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Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and The FiveFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky(top left) and The Five (counter-clockwise from bottom left):Mily
Balakirev,Csar Cui,Alexander Borodin,Modest Mussorgsky, andNikolai Rimsky-
Korsakov.
In mid- to late-19th-century Russia,Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovskyand a group ofcomposersknown
asThe Fivehad differing opinions on the nature of classicalRussian music, specifically whether it
should follow Western or native compositional practices. Though he displayed musical talent at an
early age, Tchaikovsky decided to studymusicprofessionally only after three years' employment as
acivil servant. As an adult at theSaint Petersburg Conservatory, he learned fromAnton
RubinsteinandNikolai Zarembahow to compose in the manner ofJoseph Haydn,WolfgangAmadeus MozartandLudwig van Beethoven. Tchaikovsky wanted to write professional compositions
of such quality that would stand up to Western scrutiny and thus transcend national barriers, yet
remain distinctively Russian in melody, rhythm and other compositional characteristics. To this end,
he learned to accommodate and, in some ways, amend Western classical rules of composition to the
demands of his unique style; in this manner, he would follow neither his teachers nor his nationalistic
contemporaries in The Five.
The Five, also known as The Mighty Handful (Russian: , Moguchaya kuchka), was a
circle of composers who met in Saint Petersburg in the years 18561870. They were a branch of
theRomantic Nationalistmovement in Russia and shared similar goals with theAbramtsevo
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ColonyandRussian Revivalin the sphere of fine arts. Made up of composersMily
Balakirev,Alexander Borodin,Csar Cui,Modest MussorgskyandNikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, The
Five wanted to produce a specifically Russian kind of art music, rather than one that imitated older
European music or relied on European-style conservatory training. While The Five also looked to
Europe for compositional models, they focused on works by musically progressive contemporaries
such asFrdric Chopin,Franz LisztandRobert Schumann. The Five also believed in using the
melodic, harmonic, tonal and rhythmic properties of Russian folk song, along with exotic melodic,
harmonic and rhythmic elements from music originating in the middle- and far-eastern parts of
theRussian Empire(a practice that would become known as musicalorientalism), as compositional
devices in their own works. While Tchaikovsky himself used folk songs in some of his works, for the
most part he tried to follow Western practices of composition, especially in terms of tonality and tonal
progression. Also, unlike Tchaikovsky, none of The Five was academically trained in composition; in
fact, their leader, Balakirev, considered academicism a threat to musical imagination. Along with
criticVladimir Stasov, who supported The Five, Balakirev attacked the Conservatory and Rubinstein
relentlessly both orally and in print.[1]
As Tchaikovsky had become Rubinstein's best-known student, he was initially considered by
association as a natural target for attack, especially as fodder for Cui's printed critical reviews .[2]
This
attitude changed slightly when Rubinstein left the Saint Petersburg musical scene in 1867. In 1869
Tchaikovsky entered into a working relationship with Balakirev; the result was Tchaikovsky's first
recognized masterpiece, the fantasy-overtureRomeo and Juliet, a work which The Five
wholeheartedly embraced.[3]When Tchaikovsky wrote a positive review of Rimsky-
Korsakov'sFantasy on Serbian Themeshe was welcomed into the circle, despite concerns about the
academic nature of his musical background.[4]
The finale of hisSecond Symphony, nicknamed
theLittle Russian, was also received enthusiastically by the group on its first performance in 1872 .[5]
Tchaikovsky remained friendly but never intimate with most of The Five, ambivalent about their
music; their goals and aesthetics did not match his.[6]
He took pains to ensure his musical
independence from them as well as from the conservative faction at the Conservatory an outcome
facilitated by his acceptance of a professorship at theMoscow Conservatoryoffered to him by Nikolai
Rubinstein, Anton's brother.[7]When Rimsky-Korsakov was offered a professorship at the Saint
Petersburg Conservatory after Zaremba had left, it was to Tchaikovsky that he turned for advice and
guidance.[8]
Later, when Rimsky-Korsakov was under pressure from his fellow nationalists for his
change in attitude on music education and his own intensive studies in music ,[9]
Tchaikovsky
continued to support him morally, telling him that he fully applauded what he was doing and admired
both his artistic modesty and his strength of character.[10]
In the 1880s, long after the members of The
Five had gone their separate ways, another group called theBelyayev circletook up where they left
off. Tchaikovsky enjoyed close relations with the leading members of this groupAlexander
Glazunov,Anatoly Lyadovand, by then, Rimsky-Korsakov.[11]
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Contents
[hide]
1 Prologue: Growing debate
o 1.1 What Is Russia
o 1.2 Embracing the West
o 1.3 Russian music without Russianness
o 1.4 Budding, conflicted nationalism
2 Drawing sides
o 2.1 Tchaikovsky
o 2.2 The Five
o
2.3 Rubinstein and the Saint Petersburg Conservatoryo 2.4 Difference in Russianness
3 With The Five
o 3.1 Balakirev
3.1.1 Initial correspondence
3.1.2 Writing Romeo and Juliet
o 3.2 Rimsky-Korsakov
o 3.3 Stasov, The Tempestand the Little Russian symphony
o 3.4 Tchaikovsky's private concerns about The Five
o 3.5 Balakirev returns
4 Belyayev circle
5 Legacy
6 References
o 6.1 Bibliography
Prologue: Growing debate[edit]
With the exception ofMikhail Glinka, who became the first "truly Russian" composer,[12]
the only
music indigenous to Russia before Tchaikovsky's birthday in 1840 were folkand sacred music;
theRussian Orthodox Church's proscription of secular music had effectively stifled its
development.[13]
Starting in the 17th century, European musicians and composers were invited by the
Imperial Court to fill this void. An Italian opera company was established there after the first
presentation of an opera in Russia in 1731 and senior position of courtmusic directorand court
conductor were created. However, while these positions were held by a string of distinguished
composers, they were all foreigners.[14]
Likewise, while the first public concert in Russia had taken
place in 1746 and though public concerts had become a common occurrence by the end of the
century, most concerts took place in the homes of the aristocracy and were similarly dominated by
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foreigners.[15]
(Exceptions were public concerts held during the six weeks ofLent, when the theaters
were closed.[16]
)
The cultural schism that resulted in Russia's identity crisis began with the arrival of the first foreign
artists. The lower classes, mindful of the then-recent expulsion of foreign rulers during theTime ofTroublesand resurgence of the Orthodox church that followed, viewed Europeans with suspicion and
branded them as heretics and infidels.[17]
As the upper classes adapted European social and artistic
graces and spoke French instead of Russian to distinguish themselves from those under them,[18]
the
lower classes watched "a culture [they] regarded as the creation of the Antichrist "[19]
By the end of the
18th century, the split between peasant and noble had become acute.[20]
The state and the church
failed to promote an image of Russianness that would bridge this gap and appeal to a broad
spectrum of people. Neither did they offer a narrative of Russia's history and traditions that would
unify the populace.[21]
An imperial consciousness, based on French and German social and cultural
values asserted itself in the army and upper classes but differed markedly from what of the peasants,
clergymen and tradesmen considered true Russianness.[22]
What Is Russia[edit]
Pyotr Chaadayev
Beginning in the 1830s, Russianintelligentsiadebated the issue of whether artists negated their
Russianness when they borrowed from European culture or took vital steps toward renewing and
developing Russian culture.[23]
This discussion began in earnest with a "Philosophical Letter" byPyotr
Chaadayev, printed in a journal called The Telescope in September 1836 (and written, ironically
enough, in French). Chaadayev called Russia a cultural non-entity hanging in stasis between Europe
and Asia and seriously questioned its past and future.[24]
"Alone in the world, we have given nothing
to the world, learned nothing from the world and bestowed not a single idea upon the fund of human
ideas," he wrote. "We have not contributed in any way to the progress of the human spirit and
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whatever has come to us from that progress we have disfigured."[25]
He added that, while Russia
might have been able to imitate the West, it had failed to internalize its moral values and ideas .[26]
While the reaction of TsarNicholas Iwas swift (he had the philosopher declared insane and sent off
for medical observation), the effect of Chaadayev's letter was deep and lasting.
[27]
His message wasactually one that many thinking Russians had believed for some time. Author and historianNikolai
Karamzin, for instance, had concluded from his travels through Europe that Russians had become
Westernized only superficially, acting in European fashion but thinking according to native traditions
and mindset.[28]
In doing so, Europeanized Russians betrayed a split identity.[28]
However, the fact that
Chaadayev made his pronouncement a public one brought the matter to the forefront of
conversation. His letter tapped into a deep-seated insecurity common among Russians about their
self-identity and was seen as a pronouncement on Russian culture as it had existed since Peter the
Greatprecarious and shallow, lacking organic development and ethnic substance.[29]
This point,
while difficult to accept, was also impossible to ignore.[30]
The question which arose from it, which
would take Russians the rest of the century to answer, was, very simply, "What is Russia? "[31]
Two groups sought to answer this question.Slavophilesclaimed that Chaadayev was mistaken.
They idealized Russian history before Peter the Great[27]
and claimed the country possessed a distinct
culture, rooted inByzantiumand spread by theRussian Orthodox Church.[30]
The challenge with
Russian culture originated with Peter, who had imposed Western principles upon the nation in the
interest ofperistroika (translated in English as "restructuring" or
"rebuilding").[32]
The Zapadniki("Westernizers"), on the other hand, lauded Peter as a patriot who
wanted to reform his country and bring it on a par with Europe.[33]
Looking forward instead of
backward, they saw Russia as a youthful and inexperienced but with the potential of becoming the
most advanced European civilization by borrowing from Europe and turning its liabilities into
assets.[34]
Embracing the West[edit]
Peter the Great
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While Peter the Great is generally credited with opening Russia to the West, the influx and influence
of Western musicians actually began during the reign ofIvan IV(also known as Ivan the Terrible).
While not a music lover himself, Peter saw European-based entertainments as a mark of civilization
and did nothing to curb what was by then a regular influx of foreign composers, singers and
instrumentalists to the Imperial court.[35]
The court imported Italian opera during the reign of the three
empresses (Anna,ElizabethandCatherine the Great);[36]
the resulting craze by the 1780s spilled
over to the musical world of Saint Petersburg, with two companies, the Italian and the Russian
Opera, giving productions in the city. Western artists became as much in demand as Western music,
which displaced local artists entirely.[37]
A series of Europeans occupied the posts of court conductor
and court composer, beginning in the mid-1750s, among themBaldassare Galuppi,Tommaso
Traetta,Domenico CimarosaandVicente Martn y Soler. Galuppi also wrote music for the Orthodox
church during his tenure.[38]
The combination of large financial rewards for these positions and an
increased spirit of cosmopolitanism encouraged them and others to flock to Saint Petersburg.[37]
The Imperial court was one avenue through which the penchant for Western culture spread. Another
was theCadet Corps, established in 1732 to train young noblemen in the finer points of foreign
etiquette, dress, arts and language to prepare them for diplomatic and military service. Some cadets
were sent abroad for further study.[39]
A third path was through young nobles who went to universities
in France and Germany. At first, they were sent by their families; later they did so at their personal
choice.[19]
As more of these men returned home, the Petrine spirit with which they had been instilled
filtered through the rest of the upper classes.[40]
Possessing Western art, listening to French or Italian
music and acting like Europeans became status symbols that set landowners apart from the serfs
who worked under them and were looked upon as a matter of pride.[41]
Foreign travel also became
paramount, with the Grand Tour becoming "a virtual rite of passage for the
aristocracy."[42]
Meanwhile, the lower classes, which regarded all things European as unholy and
heathenistic due to foreign intervention in theTime of Troubles, watched as their masters "imbibed
and propagated a culture ... regarded as a creation of the Antichrist."[19]
This rift between classes
grew as the practices among the upper classes of speaking mainly French and conducting their daily
lives by European conventions became increasingly ingrained.[43]
Russian music without Russianness[edit]
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Catterino Cavos
Because of the demand from the aristocracy for European music, Russian classical composers
attempted to write in Western style. When they did so, however, they were hampered by limited
skills. More fortunate individuals such asMaxim BerezovskyandDmitry Bortnianskywere sent to Italy
for further training.[44]
Mikhail Glinka also studied in Italy and Germany. Before writing in his own
style, he gained the attention of high society by composing dance music and a number of works
imitative ofRossini,MozartandBeethoven.[45]
The leading Russian opera composer other than
Glinka wasAlexey Verstovsky, who patterned his works after those of German composerCarl Maria
von Weber.[44]
On the streets of Saint Petersburg, folk song initially prevailed as peasants moved into the city.
However, it became assimilated with arias and songs from European operas, French and Italian
dances and laterGypsyelements into a new genre called rossiyskaya pensnya (translated as
"Russian song"). Only the lyrics and melodies remained Russian; the other elements of the songs
conformed to Western practice.[46]
These songs, also called romansy(romances), became known for
their beauty and dark eroticism and popular among a wide range of Russian music lovers. Glinkacomposed romansy, as didVladimir Sokalskyand a number of other lesser-known composers, and
their qualities may have found their way into Tchaikovsky's music, as well .[47]
Enthusiasm for original Russian folk song among the cultural elite received a boost between 1820
and 1850 when they rediscovered theprotyazhnaya. Known for the extreme beauty of its lyrics and
originality of its music, its words was taken as a model by poets such as Alexander
PushkinandAnton Delvig. Composers eventually investigated these songs for their musical
possibilities, as well. While some of them were adapted to Western styles, on a whole their irregular
rhythms, variable tempos, abundantmelismasand unstable tonality were too far removed fromEuropean music for those used to more Western-oriented romansy.
[48]
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Russian opera was not entirely neglected but it was not being written entirely by Russians,
either.Catterino Cavos, aVenetiancomposer, was a strong advocate and wrote all his mature
operas to Russianlibrettos. Cavos served on the staff of the Imperial Theaters and was in charge of
Russian-language opera at theBolshoi Kamenny Theatre. HisIvan Susanin, written in 1815, told the
story of the peasant who saved the first Tsar from the Poles. Glinka would resurrect the subject two
decades later forA Life for the Tsar.[44]
Budding, conflicted nationalism[edit]
See also:Russian Enlightenment
Mikhail Glinka
A budding interest in Russian nationalism, which led to the debate between Slavophiles and
Westernizers, came as a result of the elite's exposure to the teachings ofthe Enlightenmentduring
their education and travels. This Western European movement espoused, among other things,
strong ideas about national identity and values. It inspired Russian writers to develop a national
literary language distinct from theChurch Slavonicand others to collect folk songs and study popular
customs. In 1818, the Imperial government commissioned Karamzin to write his History of the
Russian State, which he finished six years later. This tome met a growing need for historical
understanding and national self-affirmation in the wake of theNapoleonic Warsin short, the
assurance that Russia had a solid history and an active role to play in international politic s[49]and
did so with a text both accessible and engaging, aimed intentionally at non-specialists.[50]
Through it
and his fiction, Karamzin also showed that modern Russian was a more than adequate vehicle for
literature.[51]
However, since the language employed a syntax and diction based on French and
contained a number ofloanwordsfrom European languages, its adaptation by the literary community
was controversial and widened the cultural rift between classes still further.[51]
In 1836, Glinka's operaA Life for the Tsarwas premiered in Saint Petersburg. This was an event
long-awaited by the intelligentsia. The opera was the first conceived by a Russian composer on a
grand scale, set to a Russian text and patriotic in its appeal .[52]
Its plot fit neatly into the doctrine
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ipedia.org/wiki/Venice,_Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catterino_Cavos7/27/2019 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ofOfficial Nationalitybeing promulgated by Nicholas I, thus assuring Imperial approval.[53]
In formal
and stylistic terms,A Life was very much an Italian opera but also showed a sophisticated thematic
structure and a boldness in orchestral scoring.[52]
It was the first tragic opera to enter the Russian
repertore, with Ivan Susanin's death at the end underlining and adding gravitas to the patriotism
running through the whole opera. (In Cavos's version, Ivan is spared at the last minute.)[54]
It was
also the first Russian opera where the music continued throughout, uninterrupted by spoken
dialogue.[52]
Moreoverand this is what amazed contemporaries about the workthe music included
folk songs and Russian national idioms, incorporating them into the drama. Glinka meant his use of
folk songs to reflect the presence of popular characters in the opera, rather than an overt attempt at
nationalism.[55]
Nor do they play a major part in the opera.[56]
Nevertheless, despite a few derogatory
comments about Glinka's use of "coachman's music,"A Life became popular enough to earn obtain
permanent repertory status, the first Russian opera to do so in that country.[57]
Ironically, the success of Rossini'sSemiramideearlier the same season was what allowedA Life to
be staged at all, with virtually all the cast fromSemiramide retained forA Life. DespiteA
Life's success, the furor overSemiramide aroused an overwhelming demand for Italian opera. This
proved a setback for Russian opera in general and particularly for Glinka's next opera,Ruslan and
Lyudmilawhen it was produced in 1842. Its failure prompted Glinka to leave Russia; he died in
exile.[58]
Drawing sides[edit]
Despite Glinka's gaining international attention,[59]the admiration of Liszt and Berlioz for his
music[59]
and his heralding by the latter as "among the outstanding composers of his
time",[60]
Russian aristocrats remained focused exclusively on foreign music.[61]
The stratification of
Russian society hindered Russia's development of classical music. Musicians belonged among the
lowest ranks in society, with no official status and no more rights than peasants. Painters, sculptors
and actors were considered "free artists." Musicians were not. Unless a musician was also a wealthy
aristocrat, the only way he could earn a living was to teach in an academy or work in one of the
Imperial Theaters. In both cases, he served the Russian state on the lowest level of the hierarchy .[62]
Music itself was bound by class structure, as well, and held only a modest role in public life. It was
still considered a privilege of the aristocracy and remained largely in the European-styled salons of
the major palaces.[63]
Nobles spent enormous sums on musical performances for their exclusive
enjoyment and hosted visiting artists such asClara SchumannandFranz Liszt. There were no
ongoing concert societies, no critical press and no public eagerly anticipating new works. No
competent level of music education existed. Private tutors were available in some cities but tended to
be badly trained. Anyone desiring a quality education had to travel abroad .[64]
Composer and pianistAnton Rubinstein's founding of theRussian Musical Societyin 1859 and
theSaint Petersburg Conservatorythree years later were giant steps toward remedying this situation
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but also highly controversial ones. CriticVladimir Stasovand a group of amateur composers
calledThe Five, who believed in developing Russian music independent of European practices, saw
Rubinstein's efforts as antipathetic and fought against him.[65]
Rubinstein did not fight back. Instead,
he concentrated on shepherding his premiere class of students through the Conservatory and did not
allow them to take sides.[66]
Among this group was a young legal clerk named Pyotr Ilyich
Tchaikovsky.[67]
Tchaikovsky[edit]
See also:Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Tchaikovsky in his teens.
Tchaikovsky was born in 1840 in Votkinsk, a small town in present-dayUdmurtia, formerly
theImperial Russianprovince ofVyatka. A precocious pupil, he began piano lessons at the age of
five, and could read music as adeptly as his teacher within three years. However, his parents'
passion for his musical talent soon cooled. In 1850, the family decided to send Tchaikovsky to the
Imperial School of Jurisprudence in Saint Petersburg. This establishment mainly served the lesser
nobility or gentry, and would prepare him for a career as a civil servant. As the minimum age for
acceptance was 12, Tchaikovsky was sent by his family to board at the Imperial School ofJurisprudence's preparatory school in Saint Petersburg, 800 miles (1,300 km) from his family home
inAlapayevsk.[68]
Once Tchaikovsky came of age for acceptance, he was transferred to the Imperial
School of Jurisprudence to begin a seven-year course of studies.[69]
Music was not a priority at the School,[70]
but Tchaikovsky regularly attended the theater and the
opera with other students.[71]
He was fond of works byRossini,Bellini,VerdiandMozart. Piano
manufacturer Franz Becker made occasional visits to the School as a token music teacher. This was
the only formal music instruction Tchaikovsky received there. From 1855 the composer's father, Ilya
Tchaikovsky, funded private lessons with Rudolph Kndinger, a well-known piano teacherfromNuremberg, and questioned Kndinger about a musical career for his son. Kndinger replied
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that nothing suggested a potential composer or even a fine performer. Tchaikovsky was told to finish
his course and then try for a post in the Ministry of Justice .[72]
Tchaikovsky graduated on May 25, 1859 with the rank of titular counselor, a low rung on the civil
service ladder. On June 15, he was appointed to the Ministry of Justice in Saint Petersburg. Sixmonths later he became a junior assistant and two months after that, a senior assistant. Tchaikovsky
remained there for the rest of his three-year civil service career.[73]
In 1861, Tchaikovsky attended classes inmusic theoryorganized by the Russian Musical Society
and taught byNikolai Zaremba. A year later he followed Zaremba to the Saint Petersburg
Conservatory. Tchaikovsky would not give up his Ministry post "until I am quite certain that I am
destined to be a musician rather than a civil servant. "[74]
From 1862 to 1865 he
studiedharmony,counterpointandfuguewith Zaremba, while Rubinstein taught him instrumentation
and composition.
[67]
In 1863 he abandoned his civil service career and studied music full-time,graduating in December 1865.
The Five[edit]
See also:The Five
Around Christmas 1855, Glinka was visited byAlexander Ulybyshev, a rich Russian amateur critic,
and his 18-year-old protg Mily Balakirev, who was reportedly on his way to becoming a great
pianist.[75]
Balakirev played his fantasy based on themes fromA Life for the Tsarfor Glinka. Glinka,
pleasantly surprised, praised Balakirev as a musician with a bright future.[75]
Portrait of (left to right)Mily Balakirev,Vladimir OdoevskyandMikhail GlinkabyIlya Repin.
In 1856, Balakirev and critic Vladimir Stasov, who publicly espoused a nationalist agenda for Russian
arts, started gathering young composers through whom to spread ideas and gain a following.[76]First
to meet with them that year was Csar Cui, an army officer who specialized in the science of
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