Container City: India Wharf, London, UK
Resource-efficient building materials for a sustainable built environment
John E. Fernández
Ferrousmetals
Cast irons
Carbon1.8-4%
(weight%)
Steels
Carbon0.04 - 1.7%(weight%)
Ductile iron
Gray iron
White iron
High alloy
Low alloy
Plain
Plain
Plain
High strengthlow alloy
Low carbon
Medium carbon
High carbonHeat treatable
Tool
Stainless steelFe+chromium (13-26%)
Tool steelFe+tungsten, cobalt
ChromiumCr
LeadPb
TitaniumTi
ManganeseMn
MagnesiumMg
AluminumAl
NickelNi
TinSn
ZincZn
CopperCu
Pure copper
BrassCu + Zn
BronzeCu + Sn(10-30%)a
CupronickelCu + Ni(30%)
1000 Series>99% Al
2000 Series
3000 Series
4000 Series
5000 Series
6000 Series
7000 Series
Al + 4Cu + Mg,Si,Mn
Al + 1Mn
Al + 3Mg,0.5Mn
Al + 0.5Mg,0.5Si
Al + 6Zn + Mg,Cu,Mn
Al + Si
Casting alloysAl + 11Si
Al-lithium alloysAl + 3Li
Ti-6 Al 4V
Cast irons
High carbon steels
Medium carbonsteels
Low carbonsteels
4
3
2
1
0Weight% carbon
Commonnonferrous
metals
aAll alloying proportions given in terms of percentage weight.bAluminum series 1000-7000 Figure by MIT OCW.
metal foams
0 0.2 0.4
Strain
Stre
ss (M
Pa)
0.60
4
8
12
16
Quasi-staticDynamic 3609/s
0 20 40
Axial Compression (mm)
Axi
al C
ompr
essi
ve F
orce
(kN
)0
20
40
60
3
Foam filled tube
Empty tubeFoam
Sum +
80
60 80 100
42
1
1 2
Figure by MIT OCW. Figure by MIT OCW.
1000
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1200 1400
Data from thermometer (red) and from tree rings, corals,ice cores and historical records (green).
Year
Dep
artu
res
in te
mpe
ratu
re (o
C) f
rom
the
1961
-19
90 a
vera
ge
1600 1800 2000
Northern Hemisphere
(b) the past 1,000 years
Figure by MIT OCW.
Million metric tons
200
100
Figure by MIT OCW.
0Finland
1995
Note: Hidden flows are included in fossil fuels, metals and minerals or are represented by excavation and erosion.
Composition of Total Material Requirement (TMR; in Tonnes/Capita) in the
European Union, Selected Member States and Other Countries.
Germany1995
Japan1994
Netherlands1993
Poland1995
USA1994
EU-151995
10
20
TMR
30
Fossil fuelsMetalsMineralsExcavationBiomassErosionOther (imports)
Figure by MIT OCW.
Air and water
Foreignhiddenflows
Imports Exports
Domestichiddenflows
Domestic extraction
DMITMR
TMR (Total Material Requirement) = DMI+Domestic Hidden Flows+Foreign Hidden FlowsDMI (Direct Material Input) = Domestic Extraction+ImportsNAS (Net Additions to Stock) = DMI-DPO-ExportsTDO (Total Domestic Output) = DPO+Domestic Hidden FlowsDPO (Domestic Processed Output) = DMI-Net Additions to Stock-Exports
Economic Processing
TDO
Stocks
Domestichiddenflows
Domestic Environment
Domestic processedoutput (DPO)(to air, land and water)
Watervapor
Figure by MIT OCW.
MATERIAL INPUT ECONOMY MATERIAL OUTPUT
TOTAL INPUT 5348 TOTAL OUTPUT 4411
Net additions to stock
ExportsAbiotic raw material 3443
Used:1) minerals2) energy carriers
898253
1996296
Unused:1) non saleable extraction2) excavation
Waste disposal(excl. incineration)
1) controlled waste disposal2) landfill and mine dumping
2329
119
2210
Emission to waterfrom material 639
938
228
Emission to air1) CO2 2) NO2, SO2, CO and others
1005990 15
Biotic raw materials (fresh weight) 225
Erosion 126
Dissipative use of products and dissipative losses 47Emissions to water 37
Imports 475
1080Air
Figure by MIT OCW.
Demand vs. Biocapacity
0.01961 1971
Demand
World Biocapacity
1981 1991 2001
Foot
prin
t (#
of p
lane
ts)
0.5
1.0
1.5
Figure by MIT OCW.
Material Resources
19000.0
1.0
2.0
Bill
ion
Met
ric T
ons
3.0
4.0
1920 1940Year
1950 1980 2000
Agriculture and FisheryWoodNonrenewable OrganicsMetalsIndustrial MineralsStone, Sand and Gravel
World War I
World War IIGreat
Depression{
{
Oil Crisis
Recession
U.S. Flow of Raw Materials by Weight, 1900-2000(non-fuel and non-food resources)
Figure by MIT OCW.
Renewable
Nonrenewable
85%
15%95%
5%
U.S. Copper Ore Grade Percent, 1880-2000
1880
Perc
ent
0
1
2
3
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Herfindahl(avg)CoppaMcMahonMYB-allMYB-conc
1907: beginningof open pit mining
1920+: flotation process for concentrating sulfide ores
Figure by MIT OCW.
STAF Project© Yale University 2004
PROCESSING FABRICATION USE DISCARD MGT.
ORE ENVIRONMENT
IMPORT/EXPORT
Figure by MIT OCW.
Japan Copper cycle: One Year Stocks and Flows, 1990s
© STAF Project, Yale University
ProductionUSE
Lith. ENVIRONMENT
Mill, Smelter,Refinery
Discards
StockStock
Tailings0.3
2
18 Slag
950
500
120Cathode
170
Prod. Alloy
Cathode
Old ScrapBlisterConcentrate1100 1
7 700
-2 +200
Ore
16 52
WasteManagement
Fabrication &Manufacturing
NewScrap,Ingots180
500
Semis, FinishedProducts
Landfilled Waste,
Dissipated200120
Old Scrap
280
240
34
New Scrap
1200
IMPORT/EXPORT -830
Prod.Cu
180
80
System Boundary Japan Units : Gg/yr
Figure by MIT OCW.
Zambia’s Copper Cycle: One Year Stocks and Flows, 1994
ProductionFabrication &Manufacturing
USE
Lith. REPOSITORIES
OTHER REGIONS
WasteManagementMill, Smelter,
Refinery
Discards
StockStock
Tailings
ReworkedTailings
360
46
47
4 Slag
15 12 2
2New Scrap
2 1Semis, Finished
Products
ProductsCathode
Old Scrap
Landfilled waste,Dissipated
1
CathodeConcentrate14 340
1 10
-360
+330
+4
Ore
14 3
UNITS: Gg/yr
Base Year: 1994 Unit: Gg Cu / yr
System Boundary: Zambia (ZM)
© STAF Project, Yale UniversityFigure by MIT OCW.
China’s Copper Cycle: One Year Stocks and Flows, 1994
ProductionUSE
Lith. REPOSITORIES
Mill, Smelter,Refinery
Discards
StockStock
Tailings
ReworkedTailings
510
46
6
10 Slag
1150 150
490Cathode
62
ProductsCathode
Old ScrapBlisterConcentrate220 86
5 1000
-510 +160
Ore
48 27 270
UNITS: Gg/yr
Base Year: 1994 Unit: Gg Cu / yr
WasteManagement
Fabrication &Manufacturing
NewScrap200 350
Semis, FinishedProducts
Landfilled Waste,
Dissipated 87
280Old Scrap
1974110
New Scrap
1060
OTHER REGIONS -1000
260
System Boundary: China (CN)
© STAF Project, Yale University Figure by MIT OCW.
2002 Estimated In-Use Copper Stocks in Beijing—3D ViewSource: T. Wang and T.E. Graedel, unpublished research, Center for Industrial Ecology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 2005.
I = P x A x T
resourceMI =
unit service
Source: Fernandez
Type I
Unlimited Resources
Ecosystem Component 1
Ecosystem Component 2
Ecosystem Component 3
Ecosystem Component n
Unlimited Sinks
Mi MoEo
Mi = Material resourcesMoEo = Wastes
Ecosystem
Type I icon
Source: Fernandez
Limited Resources +
Energy
Ecosystem Component 1
Ecosystem Component 2
Ecosystem Component 3
Ecosystem Component n
Limited Wastes
MiEi MoEo
MiEi = Material and energy resourcesMoEo = Wastes
Ecosystem
Type II icon
Type II
Source: Fernandez
Energy
Ecosystem Component 1
Ecosystem Component 2
Ecosystem Component 3
Ecosystem Component n
Ei
Ei = Energy input (solar radiation)
Ecosystem
Type III icon
Type III
BUILDING
SITE
Life cycle assessment
Consumption attributes of contemporary buildings
Temporal
• Actual service lifetimes are uncertain (shorter or longer than intended)
• Buildings often outlast the firms that build them
• Buildings are one of the very few human artifacts that can span generations
Spatial
• Buildings are immobile over lifetime
• Materials and processes (energy) converge to site
• Materials (wastes or “residues”) are dissipated from site
Physical
• Buildings (cities and infrastructure) constitute the largest single stock type
• Each building is a “prototype”
• Buildings are meta-systems composed of complex semi-autonomous systems (with distinct lifecycles)
Comparative analysis of resource requirements
1.Brick and concrete masonry block wall
2.Glass and aluminum curtainwall
3.Precast concrete panel and structural steel stud wall
4.Structural straw bale, wood stud and exterior finish plaster construction
Data sources:
US EPA Lifecycle Methods (1993)
SETAC (1993)
BEES (2000)
ISO 1401 (1998)
Scientific Certification Systems (1995)
Keoleian, G. (2001)
CES Materials Selector 4.5 (Beta version)
1.0m 1.0m 1.0m 1.0m 1.0m 1.0m
6.0 m
1.75
m
1.0m6.8m
0.4m
0.4m
1.0m
1.0m
1.0m
1.0m
1.0m
1.0m
Figure by MIT OCW.
00
20
Wor
ker T
rans
porta
tion
Ener
gy (%
)40
60
80
1 24 5 28
1016
11
867
1415
91213
3
20 40Construction Energy (MJ/m2)
60
Concrete
Wood
Steel
80 100 120 140
29
36
35
34
38
39
3233
3031
37
17
26 1819
24
2223
27
31
3332
35
3630
2928
34
3839
00
20
Wor
ker T
rans
porta
tion
Gre
enho
use
Gas
es (%
)
40
60
80
100
5Construction Energy (kg/m2)
10
ConcreteWood
Steel
20 2515
17
2627
12
5
123
14
2425
20
18
3721
(b) Worker Transportation/Construction Greenhouse Gas Emissions
(a) Worker Tranportation/Construction Energy
2521
20
Figure by MIT OCW.
0Wood
Con
stru
ctio
n en
ergy
(MJ/
m2 )
Con
stru
ctio
n gr
eenh
ouse
gas
es (k
g/m
2 )
Steel Concrete
20
40
60
80
0Wood
(a) Average Construction Energy for Wood, Steel and Concrete Assemblies
(b) Average Construction Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Wood, Steel and Concrete Assemblies
Steel Concrete
4
8
12
On-site equipment use
Equipment & materialstransportation
Worker transportation
Figure by MIT OCW.
Source: adapted from, Bras, B. and Graedel and Allenby
Low energy buildings and resource content(whole building)
Increased energy efficiency continually recalibrates proportion of pre-use to use phase energy investment.
For example:
Single family detached house (USA)
Typical systems
9% pre-use, 91% use phase
Low energy systems
26% pre-use, 74% use phase
Keoleian, G. et al. 2001. Life-cycle energy, costs, and strategies for improving a single-family house. JIE Vol.4, No.2: pp. 135-156.
00
25 50Years
91% use phase9% pre-use
74% use phase26% pre-use
Overall reduction of 60%
Res
ourc
e C
onte
nt
75 100 125
Figure by MIT OCW.
Strategies
Pre-Use
• Integrated delivery (construction) including premanufactured assemblies for dematerialized built environment (renewable and non renewable).
Issues: employment, quality, material flow control, waste control and reuse, transportation energy in construction, firm MFA analysis, product LCA.
Use
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) or better yet Extended Industry Responsibility (EIR): product LCA
• Material reclamation, recycle, downcycle.
• Comfort/Carbon Tax
Post-Use
• “Cities are the mines of the future.”, Jane Jacobs
Are we any closer to a Type III ecology?
Ecologies of Construction 03.20-21.06 Dept. of Architecture, MIT
Material flow analysis (MFA)
REGION
CITY
M
E
M
EBUILDING
SITE
Life cycle assessment
Metabolism: the consumption of resources for the purpose of providing a unit of service.
Pre-UsePhase
Mo
Eo
Mi
Ei
System(product) boundary
End-of-LifePhase
Use Phase
Figure by MIT OCW.
Industrial ecology as steward of tools of analysis for resource consumption
[Mi,Ei] = [Mo,Eo] + [A.S.]
Mo
Eo
Mi
Ei
Anthropogenic Stock
Anthroposphere
Figure by MIT OCW.
0
20
40
Building Types
Mat
eria
l Con
tent
/Are
a
60 Percent80
100
KEY
1
2
3
1 = Residential2 = Commercial3 = Industrial
Figure by MIT OCW.
Time
Energy
Materials
Rapid Urbanization
StabilizingUrbanization
IncrementalDensification
Mat
eria
l Con
sum
ptio
n Energy Consum
ption
Figure by MIT OCW.
01990
Per C
apita
Ann
ual E
lect
ricity
Con
sum
ptio
nK
Wh/
Pers
on, (
Thou
sand
s)
1995Year
2000
1
2
3
4
5
AB
C
D
A = ShanghaiB = NanjingC = HangzhouD = National average
Figure by MIT OCW.
Figure by MIT OCW.
Santa MonicaSustainable City Initiative
Source of recycled materials
Minimize waste stream
Local Resource System Boundary: Urban Center and Local Ecology
Maximize material resource transfer
Local site materials
Greater Los Angeles Basin(source of post-industrial and post-consumer materials)
Ordnance Plant
Arden Hills, Minnesota
Built: 1930s
Dismantled: 2002
Materials recovered:
20,000 maple tongue and groove flooring,
500,000 board feet of structural timber
Cost of disassembly: $183,000
Cost of demo/landfilling: $600,000
Sears Catalog Warehouse Center
Chicago, Illinois
Built: 1906
Demolished: 1992-1994 (full 2 yrs of demolition)
Size: 9 story, 3 million sq. ft.
Materials recovered:
7.5 million board feet timber,
23 million bricks
Site recovered for housing
The photographs on this and the following pages were removed for copyright reasons.
Murray Grove Apartments
London, England
Cartwright Pickard Architects
(Yorkon Building Modules)
Built: completed 2001
Size: 30 apartments, 5 stories
On-site construction: 2 weeks
Overall cost reduction: 10% (affordable housing contract)
Premanufactured building modules
Yorkon
Foreman’s
Premanufactured components for buildings
source: photo J. Fernandez
Container City
India Wharf, London, UK
Food
Dep
leta
ble
(Coa
l, O
il, N
ucle
ar)
Energy
Goods
A) 'Linear metabolism' cities (consume and pollute at a high rate)
CITYInputs Outputs
Organic Wastes(Landfill, sea dumping)
Inorganic Wastes(Landfill)
Emissions(CO2, NOx, SO2)
Food
Ren
ewab
le
Energy
Goods
B) 'Circular metabolism' cities (minimise new inputs and maximise recycling)
CITYInputs
Organic Waste
Recycled
The 'Metabolism' of Cities: Towards Sustainability
Inorganic Waste
OutputsReduced Pollution and Wastes
Recycled
Figure by MIT OCW.
Domain of the built environment
Extraction of natural resources
Processing into materials
Manufacture into components
Assembly into buildings
Building use
Disassembly
Waste for dumping
Recycling of materials
Reprocessing of materials
Reuse of components
Relocation of entire building
Construction
De-construction
Materials cycles in construction
Scope The analysis of the metabolism of the city of New Orleans may
provide a unique understanding of the relationship between anthropogenic structures of industry and the built environment and the natural ecology of the lower Mississippi Delta.
1. System boundary
i. Municipal (political)
ii. Regional (geographic, ecological, etc.)
2. Physical accounting
i. Listing of entities to ‘track’ (key resources)
ii. Data sources