U3PEA01: PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
PREPARED BY
G.JEYAKUMAR
AUTOMOBILE ENGG DEPT
UNIT I
Casting Process
Casting
Refractory mold pour liquid metal solidify, remove finish
• VERSATILE: complex geometry, internal cavities, hollow sections
• VERSATILE: small (~10 grams) very large parts (~1000 Kg)
• ECONOMICAL: little wastage (extra metal is re-used)
• ISOTROPIC: cast parts have same properties along all directions
• Casting Process;
• Casting is the process of pouring molten metal into the previously made cavity to the desired
shape and allow it to solidify.
• The following are the basic operations of casting process – Pattern making– Melting the metal– Pouring it into a previously made mould which
confirms to the shape of desired component.
• Pattern
• A pattern is an element used for making cavities in the mould, into which molten
• metal is poured to produce a casting.
• Requirements of a good pattern, and pattern allowances. – Secure the desired shape and size of the casting– Simple in design, for ease of manufacture– Cheap and readily availableLight in mass and
convenient to handle– Have high strength
• Pattern materials– Wood– Common metals such as Brass, cast Iron,
Aluminium and white metal etc.– Plastic– Gypsum– Pattern allowances– Shrinkage allowance– Machining allowance– Draft allowance– Shake allowance
• Distortion allowance
• Different types of patterns
• Split or Parted Pattern
• Loose Piece Pattern
• Draw backs
• Gated Patterns.
• Match Plate pattern
• Cope and Drag Pattern
• Sweep Patterns.
• MOULD PREPARATION
• Green sand mould :
• A green sand mould is composed of mixture of sand, clay and water.
• Dry sand mould :
• Dry sand moulds are basically green sand moulds with 1 to 2% cereal flour and 1 to 2% pitch.
• Materials used in mould preparation
• Silica sand, Binder, Additives and water
• .
• Various properties of moulding sand .
• Permeability
• Strength or CohesivenessRefractoriness.
• Plasticity or flowability
• Collapsibility
• Adhesiveness.
• Co-efficient of Expansion
• Different moulding sand test procedures.
• The following tests have been recommended by B.I.S.
• 1. Moisture content test
• 2. Clay content test
• 3. Permeability test
• 4. Fineness test or Sand grain size test (Sieve analysis)
• 5. Strength test
• 6. Mould hardness test.
• CORE MAKING
• Core
• is a body made of refractory material (sand or metal, metal cores being less frequently used), which is set into the prepared mould before closing and pouring it, for forming through holes, recesses, projections, undercuts and internal cavities.
• Core Prints. Core prints are the projections on a pattern and are used to make recesses (core seats) in the mould to locate the core
• Casting
• Factors to be considered for selecting a furnace for a job
• Capacity of molten metal
• Melting rate and temp armature control desired, Quality of melt required
• Method of pouring and types of product contemplated.
•
• Cupola Furnace operation
• The cupola is the most widely used furnace in the foundry for melting ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys. A cross-section of a cupola is shown. A cupola is a shaft furnace of cylindrical shape erected on legs or columns. The cupola shell is made of steel plate 8 or 10 mm thick. The interior is lined with refractory bricks to protect the shell from getting over-heated. The charge for the cupola consists of metallic materials, fuel and fluxes.
Different Casting Processes
Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples
Sand many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap poor finish & tolerance engine blocks, cylinder heads
Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher production rate
limited part size connecting rods, gear housings
Expendablepattern
Wide range of metals, sizes, shapes
patterns have low strength
cylinder heads, brake components
Plaster mold complex shapes, good surface finish
non-ferrous metals, low production rate
prototypes of mechanical parts
Ceramic mold complex shapes, high accuracy, good finish
small sizes impellers, injection mold tooling
Investment complex shapes, excellent finish small parts, expensive jewellery
Permanent mold
good finish, low porosity, high production rate
Costly mold, simpler shapes only
gears, gear housings
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy, high production rate
costly dies, small parts,non-ferrous metals
gears, camera bodies, car wheels
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good quality
Expensive, few shapes pipes, boilers, flywheels
Sand Casting
Sand Casting
cope: top half
drag: bottom half
core: for internal cavities
pattern: positive
funnel sprue runners gate cavity {risers, vents}
Sand Casting Considerations..
(d) taper
- do we need it ?
Mold cavity
chaplet
Mold cavity
chaplet
(e) core prints, chaplets
- hold the core in position - chaplet is metal (why?)
(f) cut-off, finishing
Shell mold casting - metal, 2-piece pattern, 175C-370C- coated with a lubricant (silicone)- mixture of sand, thermoset resin/epoxy- cure (baking) - remove patterns, join half-shells mold- pour metal- solidify (cooling)- break shell part
Expendable Mold Casting
- Styrofoam pattern- dipped in refractory slurry dried- sand (support)- pour liquid metal- foam evaporates, metal fills the shell- cool, solidify- break shell part
polystyrenepattern
patternsupport
sand
moltenmetal
polystyreneburns;gas escapespolystyrene
pattern
patternsupport
sand
moltenmetal
polystyreneburns;gas escapes
Plaster-mold, Ceramic-mold casting
Plaster-mold slurry: plaster of paris (CaSO4), talc, silica flour
Ceramic-mold slurry: silica, powdered Zircon (ZrSiO4)
- The slurry forms a shell over the pattern- Dried in a low temperature oven- Remove pattern- Backed by clay (strength), baked (burn-off volatiles)- cast the metal- break mold part
Plaster-mold: good finish (Why ?) plaster: low conductivity => low warpage, residual stresslow mp metal (Zn, Al, Cu, Mg)
Ceramic-mold: good finishhigh mp metals (steel, …) => impeller blades, turbines, …
Investment casting (lost wax casting)
(a) Wax pattern (injection molding)
(b) Multiple patterns assembled to wax sprue
(c) Shell built immerse into ceramic slurry immerse into fine sand (few layers)
(d) dry ceramic melt out the wax fire ceramic (burn wax)
(e) Pour molten metal (gravity) cool, solidify [Hollow casting: pouring excess metal before solidification
(f) Break ceramic shell (vibration or water blasting)
(g) Cut off parts (high-speed friction saw) finishing (polish)
Die casting
- a type of permanent mold casting- common uses: components for rice cookers, stoves, fans, washing-, drying machines, fridges, motors, toys, hand-tools, car wheels, …
HOT CHAMBER: (low mp e.g. Zn, Pb; non-alloying)(i) die is closed, gooseneck cylinder is filled with molten metal(ii) plunger pushes molten metal through gooseneck into cavity(iii) metal is held under pressure until it solidifies(iv) die opens, cores retracted; plunger returns(v) ejector pins push casting out of ejector die
COLD CHAMBER: (high mp e.g. Cu, Al)(i) die closed, molten metal is ladled into cylinder(ii) plunger pushes molten metal into die cavity(iii) metal is held under high pressure until it solidifies(iv) die opens, plunger pushes solidified slug from the cylinder(v) cores retracted(iv) ejector pins push casting off ejector die
Centrifugal casting
- permanent mold- rotated about its axis at 300 ~ 3000 rpm- molten metal is poured
- Surface finish: better along outer diameter than inner,- Impurities, inclusions, closer to the inner diameter (why ?)
Typical casting defects
UNIT II
WELDING PROCESS
Welding ProcessesFusion Welding Processes
GMAW – Gas Metal Arc Welding
SMAW – Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Non-Consumable Electrode
GTAW – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Electron Beam Welding
SAW – Submerged Arc Welding
Consumable Electrode
PAW – Plasma Arc Welding
High Energy Beam
Laser Beam Welding
Welding
Welding is defined as an localized coalescence of metals, where in coalescence is obtained by heating to suitable temperature, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.
Different welding processes. • Fusion Welding, Brazing & Soldering
• Solid State Welding
• Chemical, welding
• Electrical Resistance
• Diffusion, Explosion
• Mechanical
• Cold Friction Ultrasonic
• Oxyfuel gas, hermit welding
• Electron Beam, Laser Beam,Plasma arc welding
Gaswelding.
Gas welding is a group of welding processes where in coalescence is produced by heating with a flame or flames with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler material.
Welding ProcessesSMAW – Shielded Metal Arc Welding
• Slag keeps oxygen off weld bead during cooling
• Consumable electrode
• Flux produces protective gas around weld pool
• Flux coated rod
Power = VI 10 kW
Power... Current I (50 - 300 amps)Voltage V (15 - 45 volts)
• General purpose welding—widely used
• Thicknesses 1/8” – 3/4”
• Portable
Welding ProcessesElectric Arc Welding -- Polarity
SMAW - DC Polarity
Straight Polarity
Shallow penetration Deeper weld penetration
(thin metal)
Reverse Polarity
(+)(+)
(–)(–)
(–)(–)
(+)(+)
AC - Gives pulsing arc
- used for welding thick sections
Welding ProcessesGMAW – Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)
• DC reverse polarity - hottest arc
• MIG - Metal Inert Gas
• Consumable wire electrode
• AC - unstable arc
Groover, M., Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,, p. 734, 1996
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Torch
• Shielding provided by gas
• Double productivity of SMAW
• Easily automated
GMAW
• An arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool to produce a fusion (melting) together of the base metal
• The process is used with a shielding gas supplied from an external source without pressure.
Welding ProcessesGMAW – Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)
• DC reverse polarity - hottest arc
• MIG - Metal Inert Gas
• Consumable wire electrode
• AC - unstable arc
Groover, M., Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,, p. 734, 1996
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Torch
• Shielding provided by gas
• Double productivity of SMAW
• Easily automated
Welding ProcessesSAW – Submerged Arc Welding
• 300 – 2000 amps (440 V)
• Consumable wire electrodeGas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Torch
• Shielding provided by flux granules
• Automated process (limited to flats)
• Low UV radiation & fumes
• Flux acts as thermal insulator
• High speed & quality (4 – 10x SMAW)
• Suitable for thick plates http://www.twi.co.uk
Welding ProcessesGTAW – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
• Non-consumable electrode
• a.k.a. TIG - Tungsten Inert Gas
• Shield gas usually argon
• Used for thin sections of Al, Mg, Ti.
• With or without filler metal
Power 8-20 kW
Current I (200 A DC) (500 A AC)
• Most expensive, highest quality
Welding ProcessesFriction Welding (Inertia Welding)
• One part rotated, one stationary
• Stationary part forced against rotating part
• Friction converts kinetic energy to thermal energy
• Metal at interface melts and is joined
• When sufficiently hot, rotation is stopped & axial force increased
Welding ProcessesResistance Welding
Resistance Welding is the coordinated application of electric current and mechanical pressure in the proper magnitudes and for a precise period of time to create a coalescent bond between two base metals.
• Heat provided by resistance to electrical current (Q=I2Rt)
• Force applied by pneumatic cylinder
• Typical 0.5 – 10 V but up to 100,000 amps!
• Often fully or partially automated
- Spot welding
- Seam welding
Welding ProcessesResistance Welding
• Heat provided by resistance to electrical current (Q=I2Rt)
• Force applied by pneumatic cylinder
• Typical 0.5 – 10 V but up to 100,000 amps!
• Often fully or partially automated
- Spot welding
- Seam welding
Welding ProcessesDiffusion Welding
• Parts forced together at high temperature (< 0.5Tm absolute) and pressure
Kalpakjian, S., Manufacturing Engineering & Technology, p. 889, 1992
• Atoms diffuse across interface
• After sufficient time the interface disappears
• Good for dissimilar metals
• Heated in furnace or by resistance heating
• Bond can be weakened by surface impurities
Soldering & Brazing Metal Joining Processes
Soldering & Brazing
• Filler metal distributed by capillary action
• Only filler metal is melted, not base metal
• Strength of joint typically
– Can join dissimilar metals
– Less heat - can join thinner sections (relative to welding)
– stronger than filler metal itself
– weaker than base metal
– Excessive heat during service can weaken joint
• Pros & Cons
• Lower temperatures than welding
– gap at joint important (0.001 – 0.010”)
• Metallurgical bond formed between filler & base metals
LASER BEAM WELDING
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
Keyhole welding
Laser beam
Plasma plume
Moltenmaterial
shieldinggas nozzle(optional)
workpiece motion
Plasmakeyhole
High Energy Density Processes
Focusing the Beam
Heat Surface Welding Cuttingtreatment modification
High Energy Density Processes
Advantages• Single pass weld
penetration up to 3/4” in steel
• High Travel speed• Materials need not be
conductive• No filler metal required• Low heat input
produces low distortion
• Does not require a vacuum
0.1.1.2.1.T4.95.12
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1 3 5 7Welding speed, m/min
Wel
d p
enet
rati
on
, m
m
6 kW CO2
2 kW Nd:YAG
Soldering
Solder = Filler metal
Metal Joining Processes
Soldering
Applications:
• Printed Circuit Board (PCB) manufacture
• Pipe joining (copper pipe)
• Jewelry manufacture
Easy to solder: copper, silver, gold
Difficult to solder: aluminum, stainless steels
(can pre-plate difficult to solder metals to aid process)
• Alloys of Tin (silver, bismuth, lead)
• Melt point typically below 840 F
Flux used to clean joint & prevent oxidation
• Typically non-load bearing
Tinning = pre-coating with thin layer of solder
• separate or in core of wire (rosin-core)
PCB Soldering
• Soldering Iron & Solder Wire
Metal Joining Processes
Manual PCB Soldering
• Heating lead & placing solder
• Trim excess lead
• Heat for 2-3 sec. & place wire opposite iron
PCB Reflow Soldering Metal Joining Processes
Automated Reflow Soldering SMT = Surface Mount Technology
Printed solder paste on a printed circuit board (PCB)
• Solder Paste serves the following functions:– supply solder material to the soldering spot, – hold the components in place prior to soldering, – clean the solder lands and component leads – prevent further oxidation of the solder lands.
• Solder/Flux paste mixture applied to PCB using screen print or similar transfer method
• PCB assembly then heated in “Reflow” oven to melt solder and secure connection
Brazing
Use of low melt point filler metal to fill thin gap between mating surfaces to be joined utilizing capillary action
Metal Joining Processes
Brazing
Applications:
• Pipe/Tubing joining (HVAC)
• Filler metals include Al, Mg & Cu alloys (melt point typically above 840 F)
• Automotive - joining tubes
• Electrical equipment - joining wires
• Jewelry Making
• Flux also used
• Types of brazing classified by heating method:
– Torch, Furnace, Resistance
• Joint can possess significant strength
Brazing
Use of low melt point filler metal to fill thin gap between mating surfaces to be joined utilizing capillary action
Metal Joining Processes
Brazing
Applications:
• Pipe/Tubing joining (HVAC)
• Filler metals include Al, Mg & Cu alloys (melt point typically above 840 F)
• Automotive - joining tubes
• Electrical equipment - joining wires
• Jewelry Making
• Flux also used
• Types of brazing classified by heating method:
– Torch, Furnace, Resistance
• Joint can possess significant strength
Welding defects• Inclusions
– Slag
– Wagontracks
– Tungsten
• Spatter
• Arc Craters
• Cracks– Longitudinal
– Transverse
– Crater
– Throat
– Toe
– Root
– Underbead and Heat-affected zone
– Hot
– Cold or delayed
• Misalignment (hi-lo)
• Undercut
• Underfill
• Concavity or Convexity
• Excessive reinforcement
• Improper reinforcement
• Overlap
• Burn-through
• Incomplete or Insufficient Penetration
• Incomplete Fusion
• Surface irregularity– Overlap
• Arc Strikes
• Base Metal Discontinuities– Lamellar tearing
– Laminations and Delaminations
– Laps and Seams
• Porosity– Uniformly Scattered
– Cluster
– Linear
– Piping
• Heat-affected zone microstructure alteration
• Base Plate laminations
• Size or dimensions
UNIT III
MACHINING PROCESS
Machine Tool
• Lathe
• Lathe is one of the oldest and perhaps most important machine ever developed.The job to be machined is rotated and the cutting tool is moved relative to the job. This is also called as turning machines.
Types of lathe
• Limited or low-production Machines. The lathes included in this category are: engine lathe (centre lathe), bench lathe, tool room lathe and speed lathe.
• Medium-production Machines. Turret lathes and duplicating (or tracer controlled) lathes.
• High-production Machines. Semiconductor automatic and automatic lathes.
Lathe
• Main parts of a lathe.
• Bed, Head stock, tail stock & carriage., saddle, apron,cross
slide, compound rest ,spindle lead screw,• Size /capacity of lathe
• Lathe size is specified by length of the bed and swing dia
• Swing =2xHeight of centres from the bed slide way.
• The size can also be specified by which max dia of the component turned over the bed, and max length of the
component that can be held between centres.
Lathe operations
• Lathe is versatile machine
• Lathe is called as versatile machine because of the following many operations unlike in other machines where the operations are limited.
• Turning, Facing, Step turning, Boring, Thread cutting, Uunder cutting,chamferring,counter boring,internal threading boring.parting off,knurling,drilling,reaming
Turret and capstan lathe
• Turret lathe
• It is medium production lathe and semi automatic lathe to make parts in great quantities to close tolerances and faster. In which tail sock is replaced with a turret slide hexagonal shape in which six tools can be mounted in six faces of the turret, tool post is replaced by a square cross slide which can hold four tools,two more tools can be mounted on the rear cross slide.Operations like turning, drilling, boring, reaming, threading cutoff etc can be formed in this machine by proper tool setup.
• The work is held in the chuck or by collet. All centre lathe operations camn be performed in this lathe
• Capstan lathe
• In this machine the turret is carried on a ram which moves longitudinally on a saddle positioned and clamped on the ways of the bed at any desired position. The lathe which is used for small
• and medium component. All the operation performed in turret lathe can be performed in this machine.
Shaper,planer and slotter
The main function of shapers, planers and slotters is the
machining of flat surfaces by means of straight line reciprocating single point cutting tools similar to
those used in lathe operations.
HORIZONTAL SHAPER
• Advantages of a shaper. • The shapers have got the following advantages. • The single point cutting tools used in shapers are
inexpensive, these tools can be easily grounded to any desired shape.
• The simplicity and ease of holding work, its easy adjustment, and the simple tool give the shaper its great flexibility.
• Shaper set up is very quick and easy and can be readily changed from one job to another.
• Thin or fragile jobs can be conveniently machined on shapers because of lower cutting forces.
• Ram drive mechanisms of a Slotters.
• Hydraulic Drive, Variable Speed Reversible Motor drive, Slotted disc mechanism
• Uses of Vertical Shaper / Slotter
• Internal machining of blind holes.
• Work requiring machining on internal sections such as splines, keyways, various slots and grooves and teeth.
• Cutting of teeth on ratchet or gear rings which require primarily rotary feed.
• Machining of die, punchet, straight and curved slots.
Drilling Process
• The drilling process is an extensively used machining operation by which through or blind holes are cut or originated in a workpiece. The drilling tool is called a “drill” which is a multi-point ctting tool. The hole is produced by axially feeding the rotating drill into the workpiece which is held on the table of the drilling machine.
Milling Process
• Milling is the process of removing excess material from a work piece by rotating cutting tool called milling cutteris a multi pint cutting tool having the shape of teeth arranged on the periphery or on end face or on both.
• Types of milling process
• Up & down milling operation
• Up milling process
• Cutter is rotating in opposite direction of feed
• Down milling process
• Cutter is rotating in the same direction of feed
• Advantages of Planers.
• Larger work can be handled as compared to shapers and millers.
• Capable of taking much heavier cuts as compared to shapers and millers.
• There are no overhanging parts such as a ram. So there is no work or tool deflection or distortion.
• The work is mounted on a table which is supported throughout its entire movement. So, a maximum support is obtained.
Cylindrical Grinding Machine
• The cylindrical grinder is a type of grinding machine used to shape the outside of an object. The cylindrical grinder can work on a variety of shapes, however the object must have a central axis of rotation. This includes but is not limited to such shapes as a cylinders an ellipse a cam, or a crankshaft
Rolling
Important Applications:
Steel Plants,Raw stock production (sheets, tubes, Rods, etc.)Screw manufacture
• Cylindrical grinding is defined as having four essential actions
• The work (object) must be constantly rotating
• The grinding wheel must be constantly rotating
• The grinding wheel is fed towards and away from the work
• Either the work or the grinding wheel is traversed with the respect to the other.
• While the majority of cylindrical grinders employ all four movements, there are grinders that only employ three of the four actions.
• Grinding operations
• Outside diameter grinding
• ID grinding• Plunge grinding
Abrassive Jet Machining (AJM)
• In abrasive et machining method, the material is removed form the surface or a Workpiece, by impinging a focused jet of fine abrasive particles carried by a compressed gas which imparts kinetic energy to the stream of fine abrasives. The stream leaves through a nozzle at a velocity of the order of 300 m/s and strikes the surface of the Workpiece, producing impact loading on it. plastic deformation or micro-cracks occur is the vicinity of the impact. Due to repeated impacts, small chips of material get loosened and fresh surface gets exposed to the jet.
Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
• Ultrasonic machining is a kind of grinding method. An abrasive slurry is pumped between tool and work, and the tool is given a high frequency, low amplitude oscillation which, in turn, transmits a high velocity to fine abrasive particles which are driven against the work piece. At each stroke, minute chips of material are removed by fracture or erosion.
Electrical Discharge Machining
• It has long been recognized that a powerful spark, such as at the terminals of an automobile battery, will cause pitting or erosion of the metal at both the anode and cathode. This principle is utilized in Electric Discharge Machining (EDM), also called spark erosion. If anode and cathode are of the same material, it has been found that greater erosion takes place at anode (positive electrode). Therefore, in EDM process, work is made the anode and the tool is the cathode (negative electrode).
Electro Chemical Machining
• In ECM, the principle of electrolysis is used to remove metal from the workpiece. The principle of electrolysis is based on Faraday’s laws of electrolysis which may be stated as: “The weight of substance produced during electrolysis is directly proportional to the current which passes, the length of time of the electrolysis process and the equivalent weight of the materials which is deposited”. ECM is just the reverse of electroplating (which also uses the principle
Plasma Arc machining or Plasma Jet Machining (PAM or PJM
• We know that all gases burning at high temperatures are ionized gases. In plasma arc machining, the gases are isonized by placing an arc across the path of gas flow. The gas molecules get dissociated causing large amounts of thermal energy to be liberated. This generates temperatures of the order of 16500C, which are than utilized in removing metal by melting and vapourization. Figure shows a schematic view of PAM.
Electron Beam Machining• In electron beam machining (EBM), electrons emitted by a hot
surface and accelerated by a voltage of 10 to 50 kV are focused to a very small areas on the workpiece. This stream of high energy electrons possess a very high energy density (of the order of 104 kW/mm2) and when this narrow stream strikes the work piece (by impact), the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted to powerful heat energy which is quite sufficient to melt and vaporize any material. Even though, it can
penetrate metals to a depth of only a few atomic layers the electron beam can melt metal to a depth of 25 mm or more. The electron beam which travels at about half to three- fourth the velocity of sound is focused on the workpiece by electro-static or electro-magnetic lenses.
•
• EBM is done in a high vacuum chamber to eliminate the scattering of the electron beam as it contacts the gas molecules on the work piece. Figure shows schematic view of EBM.
• Since a continuous beam loses considerable heat by conduction through the work piece, a pulsed beam at a frequency of less than 100 cps is used in electron beam machining. This consists of repeatedly striking the electron beam on the work piece for a few milli-seconds and then turning it off for a certain period of time.
Laser Beam Machining• A Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation) is a device which produces a beam of light Laser light can be a very powerful source of power. In LBM, exceedingly high electromagnetic energy densities (of the order of 105 kW/mm2) are focused on the surface of the work piece (in air or vacuum) to remove metal by melting and evaporation.
Rolling Basics
Sheets are rolled in multiple stages (why ?)
Vo
Vfto tfVo
Vfto tfVo
Vfto tfVo
Vfto tf
thread rolling machine
stationary die
rolling diethread rolling machine
stationary die
rolling die
Reciprocating flat thread-rolling diesReciprocating flat thread-rolling dies
Screw manufacture:
UNIT IVFORMING PROCESS
Forming process
• Hot working :
• The Metal working process which is done above recrystallaisation temperature is known as hot working.
• Cold working:
• The metal working process which is done below recrystallaisation temperature is known as cold working.
• Hot working :
• The Metal working process which is done above recrystallaisation temperature is known as hot working.
• Cold working:
• The metal working process which is done below recrystallaisation temperature is known as cold working.
• Recrystallaisation temperature.
• When a metal is heated and deformed under mechanical force, an energy level will be reached when the old grain structure starts disintegrating, and entirely new grain structure (equip axed, stress free) with reduced grain size starts forming simultaneously. This phenomenon is known as recrystallaisation, and the temperature at which this phenomenon starts called recrystallaisation temperature.
• Advantages of hot working:-• Very large work pieces can be deformed with
equipment of reasonable size • Strength of the metal is low at high temperature.
Hence low tonnage equipments are adequate for hot working.
• Gra in size can be controlled to be minimum.• Advantages of cold working:-• Surface defects are removed.• High dimensional accuracy.• Cold working is done at room temperature, no
oxidation and scaling of the work material occurs.
Drawing.• Drawing is a cold working process in which the work
piece is pulled through a tapered hole in a die so as to reduce its diameter. The process imparts accurate dimensions, specified cross – section and a clean excellent Quality of surface to the work.
• Degree of drawing (RA).• The degree of drawing is measured in terms of
“reduction of area” which is defined as the ratio of the difference in cross – sectional area before and after drawing to the initial cross sectional area expressed in percent.
•
Drawing
Commonly used to make wires from round bars
stock (bar)
F (pulling force)
wirediestock (bar)
F (pulling force)
wiredie
Similar to extrusion, except: pulling force is applied
• DRAWING
• Drawing is a cold working process in which the work piece (wire, rod or tube) is pulled through a tapered hole in a die so as to reduce its diameter. The process imparts accurate dimensions, specified cross section and a clean and excellent quality of surface to the work. The process may appreciably increase the strength and hardness of metal.
Rolling.• Rolling is the process in which the metals and alloys
are plastically deformed into semi-finished or finished condition by passing these between circular rolls. The main objective in rolling is to decrease the thickness of metal.
• The faster method is to pass the stock through a series of rolls for successive reduction, but this method requires more investment in equipment.
• Tube drawing
• Tubes which are made by hot metal working, processes are finally cold drawn to obtain better surface finish and dimensional tolerances, to enhance the mechanical properties of the pipe, and to produce tubes of reduced wall thickness.
Types of rolling mills
• Two high rolling mill• Three high rolling mill• Four-high rolling mil• Multiple –roll mills
Forging.
• Forging may be defined as a metal working process by which metals and alloys are plastically deformed to desired shapes by the application of compressive force. Forging may done either hot or cold.
Forging
[Heated] metal is beaten with a heavy hammer to give it the required shape
Hot forging,
open-die
1. Blank (bar) 2. Edging 3.Blocking 4. Finishing 5. Trimming
Flash
(a)
(b)
(c)
1. Blank (bar) 2. Edging 3.Blocking 4. Finishing 5. Trimming1. Blank (bar) 2. Edging 3.Blocking 4. Finishing 5. Trimming
Flash
(a)
(b)
(c)Flash
(a)
(b)
(c)
Stages in Closed-Die Forging
[source:Kalpakjian & Schmid]
Stages in Open-Die Forging
(a) forge hot billet to max diameter
(b) “fuller: tool to mark step-locations
(c) forge right side
(d) reverse part, forge left side
(e) finish (dimension control)
[source:www.scotforge.com]
• Basic Forging Operations• . Upsetting• Heading• Fullering• . Drawing down• Edging• . Bending• Flattening• . Blocking • Cut – off• Piercing• Punching
Quality of forged parts
Stronger/tougher than cast/machined parts of same material
Surface finish/Dimensional control:Better than casting (typically)
[source:www.scotforge.com]
Extrusion.
• Extrusion may be defined as the manufacturing process in which a block of metal enclosed in a container is forced to flow through the opening of a die. The metal is subjected to plastic deformation and it undergoes reduction and elongation during extrusion.
Extrusion
Metal forced/squeezed out through a hole (die)
Typical use: ductile metals (Cu, Steel, Al, Mg), Plastics, Rubbers
Common products:
Al frames of white-boards, doors, windows, …
[source:www.magnode.com]
FORGING HAMMERS
• Pneumatic forging hammer
• Hydraulic presses Direct – drive hydraulic presses
• Accumulator – driven hydraulic presses
Sheet Metal Processes
Raw material: sheets of metal, rectangular, large
Raw material Processing: Rolling (anisotropic properties)
Processes:ShearingPunchingBendingDeep drawing
Shearing
A large scissors action, cutting the sheet along a straight line
Main use: to cut large sheet into smaller sizes for making parts.
Punching
Cutting tool is a round/rectangular punch,that goes through a hole, or die of same shape
F t X edge-length of punch X shear strength
Punch
die
sheet
crack(failure in shear)
clearance
die
piece cut away, or slug
t
F t X edge-length of punch X shear strength
Punch
die
sheet
crack(failure in shear)
clearance
die
piece cut away, or slug
t
Punching
Main uses: cutting holes in sheets; cutting sheet to required shape
typical punched part
nesting of parts
Exercise: how to determine optimal nesting?
Bending
Body of Olympus E-300 camera
component with multiple bending operations
[image source: dpreview.com]
component with punching,bending, drawing operations
Typical bending operations and shapes
(a)
(b)
Sheet metal bending
Planning problem: what is the sequence in which we do the bending operations?
Avoid: part-tool, part-part, part-machine interference
Bending mechanics
R = Bend radius
Neutral axis
L = Bend length
This section isunder extension
This section isin compression
Bend allowance, Lb = (R + kT)
T = Sheet thickness
R = Bend radius
Neutral axis
L = Bend length
This section isunder extension
This section isin compression
Bend allowance, Lb = (R + kT)
T = Sheet thickness
Bending Planning what is the length of blank we must use?
Ideal case: k = 0.5 Real cases: k = 0.33 ( R < 2T) ~~ k = 0.5 (R > 2T)
Bending: cracking, anisotropic effects, Poisson effect
Bending plastic deformation
Bending disallow failure (cracking) limits on corner radius: bend radius ≥ 3T
Engineering strain in bending = e = 1/( 1 + 2R/T)
effect of anisotropic stock Poisson effect
Exercise: how does anisotropic behavior affect planning?
Bending: springback
1343
ET
YR
ET
YR
R
R ii
f
i
How to handle springback:
(a) Compensation: the metal is bent by a larger angle
(b) Coining the bend: at end of bend cycle, tool exerts large force, dwells
coining: press down hard, wait, release
Initial
Final Ri
Rf
i
f
f
i
T
Deep Drawing
die die die die die
punch punch punch punchblank
part
blank holder
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Examples of deep drawn parts
die die die die die
punch punch punch punchblank
part
blank holder
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
die die die die die
punch punch punch punchblank
part
blank holder
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Examples of deep drawn parts
Tooling: similar to punching operation,Mechanics: similar to bending operation
Common applications: cooking pots, containers, …
Sheet metal parts with combination of operations
Body of Olympus E-300 camera
component with multiple bending operations
[image source: dpreview.com]
component with punching,bending, drawing operations
UNIT-5 Powder Metallurgy
Basic Steps In Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
• Powder Production
• Blending or Mixing
• Compaction
• Sintering
• Finishing
Powder Production
• Atomization the most common
• Others– Chemical reduction of
oxides– Electrolytic deposition
• Different shapes produced– Will affect compaction
process significantly
Blending or Mixing
• Can use master alloys, (most commonly) or elemental powders that are used to build up the alloys– Master alloys are with the normal alloy ingredients
• Elemental or pre-alloyed metal powders are first mixed with lubricants or other alloy additions to produce a homogeneous mixture of ingredients
• The initial mixing may be done by either the metal powder producer or the P/M parts manufacturer
• When the particles are blended:– Desire to produce a homogenous blend– Over-mixing will work-harden the particles and produce variability in
the sintering process
Compaction
• Usually gravity filled cavity at room temperature
• Pressed at 60-100 ksi• Produces a “Green”
compact– Size and shape of finished
part (almost)– Not as strong as finished part
– handling concern
• Friction between particles is a major factor
Isostatic Pressing
• Because of friction between particles Because of friction between particles
• Apply pressure uniformly from all Apply pressure uniformly from all directions (in theory)directions (in theory)
• Wet bag (left)Wet bag (left)
• Dry bag (right)Dry bag (right)
Sintering
• Parts are heated to ~80% of melting temperature
• Transforms compacted mechanical bonds to much stronger metal bonds
• Many parts are done at this stage. Some will require additional processing
Sintering ctd
• Final part properties drastically affected
• Fully sintered is not always the goal– Ie. Self lubricated bushings
• Dimensions of part are affected
Die Design for P/M
• Thin walls and projections create fragile tooling. • Holes in pressing direction can be round, square, D-shaped,
keyed, splined or any straight-through shape. • Draft is generally not required. • Generous radii and fillets are desirable to extend tool life. • Chamfers, rather the radii, are necessary on part edges to
prevent burring. • Flats are necessary on chamfers to eliminate feather-edges on
tools, which break easily.
Advantages of P/M• Virtually unlimited choice of
alloys, composites, and associated properties – Refractory materials are popular
by this process
• Controlled porosity for self lubrication or filtration uses
• Can be very economical at large run sizes (100,000 parts)
• Long term reliability through close control of dimensions and physical properties
• Wide latitude of shape and design
• Very good material utilization
Disadvantages of P/M
• Limited in size capability due to large forces • Specialty machines• Need to control the environment – corrosion concern• Will not typically produce part as strong as wrought
product. (Can repress items to overcome that)• Cost of die – typical to that of forging, except that
design can be more – specialty• Less well known process
Financial Considerations• Die design – must withstand 100
ksi, requiring specialty designs
• Can be very automated– 1500 parts per hour not uncommon for
average size part
– 60,000 parts per hour achievable for small, low complexity parts in a rolling press
• Typical size part for automation is 1” cube– Larger parts may require special
machines (larger surface area, same pressure equals larger forces involved)
Extrusion
• Raw materials in the form if thermoplastic pallets,granules,or powder, placed into a hopper and fed into extruder barrel.
• The barrel is equipped with a screw that blends the pallets and conveys them down the barrel
• Heaters around the extruder’s barrels heats the pellets and liquefies them
Screw has 3-sections • Feed section• Melt or transition section• Pumping section.
• Complex shapes with constant cross-section
• Solid rods, channels, tubing, pipe, window frames, architectural components can be extruded due to continuous supply and flow.
• Plastic coated electrical wire, cable, and strips are also extruded
Pellets :extruded product is a small-diameter rod which is chopped into small pellets
Sheet and film extrusion :Extruded parts are rolled on water and on the rollers
Extruder
Fig : Schematic illustration of a typical extruder for plastics, elastomers, and composite materials.
Injection molding
Fig : Injection molding with (a) plunger, (b) reciprocating rotating screw, (c) a typical part made from an injection molding machine cavity, showing a number of parts made from one shot, note also mold features such as sprues, runners and gates.
• Similar to extrusion barrel is heated
• Pellets or granules fed into heated cylinder
• Melt is forced into a split-die chamber
• Molten plastic pushed into mold cavity
• Pressure ranges from 70 Mpa – 200 Mpa
• Typical products : Cups, containers, housings, tool handles, knobs, electrical and communication components, toys etc.
Injection molding
• Injection molds have several components such as runners, cores, cavities, cooling channels, inserts, knock out pins and ejectors
3-basic types of molds• Cold runner two plate mold• Cold runner three plate
mold• Hot runner mold
Fig : Examples of injection molding
Injection Molding Machine
Fig : A 2.2-MN (250-ton) injection molding machine. The tonnage is the force applied to keep the dies closed during injection of molten plastic into the mold cavities.
Process capabilities :
• High production rates
• Good dimensional control
• Cycle time range 5 to 60 sec’s
• Mold materials- tool steels, beryllium - Cu, Al
• Mold life- 2 million cycles (steel molds) 10000 cycles ( Al molds)
Machines :• Horizontal or vertical machines• Clamping – hydraulic or electric
Blow molding
• Modified extrusion and Injection Molding process.
• A tube extruded then clamped to mold with cavity larger than tube diameter.
• Finally blown outward to fill the cavity
• Pressure 350Kpa-700Kpa
Other Blow Molding processes• Injection Blow molding• Multi layer Blow molding
Fig : Schematic illustration of (a) the blow-molding process for making plastic beverage bottles, and (b) a three-station injection blow-molding machine.
Rotational Molding
• Thermo plastics are thermosets can be formed into large parts by rotational molding
• A thin walled metal mold is made of 2 pieces
• Rotated abut two perpendicular axes
• Pre-measured quantity of powdered plastic material is rotated about 2-axes
• Typical parts produced-Trash cans, boat hulls, buckets, housings, toys, carrying cases and foot balls.
Rotational Molding
Fig: The rotational molding (rotomolding or rotocasting) process. Trash cans, buckets, and plastic footballs can be made by this process.
Thermoforming• Series process for forming thermoplastic sheet or film over a mold by applying
heat and pressure.
• Typical parts : advertising signs, refrigerator liner, packaging , appliance housing, and panels for shower stalls .
Fig : Various Thermoforming processes for thermoplastic sheet. These processes are commonly used in making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and packaging.
Compression molding• Pre-shaped charge ,pre-measured volume of powder and viscous mixture of liquid
resin and filler material is placed directly into a heated mold cavity.
• Compression mold results in a flash formation which is a n excess material.
• Typical parts made are dishes, handles, container caps fittings, electrical and electronic components and housings
• Materials used in compression molding are thermosetting plastics & elastomers
• Curing times range from 0.5 to 5 mins
3- types of compression molds are
• Flash type• Positive type• Semi-positive
Compression Molding
Fig : Types of compression molding, a process similar to forging; (a) positive, (b) semi positive, (c) flash (d) Die design for making compression-molded part with undercuts.
Transfer molding
• Transfer molding is an improvement if compression molding
• Uncured thermosetting material placed in a heated transfer pot or chamber, which is injected into heated closed molds
• Ram plunger or rotating screw feeder forces material into mold cavity through narrow channels
• This flow generates heat and resin is molten as it enters the mold
Typical parts : Electrical & electronic components, rubber and silicone parts
Transfer molding
Fig : Sequence of operations in transfer molding for thermosetting plastics. This process is particularly suitable for intricate parts with varying wall thickness.
CastingConventional casting of thermo plastics :Conventional casting of thermo plastics :
• Mixture of monomer, catalyst and various additives are heated and poured into the mould
• The desired part is formed after polymerization takes place.
Centrifugal casting :Centrifugal casting :
• Centrifugal force used to stack the material onto the mold
• Reinforced plastics with short fibers are used
Fig : Casting
Cold forming• Processes such as rolling ,deep drawing extrusion closed die forging ,coining and rubber
forming can be used for thermoplastics at room temperatures
• Typical materials used : Poly propylene, poly carbonate, Abs, and rigid PVC
Considerations :
• Sufficiently ductile material at room temperature• Non recoverable material deformation
Solid Phase forming• Temperatures from 10oc to 20oc are maintained, which is below melting point
Advantages :
• Spring-back is lower
• Dimensional accuracy can be maintained
Calendaring and Examples of Reinforced Plastics
Fig : Reinforced-plastic components for a Honda motorcycle. The parts shown are front and rear forks, a rear swing arm, a wheel, and brake disks.
Fig : Schematic illustration of calendaring, Sheets produced by this process are subsequently used in thermoforming.
Sheet Molding
Fig : The manufacturing process for producing reinforced-plastic sheets. The sheet is still viscous at this stage; it can later be shaped into various products.
Examples of Molding processesFig : (a) Vacuum-bag forming.
(b) Pressure-bag forming.
Fig : Manual methods of processing reinforced plastics: (a) hand lay-up and (b) spray-up. These methods are also called open-mold processing.
THE END