooperation in I/M programs. Con-
sideration should be given to tax incentives, lower regis-
tration fees for cleaner vehicles, or linkage to vehicle in-
surance rates.
Quality assurance auditI/M programs have often been associated with fraud and corrup-
tion. Failure to address these issues will seriously compromise the
credibility and effectiveness of I/M systems.
Governments in Asia are experiencing difficulties in establish-
ing effective quality assurance and audit mechanisms in their
I/M systems. Yet, a well-functioning audit and quality assurance
system is crucial for the acceptance and success of any I/M sys-
tem. Audits can be implemented by a special unit in the respon-
sible government department or can be outsourced to a private
sector firm, provided it is not operating a part of the I/M system.
These private sector providers should also not provide training
or consultancy services to the I/M provider.
� Policymakers must assure that such auditing functions are
fully built into the overall program design and accounted
for in the fee structure. Further, in designing such auditing
systems, a general rule is that the less reliance there is on
human judgment or manual actions, the more reliable the
result.
� Policymakers should also assure that test fees are set at a
reasonable level to allow private sector operators to make
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA26
a sufficient profit to maintain, replace and upgrade equip-
ment as required.
� Regulatory agencies often have ill-defined duties and are
usually poorly-staffed. Policymakers should define regula-
tory agency duties to include designing an I/M system,
setting appropriate test procedures and standards, and
assuring the proper operation of the I/M pro-
gram and careful auditing. Where audits iden-
tify problems, policymakers should insure that
the regulatory agency is authorized to and has
the capacity to enforce the requirements, in-
cluding the removal of the offending
operator’s inspection license or permit.
� A key element of a successful I/M program
that is frequently neglected in program de-
sign is how to enforce the case against cor-
rupt entities, especially inspectors.
Policymakers must give careful attention and
thought to what constitute
appropriate sanctions so
as to assure that a work-
able system is in place.
Roadside testingprogramsRoadside testing can
complement a more com-
prehensive Motor Vehicle
Inspection System but not
replace it. Policymakers
should insure that roadside
testing is designed as a
complement to testing in
fixed stations, but not as an al-
ternative to it. The primary
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 27
function of roadside testing should be the identification of gross
polluting vehicles.
� Apart from the privatization of inspection centers,
policymakers should also consider whether to outsource
roadside apprehension to the private sector. They should
insure that the inspection fee fully provides
for the costs of an adequate roadside
apprehension program.
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA28
Roadside testingcan complement amorecomprehensiveMotor VehicleInspection Systembut not replace it.Policymakersshould insure thatroadside testing isdesigned as acomplement totesting in fixedstations, but not asan alternative to it
� Certain countries have tried to strengthen enforcement by
allowing enforcers to retain a portion of the fines collected
from apprehended vehicles. Policymakers need to study
the effectiveness of this approach to be sure it doesn’t in-
crease the likelihood of corrupting the overall system.
The “M” in I/MWhile much attention is being paid to the “I” (inspection) in I/M, it
is the “M” (maintenance) that actually reduces emissions. Very
often, repair quality is weak and needs special attention. There-
fore, policymakers need to include a particular focus on this is-
sue when designing I/M programs. This is especially true through-
out the region as the service sector is very informal and usually
lacks good training or equipment.
� The service industry must have sufficient equipment to
properly repair vehicles. In addition, adequate training
must be available so that mechanics and technicians are
sufficiently skilled to repair failed vehicles.
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 29
� In tightening I/M requirements, policymakers must assure
that the service industry has sufficient lead time to equip
itself to repair failing vehicles. A reasonable phase in is a
one-year transition period from the time testing is initi-
ated until mandatory repairs are required.
� Policymakers must also insure that good communication
lines exist between the repair industry and I/M managers
so that problem vehicles can be resolved. Routine meet-
ings should be arranged to discuss problems.
� One mechanism for resolving disputes or difficulties with
individual vehicles is the referee station, where owners can
get a second opinion and advice about appropriate repairs.
Policymakers should carefully consider provision of one
or more referee stations in the overall program design.
� Policymakers should also address quality assurance for
spare parts. One approach to consider is requiring parts
suppliers to warranty the performance of their parts and
to label warranty details on the packaging.
Alternative approachesto reduce in-usevehicle emissions
In developing their overall strategy for clean vehicles,
policymakers should consider other alternative approaches to
reduce in-use vehicle emissions such as vehicle retrofitting, con-
verting to alternative fuels, mandatory scrappage of old vehicles,
among others.
� Policymakers should be aware, however, that a successful
retrofit program for in-use vehicles requires a system en-
gineering approach that includes a rigorous I/M program,
proper catalyst or other effective device, optimized cata-
lyst location and appropriate quality fuel.
Retrofit programfor in-use vehiclesin Tokyo usingdiesel particulatefilters
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA32
� Certain cities or organizations have banned the entry of
polluting vehicles in certain city areas or in their organiza-
tion compounds. Policymakers should note that while the
resulting impact on air pollution may be limited, the im-
pact on awareness raising could be considerable.
� Fuel additives also have the potential to reduce emissions,
but policymakers must take special care to ensure that no
new pollutants are introduced and that an independent
laboratory has verified an additive’s effectiveness with the
vehicle types in which it will be used.
� Age limits on public transport vehicles, other commercial
vehicles, and motorcycles have proven to be effective in
eliminating gross polluting vehicles. Policymakers should
develop adequate incentives to encourage such phaseout
programs.
Age limits onpublic transportvehicles, othercommercialvehicles, andmotorcycles haveproven to beeffective ineliminating grosspolluting vehicles
Regional cooperation
Harmonization of new vehicle standards can potentially lower
the overall costs of pollution controls by introducing economies
of scale in vehicle manufacturing and reduced testing costs. The
United Nation’s Economic Commission for Europe Working Party
29 (WP29) is serving as a world forum for the harmonization of
vehicle regulations. Under its auspices, there has been a Global
Agreement to work toward further harmonization. In addition to
the US, the European Union and Japan, several other Asian coun-
tries are parties to the agreement.
� Policymakers should aggressively en-
courage harmonization throughout
the region and consider more active
participation in WP29. As many coun-
tries in the region move toward Euro 4
or Euro 5 standards for vehicles and fu-
els, they should closely coordinate.
� Most countries in the region have
adopted emissions standards for new
vehicles, but there is still limited capac-
ity for testing and verifying compliance
with the requirements. Many countries,
therefore, rely on type approvals carried
out in other countries. A possibility suggested during
the workshop was the establishment of an independent
regional facility for Type Approval or Certification.
Policymakers in countries that lack their own emissions test
facilities should consult with their neighbours who face
similar difficulties and explore the feasibility of collectively
commissioning such a laboratory.
Harmonization of new
vehicle standards
can potentially lower the
overall costs of pollution
controls by introducing
economies of scale in
vehicle manufacturing
and reduced testing costs.
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA34
� Inspection procedures often lack a scientific basis. For ex-
ample, several workshop presenters noted that more re-
search should be devoted to identifying a good test pro-
cedure for motorcycles. Policymakers must encourage and
fund research efforts that can develop good test proce-
dures for all vehicle categories. By working together, coun-
tries can assure that redundant research is not carried out.
By closely coordinating research efforts and sharing results,
reduced expenditures can bring maximum benefits.
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 35
Appendix on recentEuropean Union (EU)emissions standards
I. Emission limits for passenger cars
Table A.1Emission Limitsfor Gasoline Cars(g/km)a
CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen oxides
a “Euro 3 and 4” (Directive 98/69/EC): Standards also apply to light commercial vehicles(<1305 kg)
b The above dates refer to new vehicle types; dates for new vehicles are one year laterc As measured on new test cycle for application in year 2000
Gasoline As fromb CO HC NOx
Euro 1c 1/7/1992 4.05 0.66 0.49
Euro 2c 1/1/1996 3.28 0.34 0.25
Euro 3 1/1/2000 2.30 0.20 0.15
Euro 4 1/1/2005 1.00 0.10 0.08
Table A.2Emission Limitsfor Diesel Cars(g/km)a
CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen
oxides, PM = particulate mattera “Euro 3 and 4” (Directive 98/69/EC): Standards also apply to light commercial vehicles
(<1305 kg)b The above dates refer to new vehicle types; dates for new vehicles are one year laterc As measured on new test cycle for application in year 2000
Diesel As fromb CO HC NOx
PM
Euro 1c 1/7/1992 2.88 0.20 0.78 0.140
Euro 2c 1/1/1996 1.06 0.19 0.73 0.100
Euro 3 1/1/2000 0.64 0.06 0.50 0.050
Euro 4 1/1/2005 0.50 0.05 0.25 0.025
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA36
II. Emission limits for light commercialvehicles (Classes N1, N2 and N3)
Table A.3Light Commercial VehiclesN1 Class (<1350 kg)Emission Limits (g/km)
CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen oxides, PM = particulate matter
a For Euro 1 and 2 the weight classes were N1 (<1250 kg), N2 (1250-1700 kg) and N3 (>1700 kg)
N1 As from Fuel type CO HC NOx
HC + NOx
PM
Euro 1a 1/10/1994 All 2.72 — — 0.97 0.140
Euro 2a 1/1/1998Gasoline 2.20 — — 0.50 —
Diesel 1.00 — — 0.60 0.100
Euro 3 1/1/2001Gasoline 2.30 0.20 0.15 — —
Diesel 0.64 — 0.50 0.56 0.050
Euro 4 1/1/2006Gasoline 1.00 0.10 0.08 — —
Diesel 0.50 — 0.25 0.30 0.025
Table A.4Light Commercial VehiclesN2 Class (1305-1760 kg)Emission Limits (g/km)
CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen oxides, PM = particulate matter
a For Euro 1 and 2 the weight classes were N1 (<1250 kg), N2 (1250-1700 kg) and N3 (>1700 kg)
N2 As from Fuel type CO HC NOx
HC + NOx
PM
Euro 1a 1/10/1994 All 5.17 — — 1.40 0.19
Euro 2a 1/1/1998Gasoline 4.00 — — 0.65 —
Diesel 1.20 — — 1.10 0.15
Euro 3 1/1/2002Gasoline 4.17 0.25 0.18 — —
Diesel 0.80 — 0.65 0.72 0.07
Euro 4 1/1/2006Gasoline 1.81 0.13 0.1 — —
Diesel 0.63 — 0.33 0.39 0.04
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 37
Table A.5Light Commercial VehiclesN3 Class (>1760 kg)Emission Limits (g/km)
CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen oxides, PM = particulate matter
a For Euro 1 and 2 the weight classes were N1 (<1250 kg), N2 (1250-1700 kg) and N3 (>1700 kg)
N3 As from Fuel type CO HC NOx
HC + NOx
PM
Euro 1a 1/10/1994 All 6.90 — — 1.70 0.25
Euro 2a 1/1/1998Gasoline 5.00 — — 0.80 —
Diesel 1.35 — — 1.30 0.20
Euro 3 1/1/2002Gasoline 5.22 0.29 0.21 — —
Diesel 0.95 — 0.78 0.86 0.10
Euro 4 1/1/2006Gasoline 2.27 0.16 0.11 — —
Diesel 0.74 — 0.39 0.46 0.06
III. Emissions limits for heavy duty vehicles
Note: “Euro 1 and 2”: Directive 91/542/EEC; “Euro 3, 4 and 5”: Council position December 1998 and agreed with theEuropean ParliamentCO = carbon monoxide, HC = hydrocarbons, g/kWh= gram per kilowatt-hour, NO
x = nitrogen oxides
a Until 30/11/1998 the particulate limit for engines <700 cc per cylinder and with a rated power speed of more than3000 rpm was 0.25 g/kWh
b For engines <750 cc per cylinder and with a rated power speed greater than 3000 rpmc Measured on the European Standard Cycle (ESC)d Measured on the European Transient Cycle (ETC)
Table A.6Emission Limits for HeavyDuty Vehicles (g/kWh)
Test Total Non-Methane ParticulateAs from cycle CO HC HC NO
xMatter
Euro 1 1/10/1993 13-mode 4.5 1.10 — 8.0 0.612 <85 kW
0.36 >85 kW
Euro 2 1/10/1996 13-mode 4.0 1.10 — 7.0 0.15a
Euro 3 1/1/2000 ESCc 2.1 0.66 — 5.0 0.10 0.13b
ETCd 5.5 0.78 1.6 5.0 0.16 0.21b
Euro 4 1/10/2005 ESCc 1.5 0.46 — 3.5 0.02
ETCd 4.0 0.55 1.1 3.5 0.03
Euro 5 1/10/2008 ESCc 1.5 0.46 — 2.0 0.02
ETCd 4.0 0.55 1.1 2.0 0.03
POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA38
IV. Relevant fuel specification limits
Table A.7Relevant Gasolineand Diesel FuelSpecificationLimits
2000 2005
Gasoline
RVP summer 60 —
Aromatics 42 35
Benzene 1 —
Olefins 18 —
Oxygen 2.7 —
Sulfur 150 50
Diesel
Cetane no. (min) 51 —
Density 15°C 845 —
Distillation 95°C 360 —
Polyaromatics 11 —
Sulfur 350 50
RVP = Reid vapor pressure
VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 39
1 The Appendix on Recent European Union (EU) Emissions Standards which
forms part of this book contains a summary of the recent European
vehicle emissions standards and the associated fuels requirements.2 See Policy Guidelines on Cleaner Two and Three Wheelers, one of the
books published by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) as Policy
Guidelines for Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia.3 For a more detailed discussion of the health impacts from motor ve-
hicle pollution, see the separate book on the Appendix on the Adverse
Health and Environmental Effects from Vehicle Emissions.
Notes