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Roles of Stress in English Free Variations
*
Abstract
British and American English free variants, though phonetically realized identically,
are slightly different in graphemic representation, thus resulting in learning difficulty.
However, little attention has been paid to what causes differences in British and American
English. Pair comparisons made between lexigraphical items in the two Englishes reveal that
word stress is the key factor determining the formation of free variants; graphemic deletion
and metathesis occur in a post-tonic syllable, and that American variants are derived from
their respective British counterparts. The disclosures help formulate four learner-friendly
variable rules with prose statements; they can serve as a general reference in derivation of
American free variants.
Keywords: free variant, word stress, graphology, morphology
*; Tel:03-3412500 ext.6084; E-mail:[email protected]
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I. Introduction
Chinese is a monographic language with monosyllabic logography. lexigraphical
items are written in uniform character scripts, regardless of syntactical categories; whereas
English is a language with alphabetical scripts with varied syllables and graphemic
representations that may rise from derivation or inflection in its lexigraphical items.
English vocabulary is versatile, due to adoption and transliteration of exotic
vocabulary virtually from every European language (McCrum, et al., 1986: 47). Besides,
content words in English vocabulary are varied in syntactical categories, bringing about
challenges to its learners. Among others, free variants, though small in number, are found to
be an obstacle in the enrichment of its vocabulary.
II. Related Literature
Free variants exist in British and American English. Crystal (1989:324) contends that
the choice of variants may be subject to contextual constraints, or there may be no
explainable conditions. However, Adams (1973:1) expresses that it is necessary for learners
of English to be aware of how English words are constructed and emphasizes that the
formation of English words is systematic. Robins (1967:183) also claims that variations in the
forms are incorporated with meanings of words and are regular and traceable, while words
with their variants bear formal and semantic correspondences to each other.
MacWhinney (1997:278) reviews the research results, maintaining that language
learners benefit from explicit instruction in cultivation of vocabulary. Perry (1989:51)
advocates that students should be helped to gain confidence in their ability to correctly use
and spell words, maintaining that the confidence can, among others, be obtained fromenhancing vocabulary by careful application of prefixes and suffixes to root words with exact
meaning intended.
Applicable approaches to enriching English vocabulary are reported to be numerous.
Carroll (1965:280) initiates the intensive reading to build up more vocabulary, asserting that
the more kinds of association are made to a lexigraphical item, the better is learning retention.
Schmitt and Schmitt (1995:140) propose that word pairs be compared so that students can be
helped to visualize the associative network of relationships between new and familiar words.
Cross (1999:3) advocates that students use new words as often as possible so that words will
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become their active vocabulary. Skmen (1997:87) insists that vocabulary is explicitly built,
and suggests that a cognitive approach with emphasis on the recognition of vocabulary can
help understand the formations of English words with alphabetical graphemes.
III. Scope, Hypothesis and Methods
3.1Scope
To be dealt with is the disclosure of implicit factors that lead to graphemic deletion
and metathesis in British and American free variants; therefore, the focus is on an
understanding of spelling patterns of free variants in the two versions of English.
3.2 Hypothesis and MethodsIt is hypothesized that British and American English free variants are systematic and
traceable, and the formation or coinage of agentive nouns is subject to agentive
nominalization.
To support the hypothesis, an exhaustive survey is made to reveal factors that lead to
British and American free variants. With word-pair comparison of graphology and
morphology, analytical observations are made to reveal implicit linguistic features that
govern graphemic deletion and metathesis in the formation of British and American variants. In the final analysis, learners-friendly variable rules are formulated, thus providing
learners of English with the knowledge of the coinage or formation of British and American
free variants.
IV. Formation of American Variants
In comparison of word pairs, words cited as a corpus are those likely to appear as
British and American free variants. For graphological analysis, the words are tabulated in
three to four columns. The first column is for phonetic transcriptions for words cited, which
may be followed by definitions or remarks to indicate the originality or identification of
words that have been compared.
4.1 The Graphemic vs. the Graphemic
To be observed are words ending in and , whichare both phoneticallyrepresented as [g], the voiced velar plosive. The vowel grapheme serves as a formative
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to prevent the grapheme , the voiced velar plosive, from being palatalized as [Q],
the voiced palatal affricate (Pyles: 56 & 69).
(1) Monosyllabic words: Words ending in
Words below are monosyllables that end in the silent graphemes .
(i) The graphemes preceded by a vowel grapheme
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[ Vg] Vgue Vgue[veg] vague vague[fjug] fugue fugue
(ii) The graphemes preceded by a consonant grapheme
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[ Cg] Cgue Cgue
[morg] morgue morgue
[tng] tongue tongue
The word pairs in the two tables above show that no free variants occur to
monosyllabic words. The silent word-final graphemes cannot be deleted.
(2) Disyllabic Words: Words Ending in
Below are disyllabic words that end in the graphemes , which can be realized or
silenced.
(i) Disyllabic words with realized
Tabulated below are disyllabic words that take penultimate (initial) stress with a
realized word-final .
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[gju] gue gue[egju] ague ague[$rgju] argue argue
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Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[ -log] -{logue} -{log}[4n-log] ana-logue ana-log
[k4t-log] cata-logue cata-log[d$,-log] dia-logue dia-log[(p,-log] epi-logue epi-log
The corpus above shows that free variants occur to trisyllabic words ending in a
bound root morpheme +{-logue}, whose silent final graphemes , immediately
preceded by (secondary) stress, can be deleted from the root +{-logue}.
(ii) Words with +{-gogue}, the root morpheme
The corpus below contains trisyllabic words with a bound root plus {-gogue}, a
bound root, meaning to lead, or to gather(Merriam Websters: 306 & 770).
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[ -gog] -{gogue} -{gog}[d(m-gog] dema-gogue dema-gog[ha,dr-gog] hydra-gogue hydra-gog[p(d-gog] peda-gogue peda-gog
[s,n-gog] syna-gogue syna-gog
The corpus shows that free variants occur to trisyllabic words ending in a root
morpheme +{-gogue}. The silent final graphemes , immediately preceded by
(secondary) stress, can be deleted from the root +{-gogue}.
(4) Overall observations of sec.4.1
Overall observations of sec. 4.1 indicate that free variants are restricted to trisyllabic
words ending in the two specific root morphemes +{-logue} and +{-gogue}, in which the
silent final graphemes can be deleted in American variants, when immediately
preceded by (secondary) stress.
4.2 The Graphemes vs. the Grapheme
Both the graphemes and are invariably phonetically represented as [k],
the voiceless velar plosive.
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(1) Monosyllabic Words with Mono-morphemes
Below is a table, in which words cited as a corpus are those that contain one syllable
with one morpheme.
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[k] que que[klik] clique clique[b,sk] bisque bisque[k$sk] mosque mosque
No free variants can be observed in monosyllabic words ending the
graphemes , phonetically realized as [k] with the final silenced.
(2) Di/trisyllabic Words with Mono-morphemes
Below are disyllabic and trisyllabic words ending in the graphemes .
(i) Disyllabic words with silenced
Words cited as a corpus are those that contain one morpheme with two syllables.
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations[Cik] Cique Cique[pek] opaque opaque[kr,tik] critique critique[brok] baroque baroque
No free variants can be observed in ultimate-stressed disyllabic words with the
word-final . Though silent, the word-final cannot be deleted from the
graphemes , phonetically realized as [k].
(ii) Mono/polysyllabic words ending in
Words cited as a corpus in the table below are those ending in the graphemes.
Phonetic
Transcriptions
British
Representations
American
Representations
Definitions
[()-( ) ke] ()-( )()qu ()-()()qu[p,ke] piqu piqu offense[r,ske] risqu risqu indecent[-4pl,ke] appliqu appliqu a cutout decoration[k-mjn,ke] com-muniqu com-muniqu a public notice
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No free variants can occur to words of Latin origin with stress placed on the
word-final . This graphemic cluster is phonetically realized as [ke], the voiceless
velar plosive plus the stressed non-back, mid tense vowel.
(3) Di/Trisyllabic Words with Two-morphemes
Below are disyllabic and trisyllabic words, which contain two or three morphemes
ending in the bound morpheme +{esque}.
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[- ()C(sk] ()C+{esque} ()C+{esque}[bl(sk] burlesque burlesque[Nrt(sik] grotesque grotesque
[-Qa,N4nt(sk]-gigantesque -gigantesque[-p,kr(sk] -picturesque -picturesque
No free variants can be observed in disyllabic and trisyllabic words in the table above;
the silent final graphemes cannot be deleted from the adjective suffix +{esque} of
Germanic origin (Merriam Webster: 396).
(4) Words Ending in vs.
Words of foreign origin end in the graphemes and , which are
both phonetically realized as [k], the voiceless velar plosive.
(i) Words ending in vs.
Words below end in the phonetic [sk], the voiceless alveolar fricative plus the
voiceless velar plosive.
Phonetic
Transcriptions
British and American
Representations
British and American
Representations
Remarks
[ sk] sk sque
[k4sk] cask(container) 'casque (helmet) distinct words[m4sk] mask(cover) 'masque (drama) distinct words
The homonymous pairs are equal, rather than free, variants. They are two distinct
words, which bear identical phonetic representations, but different word endings; one endsin , the other in (Mariam Websters: 177 & 714).
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(ii) Words ending in vs.
Below are words ending in different graphemic representations but bearing identical
phonetic representations.
Phonetic
Transcriptions
British Representations American Representations Remarks
[k] que ck
[(k] 'cheque 'check equal variants[s4k] 'sacque 'sack equal variants
The words cited above are equal, rather than free, variants. The monosyllabic words
check and cheque are synonyms, meaning draft. The modern word check is derived
from the Middle English chek. (Merriam Websters:194-196). The words sack and
sacque originate in American Spanish; the former is slightly more common than the latter
(Merriam Websters:91).
(iii) Words with word-medial vs.
Below are words ending in different graphemic representations but bearing identical
phonetic representations.
Phonetic
TranscriptionsBritish Representations American Representations Remarks
[k] cqu ck[r4kt] racquet racket equal variants
The two words, racket and racquet, are equal, rather than free, variants. They are
synonyms; they are derived from Arabic, while the former is slightly more common than the
latter (Merriam Websters:962). Both the intervocalic and are realized as [k], the
voiceless velar plosive.
NB. The graphemes and occur when immediately preceded by a
stressed lax vowel with a single vowel grapheme.
(iv) Words with the word-medial < qu>
Cited below are words as a corpus, which contain two syllables, while word stress can
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fall on the penultimate or ultimate syllable.
Phonetic
Transcriptions
British
Representations
Phonetic
Transcriptions
American
Representations
Remarks
[ k] que [ k] que[frikwnt] frequent
(adj)
[fr,kw(nt]frequent (vv) differentsyntactical
categories
The corpus shows that no free variants occur to disyllabic words with the intervocalic
graphemes . The shift of stress location is based on syntactical categories; ultimate
stress is a verb, while non-ultimate stress is a non-verb.
(v) Words ending in vs.
Cited as a corpus are homonymous words with , and , with both
phonetically realized as [k], the voiceless velar plosive.
Phonetic Transcriptions Words with Words with Remarks
[ k] ()Cic ()ique[kr,t,k] critic (judge of
arts)
critique (review) distinct words
[m,st,k] mystic(spiritualist)
mystique (magic) distinct words
[f,z,k] physic (medicine) physique (figure) distinct words
The corpus shows that stress location can result in distinct words ending in the
grapheme or the graphemes . Those ending in the graphemes are
invariably stressed on the ultimate (final) syllable, while those ending in an take the
penultimate stress except for a very few exceptions stressed on the antepenult as in Arabic,
politic, mathematic.
This indicates that with the identical [k] phone, words taking ultimate stress are those
ending in , whereas those with non-ultimate stress end in .
(vi) Overall Observations of Sec.4.2
Overall observations of sec.4.2 indicate that no free variants occur to words in the
grapheme followed by the graphemes ; the word-medial/final - cannot be
deleted, whether they are realized or silenced.
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4.3 The Graphemes vs. the Graphemes
Below are words which end in the graphemes or.
(1) Monosyllabic Words
Monosyllabic words below end in the consonant grapheme preceded by the
graphemes with varied phones.
(i) The word-ending with the high back vowel plus [r]
Listed in the table below are monosyllabic words ending in the graphemes
with the phones [
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(2) Disyllabic Words with Penultimate Stress
The corpus below contains disyllabic words, which can take either the ultimate or the
penultimate stress.
(i) The word-final preceded by a consonant grapheme
Words in the table below are disyllabic words that end in a consonant grapheme plus
the graphemes in an unstressed syllable.
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations remarks
[C] Cour Cor
[kl] colour color free variants[leb] labour labor free variants
[fev] favour favor free variants
[hjum] humour humor free variants
Free variants can be observed in disyllabic words that take the initial stress or
penultimate stress, while the grapheme can be deleted from the unstressed
graphemes reduced to a schwa [] or a schwar [].
(ii) The word-final preceded by two consonant graphemes
Words in the table below are disyllabic words that end in two consonant graphemes
plus the graphemes in an unstressed syllable.
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations remarks
[C] Cour Cor[h$rb] harbour harbor free variants[$rd] ardour ardor free variants[p$rl] parlour parlor free variants
[k4nd] candour candor free variants
[spl(nd] splendour splendor free variants
Free variants can be observed in disyllabic words which takes penultimate (initial)
stress, while the grapheme can be deleted from the unstressed graphemes
reduced to a schwa [] or a schwar [].
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(3) Stress on the Root/Word in Trisyllabic Words
Words cited as a corpus are trisyllabic words, which contain a root ending in the
graphemes .
(i) Stress on the penultimate syllable
Words in the table below are trisyllabic words, which end in the graphemes + as
a suffix.
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations Remarks
[CV+C] our or[d,min] de+mean+our de+mean+or free variants[,nd(v] en+deav+our en+dea+vor free variants
In the trisyllabic words containing three morphemes, free variants can be formed by
deleting the grapheme from the unstressed word-final immediately preceded
by primary stress.
(ii) Stress on the antepenultimate syllable: trisyllabic words
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations Remarks
[CV+C] our +{ } or +{ }[fevr,t] favour+ite favor+ite free variants[b,hev] behav+iour behav+ior free variants
(iii) Stress on the antepenultimate syllable: quadrisyllabic or quinquesyllabic words
Phonetic Transcriptions
British Representations American Representations Remarks[CV+C] our +{ } or +{ }[fevrb] favour+able favor+able free variants[$nrb] honour+able honor+able free variants[b,hevr,s] behav+iour+i+sm behav+ior+i+sm
The corpuses in two tables above indicate that in the quadrisyllabic or quinquesyllabic
words, the grapheme can be deletedfrom the word-final graphemes +, orthe
graphemes+ in primary-stressed words.
(4) Disyllabic Words with Ultimate Stress
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Words cited as a corpus below are disyllabic words, taking ultimate stress, which
contain a root plus the graphemes .
(i) Disyllables with stress on the word-final graphemes
Words in the tables below are disyllabic words that end in the graphemes .
a. Preceded by the consonant grapheme
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[va
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(5) Words Ending in Graphemes Other Than
To be observed below are words with two morphemes that end in the
graphemes plus a final grapheme other than .
(i) Disyllabic words: Words ending in the graphemes or
Words below in the table are disyllabic words that end in free morphemes such as
+{noun}, +{group}, or+{coup}.
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[-Ca
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Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[s ] ous ous[fems] famous famous[vens] venous venous
The corpus shows that no free variants occur to disyllabic words ending in the suffix
graphemes +{ous}, rather than +{our}, even though preceded by primary stress: the
penultimate (initial) stress.
(iv) Trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic words
Below are polysyllabic words including tri/quadrisyllabic words ending in the
adjective suffix +{ous}.
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[s ] ous ous[m
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Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations Remarks
[+{ }] ll+{ } l+{ }[Qul] jeweller jeweler free variants
[trv,1] travelling traveling free variants[wr,p] worshipper worshiper free variants[wr,p,1] worshipping worshiping free variants
The corpus shows that free variants can be formed by deleting one of the double
graphemic clusters, + and , from a disyllabic stem which is suffixed with a
vowel-initial bound morpheme, and primarily stressed on the initial syllable. That is, the
grapheme or
in the double graphemes can be deleted in a post-tonic syllable (after a
stressed vowel).
4.6 Graphemic Metathesis: vs.
Word pairs cited below deal with graphemic metathesis in which the word-final
graphemes can be transposed into the graphemes.
(1) Disyllabic words with word-final: vs.
In the table below are mono-morphemic words ending in the graphemes and
the graphemes .
(i) Preceded by a vowel grapheme
Words cited in the table as a corpus are disyllabic words ending in the graphemes
and .
Phonetic TranscriptionsBritish Representations American Representations Remarks
[] re er[fa,b] fibre fiber free variants[seb] sabre saber free variants
The corpus shows that free variants can be formed in disyllabic words ending in a
vowel grapheme plus the graphemes . The word-final can be transposed
into , when immediately preceded by (primary) stress.
(ii) Preceded by a consonant grapheme
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Words cited in the table as a corpus are disyllabic words ending in the graphemes
and .
Phonetic Transcriptions
British RepresentationsAmerican Representations
Remarks[] re er[s$mb] sombre somber free variants[t,mb] timbre timber free variants
The corpus shows that free variants can be formed in disyllabic words ending in the
grapheme plus the graphemes . The word-final can be transposed
into , when immediately preceded by (primary) stress.
(iii) Trisyllabic words with word-final: vs.
Below are mono-morphemic words with three syllables that end in the
graphemes and .
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations Remarks
[] re er[k4lib] calibre caliber free variants[mk$b] macabre macaber free variants
The corpus shows that free variants can be observed in trisyllabic words ending in the
word-final graphemes . The word-final can be transposed into , when
immediately preceded by (primary) stress.
(2) Disyllabic words with word-final: vs.
Below are disyllabic words that end in the graphemes and , and whose
primary stress falls on the penultimate (initial) syllable.
(i) Preceded by a vowel grapheme
Below are mono-morphemic words with two syllables that end in the
graphemes and .
Phonetic Transcriptions
British RepresentationsAmerican Representations
Remarks[] er er
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[mit] metre meter free variants
[,t] theatre theater free variants
[ma,t] mitre miter free variants[l,t] litre liter free variants
The corpus shows that free variants can be formed in disyllabic words ending in the
graphemes preceded by a vowel grapheme. The word-final graphemes can be
transposed into the graphemes .
(ii) Preceded by a consonant grapheme
Below are mono-morphemic words with two syllables that end in the
graphemes and .
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations Remarks
[] re er[s(nt] centre center free variants[s(pt] sceptre scepter free variants[lst] lustre luster free variants
The corpus shows that free variants can be formed in disyllabic words ending in a
consonant grapheme plus the graphemes . The word-final can be transposedinto , when immediately preceded by (primary) stress.
(3) Disyllabic words with the final other than , and
(i) Disyllabic words with the final
Words cited below are monosyllabic words that end in the graphemes .
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[k] re re [ek] acre acre[nek] nacre nacre
The corpus shows that no graphemic metathesis occurs to word endings with the
graphemes preceded by stressand the grapheme .
NB. The graphemic cluster is kept intact to prevent the grapheme from being
phonetically realized as [s], the alveolar fricative.
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(ii) Disyllabic words with the final , and
Words below are mono-morphemic, disyllabic words that end in graphemes
preceded by consonant graphemes other than the three graphemes , , and .
Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations
[] re re[kedr,] cadre cadre[A$nr(] genre genre[pedr(] padre padre
The corpus shows that no free variants occur to mono-morphemic words of Latin
origin, which contain two syllables ending in preceded by a consonant other
than , , and , though the words are stressed on a penultimate (initial)
syllable.
(v) Overall Observations of Sec. 4.5
Graphemic metathesis is restricted to word endings in mono-morphemic,
dis/trisyllabic words ending. The word-final and in British English are
transposed into and in American free variant in a post-tonic syllable (which isimmediately preceded by primary stress).
4.6 Formulaic Rules with Prose Statement
The rules formulated from observations can be collapsed into four variable rules with
prose statements to indicate how American free variants are derived from their respective
British English cognates.
(1) Graphemic Deletion
The graphemic deletion occurs in a post-tonic syllable in disyllabic and trisyllabic
words.
i. Stress plus - vs. -
l ana-logue ana-logue 2 / C0V1C1V1 { o + g ___}#
- g [+mute] syna-gogue
syna-gog
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The silent graphemes preceded by primary stress can be deleted from the
word-final , restricted to the morphemes +{-logue} and +{-gogue}.
ii. Stress plus vs.
labour laboru 2 / C1V1C1(i)o___ r {+,#} favourite favorite
demeanour demeanor
behaviourismbehaviorism
The grapheme is deleted or abstracted from graphemes restricted to the
stem/word final preceded by primary stress.
iii. Stress plus +, or+l 1 jeweller jeweler 2 /C1V1C1V1 ___+ {V}#
p p worshipped worshiped
One of the double graphemes + or+ preceded by primary stresscan be
deleted from stems which are suffixed with a vowel-initial bound morpheme.
(2) Graphemic metathesis: vs.
The graphemic metathesis occurs in a post-tonic syllable in disyllabic and trisyllabic
words.
b fibre fiber / C1V1C0 < > ___ #
t calibre caliber
The word-final graphemes and preceded by primary stress can be
transposed into the graphemes and the graphemes .
V. Summary and Discussion
Free variants, at the first glance, appear anomalous. As conciseness in graphemic
representation, American free variants are derived from British counterparts in disyllabic or
trisyllabic words.
Variations of British and American free variants are subject to stress location,
supplemented with word-final post-tonic graphemes, such as , +{-logue},
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+{-gogue}., , +, and +.
1. The grapheme can be deleted from a graphemic cluster restricted to the
word-final in dis/trisyllabic words;
2. The silent word-final graphemes can be deleted from trisyllabic words ending
in in the bound root morphemes +{-logue} and +{-gogue};
3. The final grapheme + or+ can be deleted from their respective double graphemes,
when suffixed with a vowel-initial bound morpheme; and
4. Word-finals restricted to or can be transposed into the graphemes
or in mono-morphemic words with two syllables.
The word-final remain intact; the silent graphemes cannot be deleted.
The feasible explanation is that the grapheme is constantly followed by the
grapheme , regardless of word position.
Transliteration leads to a few equal variants from loan words, as in racquet
alternating with racket. However, those words including are slightly more common
than those containing , in terms of variants.
The graphemic deletion and metathesis occur only immediately after a stressed
syllable. As illustrated, armour [$rm] can alternate with armor [$rm] with
the grapheme deleted, whereas amour [m
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Table 2
Lexical Gaps: added to
phonetic transcriptionwords ending in lexical gap: added[egog] a-gog *a-gogue
[kr4-nog] cran-nog *cran-nogue[s(krt-gog] secreta-gog *secreta-gogue
Table 3
Lexical Gaps: added to
phonetic transcription stems ending in lexical lap: added
[sa,kl,1] cycling *cyclling[,sl] whistler *whistller[ka
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environments including particular bound root morphemes. On top of these, the graphemic
changes occur in a post-tonic syllable in non-monosyllables: disyllables and trisyllables.
1. Graphemic metathesis:
Graphemic metathesis occurs only to the non-monosyllabic word-final and
can be transposed into and, and
2. Graphemic deletion:
Graphemic deletion occurs to
(1) The grapheme in the stem/word-final or.
(2)The stem-final + or + in the double + or +, which takes a
vowel-initial suffix.
(3) The silentfinal in the bound morphemes +{-logue} and +{-gogue}.
All in all, the importance of word stress could not be overemphasized in the
derivation of American English free variants from British English counterparts. The two
major graphemic changes with learner-friendly variable rules can serve as a useful reference
to familiarity with the coinage or formation of English free variants.
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Selected Bibliography
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49:273-280.
Carter, R. and M. McCarthey. (1983). Vocabulary and language teaching. Essex, England:
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Cross, D. (1999). A practical handbook of language teaching. Harlow, England: Person
Education Ltd.
Crystal D. (1989).A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Basil
Blackwell, Inc.
Folick, M. (1975). The case for spelling reform. London, England: Pitman.
Kuiper, K. and W. S. Allan. (1996). An introduction to English Language: sound, word and
sentence. London, UK: Macmillan Press Ltd.
Harris, J. (1994).English sound structure. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
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Ltd.
Kenyon, J.S. and T.A. Knott. (1953). A pronouncing dictionary of American English.
Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Company, Publishers.
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Murray, T.E. (1995). The structure of English: Phonetics, phonology, morphology. Boston,
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Pennigton, M.C. (1996). Phonology in English language teaching. Essex, UK. Addison
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Wesley Longman Ltd.
Perry, D. (1989). Word studies (8th ed.). Cincinnati, OH: South-Western Publishing Co.
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