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Seton Hall University
From the SelectedWorks of Yinan He
January 2007
Remembering and Forgetting the War: EliteMythmaking, Mass Reaction, and Sino-JapaneseRelations, 1950-2006
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Rememberig ad Forgeig he War
Rememberig ad Forgeighe War
Elite Mythmaking, Mass Reaction,
and Sino-Japanese Relations, 19502006
Yinan He
Rlig elies oe make pericios aioal myhs or isrmeal prposes,
creaig diverge hisorical memories o he same eves i diere cories.
B hey ed o exploi ieraioal hisory dispes oly whe hey eel isecre
domesically. Socieal reacios o elie myhmakig, reeced i radicalized pblic
opiio, ca reiorce hisory dispes. Drig he 1950s1970s, Chia avoided
hisory dispes wih Japa o ocs o geosraegic ieress. Oly rom he early
1980s did domesic poliical iceives moivae Beijig o aack Japaese hisorical
memory ad promoe asserive aioalism hrogh parioic hisory propagada,
which radicalized Chiese poplar views abo Japa. Media highlighig o
Japas hisorical revisioism exacerbaed socieal demads o sele war accos
wih Japa, while acioal poliics wihi he Chiese Commis Pary made i
difcl or he op leaders o compromise o he bilaeral hisory isse.
IntRODuCtIOn
O 13 Ags 2001 Japas ew prime miiser, Koizmi Jichiro, paid
homage a he Shiois Yaski Shrie i tokyo, dedicaed o he spir-
is o hose who died fghig o behal o he Emperor o Japa, ad a
log-ime symbol o Japaese imperialis aggressio i he eyes o Chia.
While he claimed ha his visi o he shrie was ieded o covey o allvicims o he war my hearel repeace ad codoleces ad pledge
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Yinan He
as a erroeous ac ha has damaged he poliical oudaio o Sio-
Japaese relaios as well as he eeligs o he Chiese people ad oher
Asia vicims.1 noeheless, Koizumi coiued his aual visis o he
shrie uil shorly beore seppig dow i Sepember 2006. Wih muchager, he Chiese leaders reused o hold summi meeigs wih Koizumi,
ad Chiese mass proess agais Japa repeaedly eruped, frs hrough
Iere peiios ad laer culmiaig i large-scale ai-Japaese dem-
osraios i 2005. Durig he Koizumi years, bilaeral relaios reached
heir lowes poi sice diplomaic ormalizaio i 1972.2
the Yasukui icides were oly a rece idicaio o he sharp
clash bewee Chiese ad Japaese ierpreaios o heir war hisory.
Begiig rom he frs Sio-Japaese exbook coroversy i 1982,bilaeral poliical dispues over hisory, or he hisory issue, have severely
escalaed. the role o hisorical memory i coemporary Sio-Japaese
relaios has log puzzled sudes o Eas Asia poliics because i defes
wo coveioal wisdoms: frs, ha ime ca heal all wouds; ad sec-
od, ha growig bilaeral coacs should miigae hisorical grievaces.
Chia ad Japa ough a raumaic war durig 193745, bu hey did
o sar o quarrel abou hisory uil more ha hree decades laer, he
early 1980s, whe he majoriy o he populaio o loger had direc
experiece o he war ad he wo couries had developed close ecoomic
ad social ies. Sice he, heir poliical dispues over he memory o he
war have coiued uabaed, becomig a major cocer i bilaeral rela-
ios ad overshadowig he prospec o regioal sabiliy ad prosperiy
i Eas Asia.3
Why do couries oday sill bicker abou eves decades or eve
ceuries old? Why cao he govermes resrai such seemigly
irraioal quarrels ha may jeopardize more agible aioal ieress?
I argue ha he udameal cause o ieraioal poliical coic over
hisory lies i he ieioal maipulaio o hisory by rulig elies, or
aioal myhmakig, or isrumeal purposes. naioal myhs, which
are aciul sories abou he origis, ideiy ad purposes o a aio,
cosiue a iegral par o he ideological oudaio or aioal
ideiy ad aioalism.4 though oe disorig hisorical acs, myhs
prese a picure o he shared pas ha ca evoke he deepes emoioalresoace rom he populace. Elies use hese highly symbolic myhs o
j i i l i li dd d i li i l h
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Rememberig ad Forgeig he War
as regime legiimacy, social mobilizaio eeds, ad acioal ad orgaiza-
ioal ieress.5 these myhs ed o lead diere couries o ierpre
he same hisorical eves wih grea discrepacy. Elies may shelve heir
hisoriographical diereces wih aoher coury or ear o damagigimmediae ecoomic ad poliical ieress bu ed o exploi he polii-
cal beef o hese diereces whe hey eel a srog sese o isecuriy
i domesic poliics.
no all aioal myhs are elie-drive or alsifable. Ahoy Smihs
eho-culuralis heory claims ha sice aioal myhs are radiioal
sories abou he ehic origis o a aio, hey should be value-eural
ad o really alsifable.6 However, aioalism scholars i he school o
iveed radiios emphasize he alsiy i cerai myhical represe-aios o aioal hisory.7 I order o udersad ieraioal hisory
dispues, I ocus here o aioal myhs ha blaaly disor hisory,
especially hree ypes o pericious myhs creaed by rulig elies ha serve
o icie ieraioal coic: (a) sel-gloriyig myhs, which explicily
icorporae iaed or alse claims o aioal virue ad compeece; hese
iclude myhs o vicimizaio ha orm a cul o aioal maryrdom,
edowig a aio wih moral superioriy;8 (b) sel-whiewashig myhs,
which dey or raioalize a aios pas wrogdoig agais ohers; ad
(c) oher-maligig myhs, which deigrae oher aios as ierior,
evil or culpable.9 I paricular, such myhs oser disagreeme bewee
ormer eemy couries over wha happeed durig heir pas coic
ad geerae dramaically diere aswers o he quesio o who bears
wha kid o resposibiliy o whom or havig doe wha.10 Myhs ha
gloriy heir ow couries beefcece ad virues, dey guil or crimes
ad blame ohers or ragedies will harde he perperaor sides claim o
heir ow iocece ad he vicim sides demad or reribuio.
Meawhile, i is impora o udersad ha aioal myhmakig
is rarely implemeed i a sricly op-dow, cohere ashio because
aioal memory is cosruced hrough a complex process o coesaio.
Ieral memory coesaio ca escalae ad perpeuae ieraioal
hisory dispues: ira-elie esio may compel he op leaders o mai-
ai a hard-lie posiio exerally, ad elie myhmakig may radicalize
public opiio abou aoher coury. thereore, eve i he govermeswould raher de-escalae hisory dispues whe heir cos, such as damage o
bil l i i d h b f i l d i l
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Yinan He
orces may pree hem rom compromisi o he hisory isse. I
order o illsrae hese armes, his aricle examies, as a case sdy,
he caios i poswar Sio-Japaese poliical dispes oer hisory,
rom he silece i he frs hree decades aer he war o he ocierosclashes oer memory rom 1982.
AvOIDIng tHE HIStORY ISSuE, 19501981
Aer Japas caasrophic deea i World War II, he Japaese cosera-
ie elies osered hree major aioal myhs whose mai prpose was
o clease he repaio o he coseraie rop arished by is iex-
ricable ies o he warime oerme ad leiimae is rli power.Firs, he myh o he miliary cliqe blamed a small rop o miliary
leaders or lachi he war ad assered ha he Japaese people were
peace-loi, ioce icims o he war. this myh whiewashed he com-
pliciy o a wide rae o warime poliical acors, icldi he emperor
ad cor ofcials, zaibatsu, or bsiess colomeraes, ciilia poliicias
ad hih-raki breacras, who reroped i he coseraie par-
ies i poswar Japaese poliics. I also iored he ehsiasic sppor
ha meros ordiary Japaese had ie o he war policy. Secod,
he Weser-ceric myh held Japa resposible or opei hosiliies
aais he Weser Allies b eaded is aressio ad arociies i Asia.
the coseraies perpeaed his myh becase ackowledi ad
horohly iesiai war crimes wold hae icrimiaed may people
oside he miliary cliqe.third, he heroic sacrifce myh ae imperialsoldiers special hoor or hai sacrifced hemseles or he aio. By
exolli he miliarys imae, coseraie hisorioraphy circmeed
he dameal misakes i he war policy ad he horredos arociies
commied by he miliary rak ad fle.11
Elie myhmaki was also preale i Chia, larely moiaed
by aioal secriy ieress. Aer 1949, he ceral heme o Chiese
rad sraey was o coerbalace he hrea o America imperial-
ism becase o is coaime policy aais Commis Chia ad
commime o sppor he Komia (KMt)-led reime i taiwa
aer he obreak o he Korea War. I lie wih his sraey, Chiesecommis ideoloes soh o achor aioal ideiy i he defi
d l f b h Chi C i d h C i l
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Remembering and Forgeing he War
iss, inclding he KMt and is American ally.12 the ofcial hisory o he
Sino-Japanese War made every eor o magniy he role o he Chinese
Commnis Pary (CCP) in he naional resisance campaign and condemn
he KMt and he uS.Relaed o he srggle agains he uS was Chinas policy oward is
Wesern allies, inclding Japan. the CCP leaders saw a world no merely
dominaed by wo sperpowers b also ridden by conradicions beween
sperpowers and smaller powers; i Beijing cold bild a revolionary
unied Fron wih boh socialis conries and smaller Wesern powers,
i wold erode inernaional sppor or he uS-led conainmen agains
China.13 From he 1950s, Beijing praciced peoples diplomacy oward
Japan, a semi-ofcial diplomaic campaign aimed a changing tokyospolicy o non-recogniion o Beijing and ndercing is secriy alliance
wih Washingon.14 In he arena o hisorical memory, he Chinese ofcial
narraive rerained rom demonizing he enire Japanese naion b drew
a clear line beween he small handl o Japanese miliariss and ordi-
nary Japanese people, who were reaed as he Chinese peoples ellow
vicims o he miliariss. Clearly overlapping wih he Japanese myh o
he miliary cliqe, sch a moderae one on Japanese war responsibiliy
was designed o promoe a avorable impression o Commnis China
in Japanese sociey and aciliae peoples diplomacy. Moreover, he
disincion beween he many good Japanese and he ew bad Japanese
sppored he class-based commnis ideology, he primary ondaion
o he Beijing regimes legiimacy.
the ineres calcls behind naional myhmaking does no sgges
ha he process o elie maniplaion o hisory is linear becase conesa-
ion over memory consrcion almos always exiss beween rling elies
and socieal orces, and even beween dieren elie acions. Wheher
myhs creaed by cerain rling elies can become he hegemonic national
memoryand shape he core ideas o naional ideniy has mch o do wih
he larger poliical opporniy srcre, inclding he balance o power
beween elie grops, and limaely heir abiliy o conrol he insiional
ools o memory consrcion, inclding school exbooks, msems and
commemoraive rials, and pos-conic resolion measres, inclding
war compensaion programs. Whichever poliical grop enjoys domina-ion o hese insiional ools will scceed in insaing is own version
hi i h h i
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Yinan He
the above Japaese ad Chiese aioal myhs became he ofcial
memory maily due o he domia sae corol over memory producio
ha coerced socieal voices io silece or marial iuece. I Japa, he
coservaives ieres i maipulai hisory coicided wih he Americasraey o suppori a sable coservaive overme i tokyo boh
o achieve occupaio objecives ad o make Japa a impora ai-
commuis bulwark i Asia.15 Japas proressive elies, oe associaed
wih he Japaese Socialis Pary (JSP), Japaese Commuis Pary (JCP)
ad oher le-wi oraizaios, held a more orhrih perspecive o
war uil, ad hey ideed praciced hisory as opposiio o compee
wih he ruli coservaive elies or power ad iuece.16 Bu he
iuece o he proressive orces o he heemoic aioal memorydimiished as he JSP ad JCP repeaedly los i he power srule aais
he America-suppored Liberal Democraic Pary (LDP). As a resul,
he coservaives were able o dissemiae aioal myhs hrouh such
isiuioal ools as he tokyo War Crimes trial, exbook auhorizaio
sysem, poswar compesaio policies, ad war commemoraio riuals
such as hose a he Yasukui Shrie ad he peace museums i Hiroshima
ad naasaki.17
Moreover, Japaese coservaive elies successully spread hese
aioal myhs because hey were i accordace wih he broad rame o
public aiudes. Cosuelo Cruz suess ha whe cosruci rheoric
sysems or aioal ideiy, poliical acors mus operae wihi he limi
o imaiable possibiliies.18 I order o appear ruhul or persuasive
o he public, aioal myhs usually build o cerai embedded percep-
ios ad euie emoios ha already exis i amily memories ad
olk culure, raher ha abricai somehi eirely ew. Japaese
myhs o sel-lorifcaio ad whiewashi wo wide public resoace
precisely because hey capured he imaiaio o he eeral public i
he aermah o he war, whe he aio was preoccupied wih is ow
sueris ad i o mood o ace up o Japas war uil vis--vis oher
Asia aios.
Wih is oaliaria corol o sae power ad horouh peeraio
o socieal lie, he CCP easily isiuioalized war myhs as he heemoic
aioal memory. Chiese school exbooks i he 1950s ad 1960s praisedhe CCP as he sole leader o he grea Chiese War o Resisace aais
J A i 19 I h d h KMt k i
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Remembering and Forgeing he War
o and acively collaboraing wih he Japanese aggressors, and blamed
he uS or conniving wih he Japanese and helping he KMt sppress
Chinese commnism. they omied hose signifcan, someimes valoros
bales ogh by he KMt roops, and negleced o menion Americanmiliary aid o China and he larger picre o he Pacifc War. Compared
o he vivid descripions o he warime roles o he CCP and KMt,
exbook reamen o Japanese acions was raher c-and-dried, rarely
providing deails, and never condemning he enire Japanese naion, b
only he ridi(Japanese imperialism), rijun(Japanese miliary), or rikou
(Japanese bandis) the sae-conrolled media also claimed ha ordinary
Japanese people waned peace, and rged hem o join hands wih he
Chinese people o oppose he uSJapan alliance ha wold drag Japanino anoher disasros war.20
Alhogh echoing Japans myh o he miliary cliqe, Chinese
ofcial hisory coniced wih he oher wo Japanese myhs ha glori-
fed he imperial army and denied Japans vicimizaion o Asia. However,
Beijing deliberaely se aside hese dierences les he Chinese people
conse Japan wih heir re archenemies, he KMt and America. Domes-
ically, he governmen sppressed hisorical invesigaion o Japanese war
crimes.21 War movies avoided elaboraing on his opic becase oherwise
hey wold be disseminaing senimenalism and capialis hmaniarianism
ha wold dile or hared o imperialism and lower or morale.22
the governmen also blocked inormaion on Japanese exbook disorion
and oher domesic programs ha assered he oher wo Japanese myhs.
Exernally, Beijing handled bilaeral hisorical legacies wih excepional
generosiy. Shorly beore he 1956 war-crimes rials, he CCP Cenral
Commiee defned wo principles wih regard o Japanese war criminals:
none shold be execed or senenced o lie in jail, and verdics o impris-
onmen shold be limied o a very small nmber o people. thereore,
o approximaely 1,000 Japanese war criminals deained in China a he
ime, only 45 were senenced o prison, he res pardoned and qickly
repariaed.23 Moreover, Beijing never made war reparaions a precondi-
ion or bargaining chip in is diplomacy oward Japan, and in he 1960s
even decided wihin he pary ha he governmen wold orgo reparaion
claims in he re.
24
toward he end o he 1960s, proond inernaional srcral
h i l di h Si S i i d Si A i
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Yinan He
prochemen, compelled Beijin o collaborae wih more Wesern powers,
a caeory ha included Japan, o conron Sovie heemonism. Shorly
beore Sino-Japanese normalizaion, he CCP Cenral Commiee issued
o is members Maos policy insrucion ha cooperaion wih Japan wouldconribue o he srule aains American and Sovie heemonism,
especially Sovie revisionism and was useul or opposin a Japanese
miliaris revival, liberain taiwan and miiain ensions in Asia.25
given he sraeic sinifcance o bilaeral solidariy in he ace o
he common Sovie hrea, Beijin reached a compromise wih tokyo
on issues considered secondary, such as war memory. When sinin he
join communiqu o diplomaic normalizaion in Beijin in Sepember
1972, Prime Miniser tanaka Kakuei spoke o he unorunae periodin bilaeral hisory, or which he expressed deep reecion, bu no
apoloy.26 Beijin quickly acceped his ambiuous esure o conriion
in exchane or speedy diplomaic reconiion. A he beinnin o he
preparaory meeins neoiain he join communiqu, Premier Zhou
Enlai oered o renounce claims or war reparaions.27 Zhou also old
tanaka ha he ew miliariss mus be sricly separaed rom he vas
majoriy o he Japanese people, and ha boh he Chinese and Japanese
naions had been raumaized in he war.28 By reierain is concurrence
wih Japans mainsream war hisory, Beijin avoided poliical dispues
over hisory and made way or he wo counries immediae sraeic
cooperaion.
thus, propaanda o naional myhs prevened riorous invesia-
ion o hisorical acs, and poliical esures were subsiued or sincere,
concree resiuion. In China, he sae reained ih conrol o memory
insiuions in he 1970s, so privae memories o he war, houh sill
alive, could no ener he public space o discourse. Mos youn Chinese
had minimal knowlede abou Japanese war arociies. Meanwhile, Maos
charismaic leadership and dicaorial rip on cenral power larely pre-
cluded inra-pary challenes o he propaaion o myhs ha downplayed
Japanese war crimes.29 thereore, hrouh he 1970s neiher ofcial
ineres nor popular pressure exised in China o incie hisory dispues
wih Japan.
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Rememberi ad Forei he War
tHE ERuPtIOn OF tHE HIStORY ISSuE:
tHE JAPAnESE tExtBOOK COntROvERSY OF 1982
Whe are elies willi o epose ad hihlih memory coic wih ohercories, ee o he ee o riski damae o diplomaic relaios?
Oe circmsace is whe hey eel a sro sese o isecriy becase o
cocers abo heir power sas or aioal cohesio. Liah greeeld ad
Daiel Chiro describe i heir sdy o he early aio-bildi sae i
Rssia, germay ad cerai Arab cories how prod, parioic, deeply
shamed ad isecre elies were cosaly dissaisfed wih heir domes-
ic power sas ad el hmiliaed or heir cories lai behid
adaced Weser cories. these eelis propelled heir aioalisicpropaada ad belliere orei policy.30 Aoher possible moiaio
is he aemp o se ieraioal dispes oer hisory i order o resore
domesic cosess ad harmoy. Omer Baro pois o ha germa
myhs abo Jewish eemies ad germa icimhood were isiioal-
ized aer World War I whe germa aioaliss perceied a series o
hreas o aioal iy ad priy rom wihi ad wiho.31
I he case o Sio-Japaese relaios, sari rom he 1982 Japa-
ese ebook coroersy, Beiji eaed i acrimoios srie wih
tokyo oer he arraio ad commemoraio o war hisory. Sch a
dramaic deparre rom earlier policy ca be dersood i lih o he
posClral Reolio socioecoomic difclies ad breoi
democracy moeme, as well as he poliical cleaaes wihi he CCP.
Beijis moe i he ebook icide was eidely based o a raioal
calclaio ha he asks o ehaci ieral cohesio ad boosi
reime leiimacy were more pressi ha maiaii harmoios rela-
ios wih he Wes.
Aer he deah o Mao ad he ed o he Clral Reolio, he
CCPs policy ocs shied rom class srle o ecoomic moderiza-
io. the immediae poliical oals o he ew leader, De xiaopi,
were o resore he peoples rs i he pary aer he disasros Clral
Reolio, ad o weed o Maos leacy ad cosolidae his ow power
base wihi he pary, boh crcial o implemei his oerall sraey o
ecoomic reorm ad ope-door policy. B hese oals me challeesrom elemes wihi boh Chiese sociey ad he CCP. From lae 1978
D W ll i l h d i B iji i hi h h h
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Rememberin and Forein he War
the aoremenioned democracy movemen, social disorder and worsenin
economic siuaion all ave he conservaives ammuniion or aackin
he reorm proram. In February 1982 a conservaive ideoloue, Wan
Renzhon, even proposed o declare war on boureois inuences spreadby he open-door policy.36
In order o build a broad reorm coaliion, Den had o inerly
walk a fne line beween he wo rival acions.37 Aer all, he needed sup-
por rom he conservaives, includin rom Chen Yun or he economic
proram, general Ye Jianyin or removin Hua and reirin old miliary
commanders, as well as he old uards olerance o he open-door policy.
thereore, while adherin o economic reorm, Den conceded consider-
able round o he conservaives on poliical and ideoloical rons, such aspropaain a moderae evaluaion o he Culural Revoluion and Maos
leacy, and sancionin several ideoloical campains combain boureois
liberalism rom he early o mid-1980s. Dens ambiuiy was manies a
he 12h Pary Conress held in Sepember 1982, when he called or he
urher openin-up o China o he ouside world bu warned o corrosion
by decaden ideas rom abroad, and placed equal emphasis on economic
consrucion, and poliical and ideoloical educaion.38
Such was Chinas domesic poliical backround when he Japanese
exbook conroversy eruped. the inciden was he resul o he inensi-
yin srule beween he proressive and conservaive views o hisory
in Japan. One o he mos imporan areas o memory conesaion is
mass educaion. In he so-called Biased texbooks Campain (Henk
Kykasho Kyanpein) ha sared around 1980, Japanese conservaive
elies inensely aacked he moderae increase in exbook coverae o
he Asian peoples war suerin, which had been brouh abou since he
1970s by leis inuence, and souh o ihen conrol over he exbook
auhorizaion process. In January 1982 he LDP issued a saemen ha
school educaion should culivae he Japanese spiri and oser naional
pride. Educaion Miniser tanaka tasuo even explicily old exbook
wriers and publishers who were preparin exbooks or he 198386
riennium o soen heir approach o Japans excesses durin World War
II and place more sress on parioism.39 Wary o overnmen aemps
o disor hisory, Japanese liberal inellecuals closely moniored he ex-book screenin process in 1982. A he end o June he Japanese media
d h M b h ( h J Mi i Ed i ) h d i d
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Yinan He
insrucions or hisorical whiewashing in exbooks, such as replacing
he erm shinryaku(invasion) byshinshutsu(advance) in relaion o he
Sino-Japanese war.40 the news sparked a poliical sorm in Japan, which
was quickly picked up by he inernaional media. In response, he Chineseand Souh Korean governmens lodged ormal proess wih tokyo in lae
July and early Augus.
Beijings reacion o he inciden was no impulsive; he Chinese
media waied nearly one monh aer he iniial oubreak o he conroversy
o sar aacking Japan. As noed above, in 1982 Deng was under grea
pressure as a resul o he mouning social crisis and domesic poliical
disuniy. Moreover, his occurred shorly beore he 12h Pary Congress,
when Deng would make a compromise wih he conservaives in exchangeor heir endorsemen o reorm and he open-door policy. to show so-
ness in relaion o Japan, a counry in he caegory o Wesern counries,
in he exbook conroversy would lay him open o even more vigorous
aacks rom he conservaives and endanger his reorm agenda.
Despie he dearh o inormaion on Beijings policy deliberaions in
July, one can logically iner rom he domesic siuaion and he reacion
in he Chinese media ha Deng very likely saw he exbook inciden as
a good opporuniy o shore up his own and he parys presige and also
prepare or he upcoming Pary Congress. A ough sance on Japan could
show his deerminaion o end o inimical oreign inuence, as well as
o check he pro-Wes wing o he reormis acion, represened by Hu
Yaobang, who was also sympaheic o he liberal inellecuals ques or
poliical reedom.41 this could grealy appease pary hard-liners who were
alarmed by he srenghening o he democraic movemen as a resul o
economic reorm. Beijings diplomacy oward Japan over he hisory issue
can hereore be seen as a produc o he power sruggle beween dier-
en pary acions, since Deng did no enjoy Maos dicaorial charisma
and relied more on he suppor o veeran poliical and miliary leaders.
Besides, by lashing ou a Japans amnesia abou is pas aggression oward
China, Beijing could depic Japan as an immoral oher and hus resore
he inernal cohesion o he sel, he Chinese naion, and assuage public
resenmen oward he governmen.
the inernaional conex ha enabled Beijing o reap poliical profrom he hisory issue was he decline, rom he 1980s, o he pressure
Chi i i i i l i hi i h h W l
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Rememberig ad Forgeig he War
he Cold War. A he 12h Pary Cogress, Beijig ormally adoped a
idepede oreig policy bewee he wo sperpowers. Alhogh he
coiig Sovie hrea preveed Chia rom becomig rly idepe-
de o America sraegic sppor, a leas rheorically Beijig bega opll back rom he Wes.42 I he 1990s, aer he Sovie uio collapsed,
he geosraegic iceives or Beijig o resrai aioalis diplomacy
aded eve more rapidly.
Aer he exbook icide, Chias ieral esio oly wors-
eed. no oly did he ira-pary acioal poliics coie, b also
he reorm policy drew complais rom a large par o he poplaio
ha was adversely aeced. the CCPs presige rher mbled aer he
viole crackdow o he 1989 democraic moveme ad he exacerba-io o social ieqaliy ad cadre corrpio rom he 1990s. Poplar
reseme agais wha hey saw as he air, corrp ad icompee
sae was so iese ha i sparked meros mass demosraios ad
eve viole rios.43
Wih he iexorable declie o commism, he goverme resored
o a ew ideological ramework, aioalism, o aciliae ira-pary co-
solidaio ad sreghe he regimes legiimacy. As discssed earlier, elie
myhmakig gais wider pblic accepace i i ivokes belies ad vales
shared by he pblic. Oe commoly sed acic is o wrap aioal myhs
i he abric o parioic rheoric, claimig ha pride i oes ow aio
ad hosiliy o ohers are i he aioal ieres. As Joh Bodar arges,
parioic ideas appeal o he pblic becase hey are perceived as -
dameally re raher ha as isrmes o elie exploiaio.44 ths,
rom he mid-1980s, Beijig bega o oser a mixre o wha Michel
Okseberg calls cofde aioalism ad asserive aioalism. I
was moderae i he ecoomic sphere, ackowledgig he imporace
o Weser echology ad ivesme, b rigid ad msclar i he
ideological ad clral spheres, oe sig he oherig o he Wes-
er o-grop o gloriy he Chiese i-grop.45 the dal are o he
ofcial aioalism was aimed a raisig he aioal spiri while reaiig
he beefs o he ecoomic ope-door policy.
A cory ha had ivaded ad hmiliaed Chia i he pas, ad
whose hisorical amesia was oorios, Japa became a easy argeo Chias asserive aioalism. By adopig a harsh posiio o he
J hi i B iji d h bli h i ld
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Yinan He
o compromise wih Weser cories o hr aioal ieress. ths,
i a secod ebook coroversy i 1986, Beiji pressred nakasoe
Yashiros overme o revise a aioalisic hisory ebook ad fre
Miiser o Edcaio Fjio Masayki who had opposed he revisio.46Icides o Japaese leaders worship a he Yaski Shrie, icldi
hose ivolvi Prime Miisers nakasoe i 1985, Hashimoo Ryar
i 1996, ad Koizmi sice 2001, also ivariably provoked Beijis
harsh criicism.
PROMOtIng OFFICIAL nAtIOnALISM: CHInAS PAtRIOtIC
EDuCAtIOn CAMPAIgn
to be sre, Chias ofcial aioalism was o ieded o provoke
ai-Wes eophobia ha wold have damaed is ecoomy, which
was so ierdepede wih he Wes. Ecessive pblic aimosiy aais
oreiers also carries he risk o dermii poliical sabiliy, which
had bee he case i boh he May Forh Moveme o 1919 ad he
xia Icide o 1936, whe ai-Japaese mass demosraios rapidly
red io ai-overme movemes. to sial he domesic orie-
aio o he aioalis propaada, he ofcial discorse preerred he
erm aiguo zhuyi (parioism) o minzu zhuyi (aioalism), sice he
laer had ai-orei, parochial cooaios. usi parioic laae
cold also mediae divere ieress ad cocers i sociey or o oe
wold dispe love or he moherlad, o eve he liberal dissides.
the overme ehored he people o ideiy wih ad rally arod
he commis sae ha was alleedly he paramo parioic orce ad
ardia o aioal pride ad, i he ame o parioism, persaded he
pblic o sppor he reorm policies.47
thereore, i addiio o poliicizi hisory dispes wih Japa,
aoher mai isrme ha he Chiese overme employed o
promoe ofcial aioalism was parioic school edcaio. I 1985, he
overme resmed Five-Love Edcaio (wuai jiaoyu), a parioic
edcaio proram dai back o he 1950s. the Sae Edcaio Com-
missio (SEC) isrced schools i 1990 o ierae he eachi oparioism ad aioal codiio (guoqin) wih he edcaio o love or
i li d h CCP I 1994 l id li d h h di
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Rememberig ad Forgeig he War
Oulie or he Implemeaio o Parioic Educaio were pub-
lished.48 I order o simulae aioal pride ad cohesio, his campaig
placed paricular emphasis o eachig Chias hisory o resisig oreig
aggressio as a collecive experiece o suerig, sruggle ad glory. I1989 he SEC isruced schools o use hisory classes o make sudes
remember hisorical lessos, ad o o orge he imperialis ivasio
ad he Chiese peoples heroic resisace.49
this program o parioic hisory educaio highlighed he 193745
Sio-Japaese war, which had previously bee reaed as merely oe o
may episodes i Chias early oe hudred years o aioal sruggle
or liberaio. now he war was sigled ou as he mos impora mili-
ary ad poliical coic i Chiese hisory because i his war Chiacould claim is frs complee vicory agais oreig ivaders.50 I 1995,
akig advaage o he fieh aiversary o Chias war vicory, Beijig
lauched a vigorous commemoraive campaig desiged o brig parioic
educaio o a climax. the ofcial media published umerous hisorical
documes, ierviews ad ediorials regardig he war, ad secodary
schools aiowide carried ou he Six Hudred Projec o popularize
a log lis o parioic books, movies ad elevisio dramas, ad sogs
ad poems.51
While highlighig he heme o aioal resisace, he ew his-
oriography redefed he KMts role i he war. Sice he parioic
propagada prepared he aio or he grad cause o overcomig
oreig humiliaio ad resorig aioal glory, he uifcaio wih
taiwa, a provice ceded o Japa by a uequal reay i 1895, became
a sigifca issue o aioal pride. Beijig jeisoed he old arraive
o he CCPKMt class sruggle, as he KMt, which ow represeed
he ai-idepedece cosiuecy i taiwa, was Beijigs poeial
ally. I isead claimed ha he wo paries had shared he commo goal
o deeaig Japaese aggressio. texbooks published i he lae 1980s
or he frs ime icluded he KMt-led miliary campaigs agais Japa.
new war movies also porrayed he KMt i a more posiive ligh, such as
Xuezhan Taierzhuang(the bloody bale o taierzhuag) made i 1986,
which porrayed a major vicory o he naioalis army i 1938.52
those who ow replaced he KMt as he wors villai i he hisoryo he war were he vicious Japaese imperialis aggressors. tex-
b k id d h i J i i h
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Yinan He
fgres o aaliies, gresome picres, ad ee ames o illages ad
idiidals ha had alle icim o he aggressio.53 War moies made
sice he 1980s graphically depiced Japaese acs o braliy, sch as
he najig Massacre ad he germ warare codced by Japaese ui
731. Meawhile, war commemoraio brogh Japaese arociies o
he ceer o aioal memory. the memorial o he najig Massacre,
he ico o Chiese war icimhood, which was compleed i Ags
1985, iclded a display o meros phoographs, wrie docmes,
eyewiess esimoies, ad ee hma skeleos. the iscripio o is
ro wall declared vICtIMS 300,000 (Beijigs ofcial esimae o
he massacres aaliies), while he iscripio o he ier wall isrced
isiors neer orge aioal hmiliaio (wuwang guochi) (see fgres
1 ad 2). Similar msems were bil a oher sies o Japaese arociies
hrogho he cory ad desigaed as ceers or parioic edcaio.
Chiese scholars were also ecoraged o codc deeper iesigaio
o Japaese arociies ad pblish heir research.54
Myhmakig was eide i he parioic edcaio campaig. While
reersig he preios coer-p o Japaese arociies, he ew arraie
we o he oher exreme o arosig a sese o Chiese icimhood ad
demoizig Japa. I ailed o srike a balace bewee he relaiely peace-
l Si J i i i h i li hi h i l i
Fig. 1. the najig Massacre Memorial, ro wall. Phoo by ahor.
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Rememberi ad Forei he War
ad pos-ormalizaio cooperaio. Besides, warime hisory was ar more
complicaed ha black-ad-whie srles bewee Japaese ivaders ad
Chiese parios; secre diplomacy, pppe overmes ad meros
pey Chiese collaboraors had exised der he Japaese occpaio.
By placi he lios share o he blame or Chias pas seri, lo-
sadi backwardess ad crre socioecoomic difclies o Japa,
he ew arraive evaded may sesiive isses ha mih hr aioal
sel-respec or he parys presie.
PuBLIC OPInIOn RADICALIZAtIOn AnD BEIJIngS PREDICAMEnt
these sel-loriyi ad oher-malii myhs promoed by he parioic
edcaio campai elicied vocieros pblic respose i Chia. these
myhs were hihly imaiable ad credible o a capive adiece whose
privae memories o he war aressio ad eie reseme oward
Japa had previosly bee masked by class hared. Compared o oher
imperialis powers, Japaese aressio was he mos rece, he bloodi-
es ad he mos pail.55 I he eyes o may Chiese, Japa was he
limae eemy, ad o comba ayhi relaed o Japa was qies-
i l i i
Fi. 2. Deail rom he naji Massacre Memorial showi he iscripionever ore aioal hmiliaio. Phoo by ahor.
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Yinan He
Elie myhmaki, o course, ioles he selecie use o hisorical
memories accordi o heir poliical coeiece. this explais why
some memories ade wih he passae o ime, while ohers are played up
uder paricular circumsaces. While appi io he deeply embeddedChiese culural imaes o Japa, he Chiese ruli elies souh o ba-
ish o obliio he hisory o oher exeral coics ha did o f heir
eeds. For example, rom he 1990s he Chiese oerme sysemaically
deleed he 1980s war aais vieam rom public memory. texbooks
omied he war, war heroes disappeared rom public iew, ariss sopped
depici he war, ad ee relea library maerials were remoed.56
the parioic campai ceered o Japa iiially scored rea
success i simulai public resoace. the Chiese were recepie oiormaio o Japaese war arociies, o which hey had some kowlede
bu which had eer bee ofcially documeed. For example, a book
produced by a Peoples Liberaio Army (PLA) publisher i 1987, The
Great Nanjing Massacre, sold 150,000 copies i he frs moh ad was
repried ime ad aai o mee he marke demad.57 Sice he, umer-
ous such books hae appeared, oe o he iiiaie o local oermes
or idiidual publishers. no oly he sae bu also he o-ofcial mass
media ehusiasically ook up he subjec o parioism. As geremie Barm
obsered: Parioic seime is o loer he sole proice o he Pary
ad is propaadiss aioalism is ucioi as a orm o cosesus
beyod he bouds o ofcial culure.58
While he appeal o parioism ca make i easier o promoe aioal
myhs, placi oo rea a emphasis o parioic emoios may eeder a
mass ideoloy o exreme sel-lorifcaio ad ai-oreiism. Accordi
o he sel-caeorizaio heory, roup ieracio causes exreme opiios
o preail because members o he roup compee amo hemseles o
ac ou socially desirable alues ad ideas.59 I he case o Chia, whe
parioism became he buzzword i public discourse, eeryoe waed
o be a arde pario i order o wi social saus ad respec, so ha
more people bea o adocae exreme iews o boh pas ees ad
curre policies, proclaimi ucriical loe or Chia ad heir desire o
deed i rom aressie oreiers. the idealizaio o parioic war-
riors eeraed isceral ai-Weser seimes, o which Japa was hemai are. the ofcial hisory sill maiaied ha Japaese miliariss
h ld b di i d h di J b h bli
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Remembering and Forgeing he War
oo preoccupied wih Chinese suering o recognize such fne disinc-
ions. Bes-selling books, Inerne cha rooms and oher priae discussion
orums on Japan and war hisory commonly condemn he enire Japanese
naion as eil.the exreme ani-Japanese popular naionalism in China was reeced
in he recen phenomenon on he Inerne o fenqing(indignan young
people) culure. Fenqinguse cyberspace o make unbridled insuls agains
he Japanese people, culure and goernmen, accusing hose Chinese who
hae connecions wih Japan o being hanjian(Chinese raiors).60Fenqing
culure has many anaical ollowers among young urbanies. For insance,
in 2001 a amous Chinese acress was aacked on he Inerne or wearing
a dress resembling he Japanese miliary ag in a ashion magazine phoo.Soon aer she apologized on naional tv, an angry member o he audi-
ence splashed human wase on her during a sage perormance. Alhough
he was immediaely arresed by he police, he was hailed as a warm-heared
pario on he Inerne and in he abloid magazines.61Fenqingdo no, o
course, represen he whole Chinese populaion, bu he ac ha hey are
ar more ocal han moderae ciizens and se he one or policy debae
on he Inerne, he mos open and dynamic public space o discourse
in China, makes hem a paricularly powerul consiuency in suppor o
ani-Japanese policies een in an auhoriarian China.
Chinese public senimen agains Japan would no hae escalaed so
rapidly wihou he considerable liberalizaion o he mass media. From he
1990s he Chinese publishing indusry ourished, launching housands o
new papers, magazines and journals, many o which depended on income
rom aderisemens or oreign money raher han sae unds.62 the non-
ofcial media were hereore oen drien by commercial prof o pursue
sensaionalism. While diersiying inormaion sources and expanding he
public space o discourse, he media liberalizaion also brough abou a
worrisome rend, he rapid spread o malicious rumors abou Japan, which
incied he Chinese public agains ha counry.
Public opinion may become especially radicalized i sociey gains more
inuence oer he insiuional carriers o naional memory a a ime when
he sae is sill capable o repressing undesirable public debae. Because
parioic discourse almos always alls wihin he limis o olerable reespeech, hose seeking o adance heir social presige, commercial iner-
li i l d d j h i i b d
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Yinan He
Chiese iellecals, hereore, also edorsed parioism as he cosesal
aioal ideology, o oly becase i was he social ashio, b also de
o he harsh sae repressio o liberal discorse aer 1989. Casig heir
ideas i parioic erms was a sae, eecive way o advacig heir owpoliical agedas. For example, he poplar-civic aioaliss ivoked
aioalism o ecorage greaer mass paricipaio ad oser Chiese
civil sociey ad democracy. Aoher grop, cosisig o sel-proclaimed
aivis academics ad abloid aioalis wriers, eve adoped a xeo-
phobic ad isolaiois perspecive i order o icie a mass moveme o
comba Weser imperialis domiaio.63 these aioalis iellecals
spoke i pariclarly harsh ad passioae erms agais Japa, disregard-
ig acs ad logic.64 Depiced as represeig Chiese pblic opiioad deedig Chias bes ieress, hese aioalis views became so
powerl ha hey pshed more moderae views o o he maisream
o poplar discorse.65 A ellig example is he new thikig debae
o Japa arod 20022003, where moderaes who spoke o agais
he growig ai-Japaese aioalism i Chia were srogly criicized
i iellecal circles ad shoed dow o he Iere by radicalfenq-
ing, who called hem raiors.66 Coseqely, members o he Chiese
elies are relca o express moderae views o Japa.67
Becomig icreasigly icied agais Japa, Chiese pblic opiio
demaded selig hisorical accos wih ha cory. the frs obrs
o poplar repgace occrred i he mid-1980s whe Chiese iversiy
sdes opely proesed agais nakasoes visi o he Yaski Shrie
ad disorios i Japaese hisory exbooks. Sice he ai-Japaese
mass demosraios have become a roie cocer i bilaeral rela-
ios. ulike beore whe people were largely islaed rom he oside
world, rom he 1990s may ollowed ieraioal ews closely ad
egaged i policy debaes, especially o Iere Bllei Boards. these
aeive, vocal, mosly rba Chiese also eded o be he same radical
aioaliss who eagerly sogh ay piece o egaive iormaio abo
Japa. Wheever somehig coroversial happeed i Japa, hey cold
immediaely lear abo i ad voice proess.
Agais his backdrop o srgig Chiese poplar aioalism, media
repors o Japaese domesic srggles over he memory o he war grealygalvaized hisory acivism i Chiese sociey. uder moig domesic
d i i l i h 1980 h J h d
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Rememberi ad Forei he War
o cocede some roud o war hisory, such as o icrease coverae o
Asia vicimizaio i hisory exbooks ad respod o he ieraioal
ciizes moveme or redress o war vicims by compesai cerai
roups such as he comor wome.68 Bu he ew red provoked aeo-aioalis backlash i Japa aais wha was see as he overmes
capiulaio o orei pressure, ad aais proressive hisorias, accused
o spreadi masochisic views amo you people. the rih-wiers
advaced a sel-loriyi view o hisory by oraizi symposiums, pub-
lishi caroos ad popular readis, ad eve compili exbooks o
heir ow, icludi he coroversial new Hisory texbook ha a rihis
oraizaio produced ad pushed hrouh he exbook auhorizaio
process i 2001.69 the rihis aacks compelled he Japaese over-me o rerea rom earlier cocessios o he proressive oesive. As
a resul, exbooks approved i 2000 markedly deleed or waered dow
descripios o miliary arociies.70 May o hese chaes seemed o have
arise rom he so-called voluary resrai o exbook publishers, bu
hey were acually he resul o poliical coercio by Mombusho ad he
Ofce o he Prime Miiser.71
the iese coesaio over war memory bewee various poliical
orces i Japa, especially he voices o he more vocal ad well-uded
rih-wiers, immediaely cauh he aeio o he Chiese public
who ow ejoyed more ope access o exeral iormaio. Icides
like he Japaese overmes approval o revisiois hisory exbooks
ad rih-wi poliicias slips o he oue o loss over aressio
brouh he ap bewee he wo aios memory o he war io sharp
relie ad easily icied he already iamed Chiese public opiio. Chi-
ese aioaliss were also provoked by Koizumis visis o he Yasukui
Shrie i 20012006, which were primarily aimed a oseri Japaese
aioal pride ad ormal sae mealiy, as well as esuri a power
base or his overace.72 no oly has Yasukui eshried Class-A
Japaese war crimials sice 1978, bu also he ewly redesied ad
expaded miliary hisory museum associaed wih he shrie, Yushuka,
ermed Japas aressio i he 1930s1940s he greaer Eas Asia
War ad lorifed he elevaed houhs o he oble souls who had
ouh i ha war o behal o Japa.
73
As Japas op leader, Koizumisworship a he shrie sialed ofcial accommodaio ad eve promoio
i l l i i i i i hi th Chi i
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Yinan He
direc isul, or hey believed hemselves o have suered he mos rom
Japaese aggressio durig he war. Hece, geuie idigaio, a vicim
mealiy ad biases agais Japa all ieraced o produce a iese ad
requely desrucive ai-Japaese mass campaig i April 2005.the public agiaio placed he goverme i a difcul dilemma.
O he oe had, he objecive o ofcial aioalism was primarily
domesic.74 Beijig sough o resrai ai-Japaese seimes whe hey
jeopardized impora aioal ieress such as ecoomic cooperaio
wih Japa. Especially aer he harsh criicism expressed by Preside
Jiag Zemi durig his 1998 sae visi o Japa backfred, Beijig bega
o soe is rheoric o Japas reame o is war hisory.75 O he
oher had, a crude clampig dow o popular aioalism would icurcriicism agais so-keed goverme diplomacy ad weake is
parioic credeials.
Such a predicame was behid Beijigs decisio o suspedexchages o leaders visis wih Prime Miiser Koizumi rom 2002. Sice
he 1998 diplomaic debacle, Beijig had evidely el he imperaive o
modiy is policy oward Japa. Compared o Koizumi, Jiag preerred
o maiai he saus quo o he hisory issue, hopig o resrai urher
polemics ad repair he damaged relaios. noeheless, earig aacks
rom he aioalis public ad leis pary elies should he make ay
compromise, he demaded ha Koizumi sop visiig Yasukui. Whe
he ourh-geeraio leader Hu Jiao ook power i 2002, he ad he
moderae Foreig Miisry were eager o seek a breakhrough i Sio-
Japaese relaios. However, rejecio o he cociliaory new thikig
o Japa by boh he Chiese public ad he elies orced Hu o pu he
pla o he backburer.76 Because he was sill cosolidaig his power
wihi he pary, or which suppor rom Jiags remaiig power base was
esseial, Hu had o uphold he explici likage ha Jiag had esablished
bewee a hal o Koizumis visis o he Yasukui Shrie ad resumpio
o sae visis bewee he wo couries. Poliically i was oo cosly or
him o back dow rom his predecessors harsh sace o Yasukui.77
today, i is widely believed i Chia ha Japa owes he Chiese
people a apology or is war crimes. Alhough Beijig ideed wished o
oe dow hisory-relaed dispues i he hope o repairig Sio-Japaeserelaios aer Jiags couer-producive visi, whe high-profle eves
h ki dl d h i h h d h
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Rememberig ad Forgeig he War
as he Japaese prime miisers worship a he Yaski Shrie, Beijig
had o adop a frm posiio i order o assage pblic rage. ths, he
growig boom-p impes or addressig he bilaeral hisorical legacy,
combied wih ira-pary challeges o leadership sabiliy ad aioalisprovocaio rom Japa, all orced he Chiese leaders o coro Japa
o he hisory isse eve whe hey wold have probably preerred o
compromise.
COnCLuSIOn
Rememberig he pas is o a simple ac o recordig hisorical eves,b a process o cosa recosrcio o hese eves i ligh o prese
social ad poliical chages. Alhogh elie myhmakig has bee a ceral
acor i casig Sio-Japaese poliical dispes over heir war hisory i
he 1930s1940s, his pracice also appears o be prese i Chias ofcial
ierpreaio o he aioal resisace agais oher oreig imperialis
oppressio i is hisory. Pal Cohe has poied o ha myhologizers
ed o porray hisory as a oe-dimesioal picre, imposig a sbjec-
ively predeermied, oe simplisic heme o he oherwise complex ad
mliaceed hisorical process.78 Chiese exbooks gloriy dramaic clashes
bewee Chiese aioals ad oreigers sch as he Boxer prisig as
spoaeos, ai-imperialis mass movemes, while ailig o criically
examie he backwardess ad xeophobia i Chiese sociey a he ime
ha were reeced i hese movemes. I Jaary 2006, a preemie
Chiese academic Ya Weishi aacked he exbook acco o he Boxers
i a aricle pblished i Bingdian, a weekly magazie associaed wih he
ofcial Chia Yoh Daily.79 the goverme respoded o Yas aricle
by shig dow he magazie ad replacig he edior-i-chie ad his
depy. Whe he magazie was allowed o reappear wo mohs laer,
i immediaely pblished a leghy rebal o Ya ha deeded he
Boxers as parioic heroes who had preveed Chia rom beig carved
p by oreig imperialism. While ackowledgig some o he Boxers
arociies agais oreigers, he ahor aribed hem o he limiaios
o he peasa class (b exclpaed he laer sice hey were he vicims ooreig oppressio), oig ha limaely he Chiese people had od
i M i d h i hi h h d h
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Yinan He
naional independence, prosperiy and digniy.80 Evidenly, his debae
over he one-hundred-year hisory o he Boxer uprising wen ar beyond
an academic discussion o involve poliical conesaion over power and
legiimacy in odays China.the Chinese ruling elies no only myhologize he naions iner-
acion wih oreign counries bu also ighly conrol he inerpreaion
o inernal hisory. One example in poin is he heavily poliicized rea-
men o CCP hisory. For he Chinese governmen, pary hisory is one
o he mos criical ideological ools or legiimaing he parys rule and,
as a required universiy course, plays a major role in he poliical raining
o uure members o he bureaucracy, o boh he governmen and he
pary.81 Insead o basing isel on rigorous academic research o hisoricalacs, Chinese pary hisoriography is sricly limied by poliical heories
esablished by pary uncionaries holding leading posiions wihin he
CCP. One such heoreical guideline is he Resolution on Some Questions of
History, a documen passed a a CCP Cenral Commiee plenary in 1945
and he parys frs aemp o give an overall inerpreaion o is hisory.
the second major documen is he Resolution on Some Questions Concern-
ing the History of the Party since the Founding of the Peoples Republic of
China, adoped by he pary in 1981. While some pary hisorians since
he reorm years have ried o reconsruc he pas in a more scholarly
way, less oriened o propagandisic goals, overall he sudy o pary his-
ory is highly insiuionalized, and he conen remains sereoyped and
monoonous o he presen day.82
the case o he Sino-Japanese conic over he memory o he war
indicaes ha elie manipulaion o hisory can pi he memories o ormer
enemy counries agains one anoher. this does no always give rise o
a salien hisory issue in inernaional relaions because o he ruling
elies relucance o undermine heir immediae sraegic or economic
goals by inciing poliical conics over hisory. Bu when elies eel ha
heir power may be hreaened by domesic opposiion orces, hey may
be emped o resor o polemics over sensiive hisorical issues in he
inernaional arena.
this case also demonsraes ha he poliically moivaed naional
myhmaking process is no he sole province o a monolihic rulingelie capable o designing a coheren sraegy on hisorical memory and
i l i i ill M i i h l h h h
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Rememberi ad Forei he War
excepio, precisely becase he poliical moiaios behid hisorical
ierpreaio dier across social rops ad oer ime. the rli elies
are oe diided oer how o deal wih hisory, ad hey ca be challeed