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PT10603 PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUALDIFFERENCES
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Also called abnormalpsychology
Studies the causes, treatment &consequences of psychologicaldisorders/ mental illnesses
such as depression, anxiety &psychoses
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Conventional criteria for definingabnormality1. Statistical deviance an approach
that conceptualizes abnormality interms of behaviors that areextreme, rare/ unique, as opposed
to typical
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2. Social norm approach A rule/ guideline determined by cultural
factors for what kind of behavior isconsidered appropriate in social contexts
E.g. some governments condemn theconsumption of alcoholics drink, whereas
others have very relaxed attitudes towardsdrug
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3. Personal distress Individuals level of suffering takesinto consideration and whether theywant to get rid of the suffering
Disadvantages of this defining abnormality is not always associated
with subjective suffering or the
experience of discomfort
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4. Maladaptiveness The extent to which behavior interferes
with a persons capacity to carry outeveryday tasks such as studying/ relatingto others
Disturb behavior, e.g. anxiety disorderssuch as phobias, panic attack &
obsessive-compulsive disorder
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Statistical Deviance
(is it unsual / atypical?)
Personal distress (Doesthe individual suffer)
Maladaptiveness(is it disruptive in
everyday life?)
Social norms(Does it defy cultural
rulesAbnormality
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Hippocrates, believed in the connectionbetween psychological & physical disorders
invention of medicine
He explained pathologies which were
common disorders in ancient Greek society.
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Plato: disorders are intrapsychical (all in themind) conflicts & embedded in some of thesalient psychogenic theories of abnormalpsychology.
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Psychopathology did not develop as majorarea of psychology until the beginnings ofthe twentieth century
Symptoms were regarded as the expressionof supernatural forces that controlled theindividuals mind & body Treated through obscure rituals Exorcism &
shamanism
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Ancient Egyptians: have special temples forthe mentally ill & performed rituals &included the use of opium to reduce pain.
Behavioral abnormalities treated with violence
Mentally ill individuals were marginalized
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Nolen- Hoeksema, (2001)- in 1484 -
possessed individuals to be burnedalive.
Bedlam, established in 1243- 1800, thefirst formal attempt at
psychopathological hospitalization 1970, Phillippe Pinel (1745-1826)
proposed the moral treatment for mentaldisorders & categorize symptoms.
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Freuds studies hysterical disorder
Development of psychoanalysis/psychodynamics (exploration of theunconscious)
Unconscious intrapsychical origin tomental ilness.
All behaviors are influenced byunconscious processes
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Psychopathological symptoms as acompromise between unconscious andconscious forces that represents asymbolic expression or repressed events.
Treatments may last for 10/20 years Based on case studies & is largely
untestable
Based on circular interpretations &speculative theories not robust &representative empirical evidence
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In the first half of the twentiethcentury while psychoanalysis wasgaining momentum in Europe
Study of empirically observable
behavior Uninterested in hypotheticalpsychodynamic conflicts
Symptoms would be a consequence of
reinforcing/ punishing specificbehaviors
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Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) &John Watson (1878-1958)applied the principles of
classic conditioning to thestudy of phobias
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Thorndike (1874-1949) Skinner(1904-1909)= rewardingdesirable behaviors was more
effective than punishingundesirable ones (operantconditioning)
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Emerged in 1960s & 1970s- attempted tounderstand the internal mental processes(cognitions)
Peoples subjective interpretations of eventscan have a direct impact on their behavior &emotion.
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Bandura (1896) conceptualized
this idea as self efficacy(individuals belief about theextent to which they can
successfully execute theappropriate behaviors tocontrol & influence importantlife events)
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Ellis (1973)= Rational EmotiveTherapy, conceptualizes illness asthe result of irrational negative
beliefs about oneself & the world Dryden & DiGiuseppe (1990), roleof therapist= changes in thepatients beliefs
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Divided into : Nerophysiology- dealing with the processes/
functions of the brain. Neuroanatomy- dealing with the structure of
the brain Neurotransmitter (chemical messenger that
carry information between neurons & othercells Imbalance=psychological disorders Eg.serotonin affects emotion & impulse regulation ;
dopamine levels have been linked to psychosis &schizophrenia
Endocrine system (production & release ofhormones) in the blood= affect mood, levels ofenergy & reactions to stress
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A multidisiplinary approach ropsychopathology based on the idea thatmental illness results from combination ofbiological, psychological, environmental &
social factors. Diathesis- stress model (some people
possess an enduring, inherited vulnerabilitywhich is likely to result in psychological
disorder when they experience anunbearable life event
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2 frameworks:1) Idiographic adopted by psychoanalytic &
psychodynamic theories) Emphasizes the singularity of mentalillness
Assumes psychological disorders tobe manifested differently in everyindividual
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2) Nomothetic preestablished categories &compare every case withpreviously defined, described &classified psychological disorders
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2 taxonomies diagonosing mental disorders
1. ICD- International Classification of
Diseases, Injuries & Causes of death(WHO,1992)
2. DSM- Diagnostic & Statistical Manual OfMental Disorder (APA,1994)
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Schizophrenia Psychotic disorder characterized by the
patients lack of insight & loss of contactwith reality & episodic
Unable to distinguish between inner &external reality
Severe thinking & perception impairment
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Syndromes: Hallucinations (fake perceptions) Delusions (false beliefs) Disorganied speech
Diorganized behavior Negative symptoms Passivity Neurocognitive deficits
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Experience more than one of the syndromes Conceptualized by Kraepelin as early
madness Not involved double personality &
aggressive manner Types : catatonic, hebephrenic &
paranoidresidual & undifferentiated
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Catatonic-Kinetic abnormalities
Hebephrenic-Disorganized thought disorder &decreased affect
Paranoid- vivid & horrifying hallucinations (thoughtdisorder & disorganized behavior)
Residual- Positive symptoms (the presence of
something unusual-delusions, hallucinations &thought disorder)
Undifferentiated- Symptoms which are notrepresentative of any other type of schizophrenia
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Treated by antipsychotic/ neuroleptic drugs Cognitive therapy + antipsychotic drugs can
help to reduce hallucination & delusions
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Exaggerated intensity of mood experiencesthroughout long periods of time Unrelated/ disproportionate reactions to
external life real- life events
Depression- persistent low mood (egspeech reduction, lack of joy, often suicidal,feeling of guilt, pessimistic) Learned helplessness & hopelessness
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Mania- opposite extreme of affect thandepression Exacerbated elevated mood & an inappropriate sense of
well-being
Eg. Optimism, over confidence
Abnormal talk & speech (eg. inconsistency & incoherent)
Psychotic symptoms (delusions of grandeur) Manic behavior- overactivity & increased sexual &
aggressive impulses
Treated with lithium & antipsychotics &hospitalization
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Experience of high levels of anxiety Anxiety can be experienced psychologically
(eg. unpleasant & dreadful feelings) &somatically (muscular tension & increased
heart attack)
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Common anxiety disorders is phobias(experience of irrational/ disproportionatefear of an object/ phobic stimulus that leadsindividual to avoid contact with that object
Treatment: systematic desensitization(progressive exposure to the phobic object)
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Obsessive-compulsive disorder- a disordercharacterized by intense & repetitiveobsessions that generate anxiety
Tends to start in early adulthood
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Causes of phobias according to:
Psychodynamic-conflict betweenunconscious sexual/ aggressive impulses &social/culture norms
Behaviors- induced in humans as in animalsthrough association & conditioning
Cognitive- sensitive/ have more vulnerableschemas to interpret events
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Biological- a ubiquitous human emotion
Neuropsychological- overactivity of thenoradrenaline neurotransmitters isassociated with anxiety attacks whilst
serotonin has been associated with theadaptational function of preparing theindividual for danger & stress
Diathesis-stress model- psychological &
biological
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Exacerbated worry about food, body shape,weight & related physical symptoms
Related to cultural, economic & social factors-experience of anxiety
Anorexia (1. a serious & permanent concernabout ones body shape, weight & thinness, 2.an active pursuit & maintenance of low bodyweight, 3 the absence of menstrual periods in
female- disturbance of hormonal status)
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Associated with anxiety fail to stop fromeating.
Anorexia individuals quiet, unassertive,anxious, and sexually inexperienced. Also tend to be ambitious and achievement-
oriented, but have low self estee.
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Bulimia nervosa- person to indulge in alcohol& drugs consumption
Treatment: psychotherapy &psychopharmacological drugs
Treatment- group/ family in treatment
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A persistent pattern of thinking, feeling &behaving that deviates from culturalexpectations & impairs a personseducational, occupational & interpersonal
functioning Begins at early age, are stable over time & are
pervasive & inflexible
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DSM Cluster A: antisocial, borderline, narcissistic &
histrionic- odd & eccentric behaviors as well asdisregard for others
Cluster B: schizotypal, schizoid & paranoid-dramatic, erratic & emotional behavior
Cluster C- avoidant, obsessive-compulsive,dependent & passive-aggressive-anxious &fearful
behaviors
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+ve correlation: Neuroticism (N)-ve correlation: Agreeableness (A) &
Conscientiousness
Variable in direction & strength: Extraversion(E) & Openness (O)
Eg. Histrionic personality disorder- higher in E,avoidant personality disorder- lower in E
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Modern conceptualizations of normality arebased on statistical frequency, personaldistress, social norms & maladaptiveness
Diagnostic approach: clinical psychology &
psychiatry
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