CHAPTER I l l
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The review of related literature implies locating, studying and
evaluating reports of researches relevant to the topic under investigation. A
careful review of research journals, books, dissertations, theses and other
sources of information on the problem to be investigated is one of the
important steps in the planning of any research study. The availability and
utilisation of adequate source of related information enable the investigator to
have a clear picture of the various aspects of the problem area to carry out his
work successfully. The literature and studies reviewed are arranged in the
following subheads.
3.1 Studies related to Modern Instructional Strategies
3.2 Studies related to Computer-assisted Instruction and Web-based
Technology
3.3 Studies related to Co-operative Learning
The related literature examined under each subheading is
ment~oned below:
3.1 STUDIES RELATED TO MODERN INSTRUCTlONAL STRATEGIES -
GENERAL
Donald and Mervin (1973) conducted a study to investigate the
effectiveness of a series of Self-Instructional Modules (SIMs) for training
secondary level sacral studies teacher trainees to develop and ask higher
53 Review of Ltterature
level questions. The study showed that self-instructional module is more
superior to conventional methods for developing concepts and skills.
Hurst (1 974) designed flexible competency based learning
module to change elementary teacher trainee's knowledge, skills and attitude
towards enquiry teaching. The effectiveness of the module was compared in
three classroom settings, individual group and control group. The study
revealed that in both individualised and group settings, teaching learning
modules may serve as a mearis to creative instruction in teacher education in
the future.
Pandya (1 974) studied the effectiveness of programmed
learning strategy in learning of Physics to Class X. He revealed that the
learning through programmeti material benefited the students with high,
average and low intelligence level as well.
Jernstedt (1976) conducted a study which revealed that
students under individualised instructions reviewed the~r course more
favourably than students under trad~tional instructions lndiv~dualised
instruction produced superlor performance only when the unit completion
activities of the individual~sed section were similar to the behaviours on the
examination instruments
Zlotolow (1989) conducted a study on the topic "Development of
an instructional strategy. Video grammar and an assimilative process." T h ~ s
study investigated a prescriptive instructir~nal strategy for teaching grammar to
college students. A videotape using structural units and identified slots was
54 Review of Literature
designed to present the grammar concepts of nouns and noun phrases. The
findings suggest that the structural units approach to teaching grammar has
potential to provide reinforcement for identification and recall in short term
memory.
Aliweh (7989) conducted a study on 'The short and long-term
effect of communication strategy instruction on the speaking proficiency of
Egyptian college students'. In order to help students overcome their speaking
difficulties, this study offered strategy instruction. That is, students were
taught to use communication strategies to compensate for inadequate
knowledge of English.
Qualitative data revealed that the experimental group did use
strategies taught to handle carnmunication difficulties. Therefore unlike the
control group, t he experimental group could convey comprehensible
messages. This ~ndicates that the change in the spoken proficiency of the
exper~mental group was due to strategy instruction.
Cennamo (1989) c:onducted a study on the topic, "mental effort
and video-based learning: The relationship of preconceptions and the effects
of interactive and covert practice." The purpose of this study was to
investigate learner preconceptions of the difficulty of interactive video,
instructional television to examine the effects of actively or covertly
responding to practice questions embedded in video-based rnater~als on
perceived mental effort and achievement on a test of recall and inference
items.
55 Review of Literature
The findings indicate that learners who are provided with an
interactive video lesson that includes practice questions and feedback recall
significantly more information than learners who receive a television without
practice questions or feed back.
McKeon (1989) conducted a study on "strategies for improving
the retention and success of minority students in community colleges." The
purpose of this study was to obtain practical guidelines which community
colleges could use in developing policies, comprehensive support services
and programmes to increase rninority student retention and success.
The study identified the following important factors in the
retention and success af rninority students: providing an environment
conducive to learning, implementing academic and student support services,
conducting on-going student assessment and institutional research
A study was conducted by Worley (1991) on the topic
"Compressed digital video instructional delivery: A study of student
achievement, student attitude and instructor attitude." The purpose of this
study was to ~nvestigate compressed digital video as an instruct~onal delivery
system for distance learning.
Findings revealed that compressed digital video was a highly
effective instructional delivery mode based on prelpost-test comparison and
final examination scores of both treatment groups. Instructors preferred two-
way video1 two-way audio sigr~ificantly more than one-way video / two-way
aud~o. No signiffcant difference was revealed in student attitude between
56 Revrew of Literature
treatment groups. After experiencing compfessed digital video instructional
delivery, both groups rate course instruction, course content and course
delivery medium highly.
A study was conducted by Leitner (1991) on "Comparing the
effects of reading comprehension of educational video, direct experience and
print." This study investigated if the effects of educational video approximated
the effects of direct experience on reading comprehension for high and low
ability readers. Results of the study indicated that subjects participating in the
educational video treatment had the highest mean scores. The significant
findings were that the educational video was more effective than a traditional
lesson for all ability levels, the video lesson generated a large effect size than
the hands-on lesson for low ability readers and there was no difference in the
effect between the video lesson for low ability readers and the traditional
lesson for high ability readers.
A study was conducted by Adams (1992) on the topic.
"Comparing paper-based and electronic outlining as a study strategy for
mainstreamed students with learning disabilities " The study used a single
subject, alternating treatments design to compare electronic outl~ning wrth
paper-based outlining as a strategy for studying four chapters from a middle
school science textbook. Six students with learning disabilities mainstreamed
into two science classrooms participated in the four phases of the study.
Results of the study indicate that ali subjects ~mproved their performance
using outl~ning as a study strategy relative to their handicapped peers.
57 Review of Literature
Barnes-Bell (1992) conducted a study on the topic: "Major
retention strategies for African-American students in allied health
programmes: A consensus of two-year college officials on Ohio." The
purpose of this research study was to assess all two-year college officials in
the State of Ohio to form a consensus on retention strategies that two-year
college officials perceive as most important in retaining African-Americans in
allied health programmes. Results showed that the top ten strategies to retain
African-American students in two-year allied health programmes include the
following: financial aid available for long and short-term purposes, an early
academic warning system and college enrichment activities that include
reading, writing, test taking and study skills specific for learning scientific
knowledge.
Way (1 992) conducted "An experimental comparison of three
methods of computer instruction: Controlled hypertext (student directed).
linear (programme directed) instruction and linear with repeating frames In
this study, a linear instructional programme with predetermined sequence, a
linear instructional programme that allows a student control over repetition of
topics and a controlled hypertext programme allowing linear selection and
control over sequence were compared.
No demonstratable differences were found when post-test
scores were compared. However, the hypertext programme took a markedly
longer time to complete. This is consistent with other recent research and
58 Review of Literature
suggests that hypertext which is a viable alternative for CAI may not be as
effective as first thought.
A study was conducted by Zielonka (1992) on "The influence of
co-operating teachers' utilisation of a reading instructional strategy and other
factors on pre-service teachers' implementation of that strategy." The
purpose of this study was to examine the influence of co-operating teachers
on specific reading instructional strategies used by pre-service teachers in
field placement classroom. Results were analysed statistically and
descriptively to determine the influence of having co-operating teachers' use
of the Directed Activity on pre-interns' implementation of that strategy. No
significant interactions occurred.
Mahan (1996) conducted a study on the topic: "The ~nteraction
of attitude and self-efficacy with innovativeness and locus of control in
teachers in a televised training course." The purpose of this study was to
determine if participants' levels of innovativeness and locus of control
demonstrate a relationship and / or an interact~on with attitude and self-
efficacy in a staff development course in technology via one way television
Results indicated that the interaction of locus of control and
innovativeness was significant on the difference of scores from t h e pre-test
and post-test in behavioural attitude and difference of scores from the pre-test
and post-test in self-efficacy in learnrng electronic communication.
A study was conducted by Douv~lle-Ricker (1996) on the top~c .
"Brrnging text to life: The effects of instruct~on in a multi-sensory imagery
59 Review of Literature
strategy on fifty graders' prose, processing and attitude towards reading."
The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of instruction in
imagery strategies on fifth-grade students' image construction, reading
comprehension and attitude towards reading.
Qualitative data that emerged from student exit interviews
revealed positive reactions to imaging while reading from students who
received imagery strategy instruction. The relationships that have been
shown to exist between imagery and reading comprehension in the mental
imagery research provide a strong rationale for additional investigations ~ n t o
the complex role that mental imagery assumes in the reading process.
Rajaswamjnathan (1998) conducted a study on "Impact of
multimedia package on the teaching of commerce with performance to select
variables." The study found that the use of multimedia was more effectwe
than conventional method of teaching.
A study was conducted by Beller (1998) on "A constructivrst
approach to staff development: A study of teachers' percept~ons" The
purpose of t h ~ s study was to explore teachers' perceptions of a staff
development project designed with constructivist characteristics. The project
chosen for investigation was a project integrating technology ~ n t o science and
mathematics classrooms through the use of integrated thematic units
Teachers' descriptions revealed that they approved of t he construct~v~st
approach to self development
60 Review of Literature
Mathew (2000) conducted a study on the topic: "Effectiveness of
self-instructional materials and modern instructional strategies in minimising
learning disabilities of students in secondary schools." Results of the study
indicate that self-instructional materials and the modern instructional strategy
are effective in the achievement of biology for Grade IX learning-disabled and
non-disabled students.
The quasi-experimental study conducted by Martindale and
Ahern (2001) compared three delivery models: direct instruction, concept
attainment and small-group discussion. The study found no significant main
effect. However, there was significant interaction effect between delivery
model and prior web experience. This indicates that for some learners.
certain delivery models may be more effective for web-based environments.
Palak (2004) conducted a study on "Teachers' beliefs in relation
to their instructional technology practices." This study investigated how
teachers' beliefs and factors relate to teachers' instructional strategy
practices. The results obtained from this research point to the following
instruct~onal technology practices of teachers in substantial ways relate to (1)
their bel~efs about teaching and technology and (2) the contextual conditions
in their teaching environments.
Oxford (2004) conducted a study on "Effects of technology-
enhanced language learning on second language composition of university-
level intermediate Spanish students." The purpose of this research was to
determ~ne any benefits of weekly/structured, in class, computer-assisted
6 1 Review of Litemture
grammar drill and practice on the composition quality and quantity of
intermediate university Spanish learners. Findings revealed that students
who received weekly, structured computer grammar and vocabulary package
had higher scores for composition quality and quantity on the post-test
measures and accessed the databases less than the control group.
Ewell (2004) conducte'd a case study of "Pre-service teacher
perceptions of intensive field experiences and classroom teacher monitoring."
This case study examined the experiences of three pre-service teachers who
enrolled in a teacher preparation programme that was conceived and
implemented through a collaborative effort between a college, a K-12 school
and a regional education agency. The findings point to the strong benefits of
extended and extensive field experiences in K-12 classrooms for pre-service
teachers. The extended field experiences provided a multi-tiered framework
that allowed for peer mentoring and contextualised classroom experjences
that contributed to an improved sense of self-eff icacy as pre-service teachers
part~cipated in hands-on-teaching.
Jun (2004) conducted a study on "The influence of quality
technology support on teachers' effective technology integration in relation to
the maturity of a school work environment as a professional learning
community." The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of
quality technology support (QTS) on teachers' effective technology integrat~on
(ETI) in relat~on to a school work environment as a profess~onal learning
community (PLC). Results of the study revealed that only QTS had a
6 2 Review of Literature
significant effect on teachers' ETI, whereas PLC did not have a significant
effect on teachers' ETI level.
Anderson (2004) conducted a study on "A study of pre-service
teacher exposure to technology in the college classroom and field
experience." This study evaluates the exposure of pre-service teachers at the
University of Alabama at Birmingham to technology in the collage classroom
and field experience as compared with the Alabama State Department of
Education technology standards for teacher education programmes. Findings
include identification areas for improvement, as well as of areas where
standards are adequately addressed.
Tran (2004) conducted a study on "Effects of formative feedback
and assessment on self-regulation in pre-service teacher preparation." The
study concludes that at any points during standards-based, technology-
supported instruction when student persistence andlor effort is found to be
lagging, feedback that provides accurate and concrete information on how to
persist or invest more effort results in increased achievement for all learners,
regardless of the~r prior knowledge or self-efficacy
McCauley (2004) conducted a study on "Mathematical wrlt~ng in
the elementary classroom." In this study, fourth and fifth grade students at
River View Elementary participated in mathematics activities requiring written
and oral dialogue. These dialogues were analysed to determine how their
mathematical understandings were reflected in their written and oral
discussion. An examination of pre and post mathematical writing occurred to
determine the effect the dialogue had on students' mathematical writing.
Findings of the study indicate that student's beliefs about mathematics
evolved from mathematics as simply computing and a silent activity to math
involving strategies and being a sensible activity.
The study by Etsey (2004) indicates "The effects of
comprehension strategy instruction on Ghanaian English language learners'
comprehension processes and text understanding." The purpose of this study
was to investigate the extent to which the explicit teaching of a repertoire of
reading comprehension strategies would (a) improve the comprehension
ability of Ghanaian English language learners on a comprehension test and
(b) improve their comprehension monitoring and the repertoire of strategies
they use.
Based on the results of this study, it is concluded that English
language learners can benefit from explicit comprehension strategies
instruction; however, consideratron must be given to particular issues related
to English language learners, the seiection of texts and the environment for
instruction.
The study by Chon (2005) on "Designing good institutional
contexts for innovation in a technology-mediated learning environment"
develops a research framework to delineate the relationships among
knowledge sharing (KS), coordination and support of technology-mediated
learn~ng environment (CTML) and three antecedents of technology-mediated
learning (TML) innovation. Results indicate that KS has a positive effect on all
64 Revrew of Literature
the three antecedents of TML innovation, while CTML exerts a positive impact
only on instructors' ability to explore.
"Multimedia cases towards a bridge between theory and
practice" is the title of the study that was carried out by Blijleven (2005). The
study was conducted within the context of MUST project (Multimedia in
Science and Technology). The project develops and investigates multimedia
cases for the professional development of prospective teachers in elementary
science education,
In this study, formative evaluation has been used to test and
improve the quality of colour and light and the guiding task. Finally,
summative evaluation investigates in what way the examination of a
multimedia case via guiding task contributes to a meaningful interaction
between theory and practice.
3.2 STUDIES RELATED TO COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION AND
WEB-BASED TECHNOLOGY
Use of computer-assisted instruction began almost
srrnultaneously and independently in the areas of computer, system sciences,
engineering and psychology. The first demonstration of computer-assisted
instruction was accomplished by Rath et al. (1959) at the Thomas J. Watson
Research Centre of IBM in New York. They developed the computer-assisted
~nstruction programme In Binary Arithmetic and the programme was good
enough to generate of its own exercises for the practice of the students
according to their needs
65 Review of Literature
Koohang (1967) studied the attitudes of pre-service teachers
towards the use of computers in instruction. He tried to know the effect of
gender, duration of computer experience and nature of computer experience
on computer attitudes. The main findings of the study were:
(a) Male subjects showed slightly higher positive attitudes towards
computer-assisted instruction than female students;
(b) Subjects that had more computer experience showed greater positive
attitudes towards using a computer;
(c) Subjects that were exposed to computer programming andlor
instructional applications of computers scored higher mean scores.
Suppes (7968) compared the Stanford achievement test scores
of 925 students who were given an average of ten minutes daily of computer
based Mathematics computation instruction with those of 1028 control
students who received traditional instruction. CAI produced equivalent or
superior results when effects were corrected for t~me spent in instruction.
Vinsonhaler and Brass (1 972) summarised results from 10
independent studies of computer supported drill and practice involving more
than 30 separate experiments with about 10,000 subjects. They concluded
that CAI drill and practice method at the elementary school was more effective
than traditional teaching method raising the standard test scores.
Dudley (1974) conducted a study to test the effectiveness of
CAC for teaching Economics. The objective of the study was to find out
whether the use of GAL would result ~n higher student achievement in
66 - Review of Literature
understanding Economics. The study revealed 20 percent increase in mean
score of those students using computer-assisted learning material. The study
also revealed that the computer is a valuable teaching aid in Economics.
In 70s, the field of computer-assisted instruction was grown
widely in different directions like curriculum development, computer literacy,
counselling, tutoring, testing, etc. Adequate work has been done towards
developing the educational uses of microcomputer by educators and
computer scientists like Jamieson (1994). They developed various packages
of computer-assisted instructions for tutoring as well as for drill and practices.
This tempted the research workers in the fields of education and psychology
to investigate as to how these computer-assisted instructions affected
learning of students.
In the literature, many claims are formulated about what m~ght
be accomplished in actual teaching practice, when microcomputers are used
in a proper and intensive way. Menis (1980) studied 402 Grade X students
having lower achievements in mathematics in the previous class. They found
that the students who were brighter in Mathematics did not on an average
improve their grades On the contrary, it was identified the weaker students
improved their grades remarkably. This concludes that this method was more
effective for low achievers.
Bukatman (1 981) conducted a study on the effects of computer
assisted instruction for mastery of multiplication of facts on {earning disabled
elementary school children differing in locus control. Results revealed that
67 Re view of Literature
students possessing an internal locus control were able to learn more
independently with less teacher intervention and direction than those who
possessed an external locus control.
The purpose of Powell's (1985) study was to determine the
effects of three forms of computer-assisted instruction (drill and practice,
instructional game, flash cards) and traditional teaching on elementary level
disabled students' knowledge of multiplication facts. The results obtained
showed no significant differences among the four groups either in respect of
their achievements or in relation to retention of material.
Whiting (1986) studied the use of the computer programme as a
replacement for a human tutor. Analysis of the responses showed that the
use of the programme met with a tremendous approval only when a detailed
printed handout was provided to support it. Findings also revealed that
females used it as a means of tuition more than males.
The purpose of the research work of Anand and Ross (1987)
was to design and evaluate a computer-based adaptive strategy for teaching
mathematical rules. They inferred that adapting problem context to students'
interests can be an effective means of reducing comprehension problems,
simultaneously improving attitudes towards learning maths. The study also
demonstrated that with the availability of low cost microcomputer, such a
strategy will be pract~cal to use as well as in near future.
68 - Revrew of Literature
Gizara (1989) conducted "A comparison of the effects of student
controlled CAI and computer controlled CAI in a remedial programme for
solving stoichiometry problems in Chemistry."
This study compared the effectiveness of two computer-assisted
~nstruction programmes varying in degree of learner control. The two versions
of the programmes were used as a tutorial supplement to college general
chem~stry instruction on multi-step stoichiometry problems and were prepared
by the researcher for this study. Students were randomly assigned to the two
treatments. Results of the study indicated that students scoring high on the
pre-test did equally well with either treatments, whereas students who scored
Jow on the pre-test scored better when using the student controJled treatment.
A study was conducted by Martin (q989) on "The effects of
computer programming on students' problem solving skills." This study was
designed to determine whether any combination of treatment, cognitive
development level andlor gender had any effect on high school students'
problem solving skills. The research design was a quasi-experimental pre-
test - post-test design w~th non-equivalent groups. Statistical techniques
used in the study were multiple regression and analysis of covariance.
Findings from the present study and prior studies seem to
provide evidence that under appropriate conditions, instruction in computer
programming can iead to an increase in subjects' problem solving skills.
Chan (1989) studied the perceptions of elementary school
teachers on using the computer as a tutor Findings suggested that attitudes
69 Revrew of Literature
were positively correlated to the duration of the use of computers. All the
elementary teachers were of the opinion that kids love it, but adults fear it,
probably because of the fact that any new idea is welcomed open-heartedly
by the younger generation, while the older generation is reluctant to it.
Furthermore, about 80 percent teachers suggested that CAI is more effective
in developing a positive or negative attitude in students towards computer.
Driscall (1991) compared the relative effectiveness of
microcomputer-assisted instruction and conventional instruction for the
teaching of reference skills to grade VII students. Comparisons were made in
terms of achievements, retention and instruction time. ANCOVA exercises
indicated that there were no significant differences in achievement and
retention levels for both the treatments whereas, CAI classes required less
instruction. Thus, it again confirms that CAI is more effective than the
conventional methods.
Mahapatra (1997) carried out a study on "Development and
effectiveness of computer-aided instruction in terms of achievement and
abstract reasoning of Class IX students." The study found that the CAI
proved quite effective and the students' retention towards CAI material were
pos~ t ive .
A study by Schick (1991) an "The use of computer-assisted
interactive video instruction with linguistic-minority students" was done to
measure the effectiveness of computer-assisted interactive video instruction
in the transmission of content-area concepts and vocabulary to Irngu~stic-
70 Review of Literature
minority students. Results of Hotelling's T~ tests on content and vocabulary
measures, as well as on the repeated attitude questionnaire, indrcated no
significant difference between treatment groups. These findings would seem
to suggest that while computer-assisted interactive video is, in fact, an
effective medium of instruction for linguistic-minority students, the degree of
programme control, as revealed in these programmes, does not significantly
affect attitude or achievement.
A study was conducted by Lamazares (1991) on "The effects of
computer-assisted instruction on the writing performance and writing anxiety
of community college developmental students." This study set out to
investigate whether the writing performance and writing anxjety of
developmental community college students could be significantly affected by
the use of computers in a networked environment. Analyticai scores
revealed that the content of the computer essays produced by the CAI group
was rated significantly higher than the content of the paper-and-penc~l essays
produced by the same group.
Mickens (1991) conducted a study on the "Effects of
supplementary computer-assisted instruction on Basic Algebra 1 and Basic
Algebra 2 achievement levels of mathematics at-risk minority students " The
purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of supplementary
computer-assisted instruction materials on the achievement level and attitude
of Basic Algebra 1 and 2 urban minority students who have previously failed
in a semester of Basic Algebra. The f~ndings of the study indicated that
7 1 Review of L~terature
students in the experimental group receiving supplementary computer-
assisted instruction had greater academic achievement than students in the
control group. The achievement level was greater for the female students of
the experimental group than for the male students of the experimental group.
Wills (1992) conducted a s tudy on t h e topic "A comparison of
student performance between an integrated learning-system computer
approach and traditional teacherltextbook with computer-assistance
approach." The purpose of this study was to ana ly se the performance
difference among students receiving direct math instruction from a network
computer approach using an integrated software programme and students
receiving direct instruction from the traditional teacherltextbook computer-
assisted approach.
Student reactions were positive to both computer approaches.
A majority of teachers preferred using the integrated learnjng system
approach due to the self-paced instruction in a multimedia format.
A study was conducted by Moriarty (1992) on the topic: "The
relationsh~p between teacher in-service training and the integration of
educational software into the elementary school curriculum." Findings of the
study indicated that teachers who received in-service ranked their in-service
train~ng low on the key software integration items, writing performance and
behavioural objectives, selection and use of a variety of educational
technology and use of educational software as part of curriculum
development.
72 Revte w of Literature
Peach (1996) conducted a study on "The effects of knowledge
and type of instructional objectives on intentional learning with World Wide
Web-based linear and hypermedia instruction." This study explored the use
of different types of instructional objectives with learning from linear and non-
linear instruction presented in the World Wide Web.
There were no significant differences found in this study as a
result of the instructional objectives. Other significant factors influencing
learning were found. Students who reported prior computer experience had
greater overall learning in both treatments and students who had prior
hypermedia experience had greater high-order learning in the non-linear
treatment.
B~elema (1996) conducted a study on the topic: "Factors
affecting ~mplementation of ~nteractive, computer-mediated jnstructional
techniques for instructors and learners at a distance." Efforts related to
planning the needed electronic infrastructure and the course design and
efforts related to implenientation of computer-mediated cominunicat~on are
described in the qualitative study. Recommendations include instructional
design for the CMC context, activating self-directed learn~ng, providrng
feedback and developing collaborative electronic projects.
Hall (1996) conducted a study on "Differential effects of
prediction versus reading in support of learning from a computer-based
conceptual model." The purpose of this study was to compare two
instructional strategies that included use of a simulation of a one-way ANOVA
73 Review of Literature
One strategy caused learners to make predictions before using the simulation,
while the other strategy left prediction a suggestion option. The results
suggest that for the population of this study, the embedded strategy of making
predictions before using a computer simulation does not influence
achievement on statistics concepts.
Wellman (1997) conducted a study on "The use of multiple
representations, higher order thin king skiils, interactivity and motivation when
designing a CD-ROM to teach self similarity." Four areas of focus were
derived for this study. First, CD-ROMs as a vehicle far students to use
multiple representations in the mathematics classroom. Second, CD-ROMs
as a tool for including interactivity in lessons. Third, CD-ROMs to heighten
the level of motivation of the students. Fourth, CD-ROMs as the best tool
available to manifest the most appropriate instructional design for the subject
matter. Findings of the study revealed that in the case of self-similarity, the
use of CD-ROMs added a tool that provided the students with a positive
learning experience that could not have been added with any other tool.
Thompson (1998) conducted a study on "Concerns and usage
of the lnternet by vocational education teachers in Idaho." The purpose of this
study was to examine and describe the current state of availability and use of
the Internet among high school vocational education teachers In Idaho and
evaluate the concerns these teachers have about using the lnternet in
teaching. It was found that the more often teachers use the lnternet In
conjunction with lesson planning, classroom instruction and personal
74 Review of Lderature
development, the more concerned they become about the impact, it will have
on their students, about working with their colleagues and others in
coordinating the use of the Internet.
Dodick (1998) conducted a study on the topic: "A comparative
study of computer networking in two schools in the Toronto Board of
Education." The study seeks to identify the pedagogy accompanying the
technology and the implications for mainstream and non-ma~nstrearn
students. A major conclusion from this study is that approaches to computer
networking in the two case schoots depended largely on the individual
pedagogy of the teachers.
Maya (1999) conducted a study to test the effectiveness of
computer assisted lesson in Biology for Standard Vtll. The main objectives of
the study were:
(1) To study the comparative effectiveness of CAI mode approach and
lecture method based on the topic 'tissue system' In terms of
achievement in realising certain outcomes
(2) To assess the comparative effectiveness of computer ass~sted
instruction and lecture method in realising certain selected educational
outcomes.
The major findings of the study were:
(1) Computer assisted instruction is significantly superior to lecture
method in terms of achievement and in realising educational outcomes
75 Revre w of Literature
categorised under cognitive, affective, psychomotor and social
aspects.
(2) The existing curricular factors are suitable to implement the CAI at
secondary schools.
A study was conducted by Smith Terry (2002) on "The effects of
online time management practices on self-regulated learning and academic
self-efficacy." This study investigates the use of a web-based mechanism that
was designed to attempt to influence levels of self-efficacy by engaging
participants in an experimental procedure. The process encouraged
participants to monitor their time management behaviours and engage in self-
regulated learning process. Although no significant findings were discovered
via the statist~cal analysis, many implications regarding the development and
implementation of future interventions can be inferred.
Balasubramanian and Rangaraj (2002) conducted a study on
"Development and validation of syllabus oriented computer-based
instruct~onal package in teaching Physics." The objectives of the study were:
(1) To develop syllabus-based computer software packages in teaching
Physics at higher secondary level;
(2) To validate the developed computer software packaged from
technical and pedagogical point of view by experts, educat~onists and
practising teachers.
The developed computer software packages have proved quite
effective in teaching Physics.
76 Review of Literature
Chapman (2003) conducted a study on "An assessment of
business teacher educators' adoption of computer technology." The purpose
of this study was to assess and identify the factors that influence business
teacher educators to adopt computer technology methods and utilise them in
their instruction and to determine the extent to which business teacher
educators are adopting computer technology in their teaching.
Findings from this study revealed that the largest percentage of
the business teacher educators were early adopters. They indicated that they
always used word processing and almost always integrated computers,
projectors and e-mail in their instruction.
Card (2003) conducted a study on "Teachers' perceptions of
using ICT (Information and Communication Technology) in the classroom
The investigation found that majority of teachers expressed confidence rn
using computers, but were not confident enough to use them in the
classroom Feelings of vulnerability and poor understanding as to how the
technology can be used in the classroom account for some of this lack in
confidence.
''A multivariate analysis of students' perceptions regarding web-
based multimedia mater~als as learning tools for human anatomy" was the
study conducted by Jung (2004) to (a) investigate the relationship between
three educational factors and (b) determine which subcategories among the
educational factors significantly affect the learners' perception.
77 Review of L~terature
Judging from the overall responses, it was concluded that the
web-based multimedia materials were useful for both anatomical lab activities
and knowledge construction.
The study conducted by Casanova (2004) made an analysis of
computer-mediated communication (CMC) technologies as tools to enhance
learning. Findings indicated that faculty was mainly using CMC technologies
to support teaching practices and to improve teacher's productivity. ITS were
basically targeted to increase interactivity, open avenues for feedback and
provide online resources, but less used for inquiry-based and active learning.
Fullick (2004) conducted a study on "Knowledge building among
schoai students working in a networked computer-supported learn~ng
environment." This study describes an investigation into the use of online
discussion forums (both asynchronous and synchronous) to support students
(aged 13/14 years) in two English schools as they conducted science
investigations.
The outcomes of the study suggest that students employ a
range of tacit tools and rules when engaging In knowledge-build~ng and that
the process of critical incidental identification and recall used in the research
may be employed as a valuable pedagogical tool when online discussion is
used with students.
Gurvitch (2004) conducted a study on "The development and
validation of a computer mediated simulation (CMS) train~ng application
designed to enhance task modification decisions among pre-service physical
78 Revrew of L~terature
education teachers." The purpose of this study was ( 7 ) to develop the CMS
training application designed to enhance appropriate interactive decisions
among pre-service physical education teachers and (2) to validate the CMS
training application for its purpose.
Findings from this study emphasise the importance of
developing the decision making skills among pre-service teachers and
establish the need for further examination of these skills in teacher education
programmes.
A study was conducted by Moser (2004) on "Theories,
techniques and the impacts of computer-mediated conferencing in a university
writing centre toward a model for training programs." This study started with
the understanding that there are significant behaviour, communication and
tutoring technique differences between online tutoring and f2f tutoring that can
affect tutor training.
Coding scheme was created out of the interview transcr~pts and
the tutorial responses of this study that focused on the techn~cal and soc~al
aspects of the online conferencing, which helped objectjvely the nature of
computer-mediated conference.
Meza (2004) conducted a study on "The use of computer
technology by college-bound seniors graduating from a large urban high
school in a Southwest border community." The purpose of the research was
to describe and examine how college bound seniors use computer technology
to pursue higher education. According to what was found in this study.
79 Rewew of Literature
college bound seniors primarily used computer technology to prepare, select
and apply to college. Therefore, there should be more emphasis placed on
computer technology to assist college bound seniors in their endeavour to
pursue higher education.
A study was conducted by Ellis, Marcus and Taylor (2005) on
"Learning through inquiry: Student difficulties with online course-based
material." This study investigates the case-based learning experience of 133
undergraduate veterinarian science students. Using qualitative methodologies
from relational student learning research, variation in the qual~ty of t h e
learning experience was identified.
A key outcome of this study was that a significant percentage of
the students surveyed adopted a poor approach to learning with online
resources in a blended experience even when their overall learning
experience was related to cohesive conceptions of veterinary science and that
the difference was more marked for less successfu~ students.
Weller (2005) conducted a study on "Students' experience of
components versus integrated learning environments." This study examines
the student experience of two virtual learning environments, one ~ntegrated
approach and the other component. The study suggests that the component
approach is a viable one from a student perspective, the broader context In
which virtual learning environment operates is important in student
perceptions and that poor system performance may have unpredictable
consequences for the learning experience
80 Review of Literature
3.3 STUDIES RELATED TO CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING
One of the largest and longest studies of co-operative learning
was conducted by Weigel (1975) in trio-ethnic Mexican, American and Anglo,
black classroom. They found that co-operative learning reduced teachers'
reports of interactive conflict
Johnson (7976) conducted a study where students engaged in
!earning together activities. It was seen that they made more altruistic choice
on a task similar to the choice made than did the students who had worked
competitively or individualistically.
Blancy (1977) conducted a field survey to assess systematically
the effect of interdependent learning groups as opposed to traditional teacher
taught competitive classes, upon the attitude and interpersonal liking of
elementary school students. The interdependent learning group manifested
higher self-esteem than controls.
DeVrices, Edwards and Slavin (1978) conducted stud~es on
intergroup relations. The samples involved in their studies varied in grade
level and in percentages of minority students. They found positive effects of
Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT) on friendship choices among black
Mexican, American and Anglo students.
Vygotsky (1978) found that collaborative activity among children
promotes growth because children of similar age are likely to be operating
within one another's proximal zone development niodelling in the collaborative
group behaviour more advanced than those who could perform as indrv~duals.
8 1 Revtew of Liferature
Study by Slavin (1990) indicates that while structured group work
appears to be more effective for cognitive gains, it can also lead to social and
affective developments, and be used specifically to promote team work and
co-operative attitudes.
Studies of the effects of co-operation on self-concept, self-
esteem and self-image have tended to have only slight or neutral effects,
however, despite positive anecdotal claims about their benefits (Osguthrope
and Scruggs, 7990).
Finally, positive social benefits have been found in studies of co-
operative grouping in multi-ethnic classes (Sharon, 1990). These involved
improved social relationships, liking for others, more cross-race and cross-
gender preference choices and reduced negative stereotyping.
Deen-Jeanie (1 991) compared cammunication and interaction
patterns in a college in Holland as a second language. The subjects were 16
native English-speaking students. Two lessons, taught using Co-operative
Learning (COL) and one using Teacher-Centred instruction (TC), were
videotaped and analysed. The COL lesson consisted of a review of
comparison structures using guided conversation and a review of some earlier
material. Results show that subjects took many more turns in the COL than In
the TC setting.
Arenz (1991) conducted a study on the topic: "Relationshrp of
computer-assisted co-operative learning to the acquisition of mathematical
problem-solving skills." The purpose of this study was to provide additional
82 Rewe w of Literature
knowledge of the way in which students develop mathematical problem
solving skills within a computer generated co-operative learning environment.
It was found that subjects engaged more frequently in the discussion of
algorithmic and routine procedures, but little time talking about rules of
relevant competencies. They relied more frequently on each other as a
resources for problem-solving, rather than help messages provided by the
computer.
Harward (1991) developed a handbook for High School Teachers
out of a series of seminars to provide in-service staff development on teaching
about the Constitution and the Bills of right to High School students. A section
of co-operative learning describes this approach to integrating students w~th
or without disabilities. It defines co-operative learning, identifies the difference
between co-operative and traditional groups and presents an agenda of
activities for the co-operative learning seminar segment.
Reid (1992) conducted a study to determine the effect of co-
operative learning strategies on mathematics achievement of the 7th graders.
The study concluded that co-operative group learning strategy was more
effective in promoting mathematics achievement.
Berg (1 993) conducted a study of college-bound 7 1 Ih graders and
assessed the feasibility and effectiveness of instruction that used a structured
co-operative learning technique. The study concluded that (1) students can
be expected to respond positively to the experience and to work co-
83 Review of L ! t e r a t u ~
operatively and productively together and (2) 94 percent of the time students
had on task interaction.
Ross (1994) conducted a case study of a grade 7 math class on
the effect of feedback on students' behaviour in co-operative learning groups
on 4 occasions over a 16-week period. After the second and third recordings,
students were given edited transcripts of their discussion and were trained in
how to interpret them. They used an instrument to appraise their group
processes 1-2 times per week thereafter. The self-assessment has a
beneficial impact on the frequency and quality of help seeking and help giving
on students' attitudes towards asking for help.
Sparapani (1 994) conducted a study to examine how teachers
from middle school to high school levels acquired their understanding of co-
operative !earning, how they used it in the dassroom and how they kept
students accountable for performance.
Pollard (1996), In a unique and original longitudrnal study of f ~ v e
children's first years in school has attempted to bring together evidence about
their social lives with friends, family and teachers, their learning experiences
and their formal school achievements. He has concluded that the children
who learned most effectively could manage their classroom activities so as to
derive support from both teacher and peers. The children could be effective
learners, when their self-confidence is high and the classroom social context
poses manageable risks.
84 Re view of Literature
Rothenberg and Johnson (1997) conducted a study titled
"Changes in pedagogy: A quality result of teaching heterogeneous classes."
This study describes and explains the ninth and tenth grade social studies
and science courses that emerged in the pedagogy of classroom teachers as
a result of participation in a detracting project. Teachers began to change
their practices, using co-operative learning and more student-centred
approaches. Teachers' expectations of students of initial lower tracks rose
and teachers co-operated more fully with each other. The changes teachers
made for these untracked classes affected their overall teaching.
Weber (7997) in her study identified practical strategies for
collaborating with parents, students, teachers and the wider learning
community in using multiple intelligence in the classroom. She listed ten
useful principles of change that provide springboards for improved
collaborations.
The purpose of the study conducted by Suh, Hwui-Suk (1998)
was to ~nvestigate the effects of various structures on achievement,
perceptions of the learning env~ronment and students' interactton behaviours
within a group. The study also examined the relationships among group
interaction behaviours within a group, ach~evernent and perception of the
group learning environment
The result of the study revealed that the weighted-grading
increased student ach~evement on the post-test than did individual-grading
condition
85 Review of Literature
Johnson (2000) found that all co-operative learning methods had
a significant positive impact on student achievement. When the impact of
co-operative lessons was compared with individualistic learning, Learning
Together promotes the greatest effect, followed by Academic Controversy
group investigation, Teams-Games-Tournaments, Teams-Assisted-
Individualisation, STAD, Jigsaw and CIRC. The consistency of the results
and the diversity of the co-operative learning methods provide strong
validation for its effectiveness.
Ocker and Yaverbaum (2001) conducted a study on
"Collaborative learning environments: Exploring students' attitudes and
satisfaction in face-to-face asynchronous computer conferencing settings "
Empjrical f~ndings indicate that although students in both treatments were
equally satisfied with the quality of the collaborative solution that they
produced, students were more satisfied with the face-to-face collaboration
process. Compared to girls, boys were more comfortable with the concept of
collaborative team assignments.
Gopinath (2002) conducted a study on the effectiveness of co-
operative learning on interest and achievement in mathematics. The results
of the study reveal that co-operative learning is more efficient than
conventional method for students' achievement in mathematics and for
improving mathematical ~nterest.
Louis and Balon (2002) conducted a study to examine the
effectiveness of co-operative learning over conventional method of textbook
approach in enhancing achievement in English. Seventy, Vlll standard
students comprised the sample for the experiment. It was found that teaching
of English through co-operative learning is more effective than through
conventional method of textbook approach.
Mangal (2005) advocate co-operative and group learning in place
of the competitive and individualistic approach prevalent in our educational
system by redefining the roles of the teacher and the learner in a particular
teaching learning process. In this study, he examines the features,
advantages and hindrances in the path of co-operative learning.
A good majority of the studies reviewed in this chapter highlight
the importance of modern instructional strategies especially computer-
assisted instruction, €-learning, web-based learning, collaborative learning
and co-operative learning. These studies reveal that traditional teaching
methods should pave the way to modern instructional strategies for bringing
out increased achievement and better results. The review of related literature
enabled the investigator to frame the hypotheses and design the appropr~ate
tools for the present invest~gation.
CHAPTER lV
METHODOLOGY
-
INTRODUCTION
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED L I
METHODS ADOPTED
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES USED
DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS
SAMPLE FOR THE STUDY
PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION