Rome
Chapter 4
Mechikoff, R.A., A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fifth Edition © 2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Etruscans
Etruscan rule: approximately 600 B.C. to 509 B.C.
EtruscansLived in North Central Italy
Scholars don’t agree on where they originated
Archeology uncovered burial tombs
The Etruscans
1958: discovery of tomb containing elaborate paintings depicting various sporting scenes
Known as the Tomb of the Olympic GamesOther tombs were discovered later
Depict footraces, jumping contests, discus, chariot racing, vaulting over wooden hurdles, swimming, gymnastics, armed combat
The Etruscans
Statues depict men and women wrestlers competing against each other.
Suggests that Etruscan men and women were both active and competed against each other
Employed sports and athletic festivals for entertainment
Etruscan SportTendency for violence:
Used prisoners as sacrifices to honor the dead Later used prisoners as “performers” who entertained by fighting to the deathEtruscan cities often centered around arenas which served as sporting venuesRomans adopted various Etruscan customs and practices after conquering them in 509 B.C.
Ancient RomeRoman Republic (established following victory over Etruscans in 509 B.C.)
Roman Empire (established in 27 B.C.)
Empire divided in fourth century A.D.Western Empire, centered in Rome, lasted until A.D. 476
Eastern Empire, centered in Constantinople (now Istanbul), lasted until A.D. 1453
Roman Emperor Nero
Heavily influenced by Greek culture
Believed Greeks alone worthy of his genius
Demanded a special Olympic Games be held in his honor
Competed in chariot race but fell
Declared winner anyway
Victory revoked by Greeks after his death
Romans and Greeks: Cultural Analysis
Romans valued intellect and culture much less than Greeks
Focused on practical versus aesthetic
Romans did not contribute much to philosophic and scientific advancement compared to GreeksMost Romans did not share the Greek belief in the “holistic” development of man (arete)
Romans and Greeks
Romans were focused on the practical and purposeful—very utilitarian
Great civil engineers, many Roman roads still in useVery effective administrators
Developed Roman lawIncorporated aspects of conquered nations’ cultures if they bettered Roman practices
Greeks very reluctant to do this
Roman Architecture
Romans weregreat builders and engineers
Pantheon, Rome
Romans and Greeks
Romans were polytheistic (like the Greeks)
Roman gods were essentially Greek gods with Roman names
During the Empire, some Romans rejected the mythology and started to embrace Christianity
Roman Beliefs
Military training took precedence over intellectual achievementReligion: relatively spirit-less
lacked ceremony, mystery, and awePhilosophers provided code of conduct
Character formation: critical to development of citizens and survival of the Republic
Romans were much more inclusive of other cultures than Greeks
Philosophic Orientation: the Cynics
A group devoted to the teaching of SocratesBelieved in the importance of character, and the indifference to circumstance
influenced the Stoics and, later, some ascetic Christians
Believed Socratic maxim, “no harm can come to a good man”Suffering, pain, poverty should be ignoredPolitical relationships are pointless and should be ignored
Philosophic Orientation: the Stoics
Zeno established his own school of philosophy—stoicism Broke with the Cynics since Zeno was concerned with political life
Influenced by Plato and Aristotle regarding politics Unlike Plato and Socrates, the Stoics trusted the body
Sense perceptions used to acquire knowledgeBody was significant
The Stoics
Rejected metaphysics and religious claims on morality
Emphasized attainment of personal happiness through positive personal conduct no matter what life dealt
Stoics and Roman SocietyStoicism appealed to Roman society:
Individualism—master of your own fate
Personal conduct, character development
Acceptance of fate
Reflected lack of emotion and strict disciplineRecent “Gladiator” movie displays this ethos
Essential for Roman rule and organization
EpicureansRejected metaphysical or religious claims on one’s behavior (similar to Stoicism)Argued against idealism
Body was important for knowing, discovering reality
Promoted the development of cultured individuals who found happiness through the joys of the mind
Sought happiness in good conduct, friendship, and aesthetic enjoyments
Epicurean Thinkers
Marcus Tullius Cicero: great orator and philosopher
Challenged unethical politics of Julius Caesar
Banished from Rome due to criticisms
Became social critic of arena sports as representative of larger Roman social problems
Influenced by Greek philosopher AntiochusConcerned with ethics and optimum development of mind and body
Roman Sport: Change Over Time
Early Republic: people kept physically fit and engaged in athletic contests but were not interested in Greek-style formal athletic competition
Upper class developed ball games, massage, thermae (bathing pools) Some wealthy Romans accepted the Greek concept of health gymnasticsHonored their gods through physical activities
Foot races, ball playing, equestrian displays, and wrestling
Roman Sport: Change Over Time
Late Republic/Empire era: Less interested in personal physical fitnessGreek athleticism not valued militarily by utilitarian RomansRome became a nation of spectators
Mass entertainment, spectacle, and carnage
Games and sport did not facilitate physical education as they did in Greece
Roman Sport and the Military
Military extremely importantAffected views of physical trainingYouth were trained to make obedient, disciplined soldiersPrestigious professionLegions were feared throughout ancient worldStoic philosophy supported military system
Roman Science: Claudius Galen
Sometimes called father of sports medicine
studied medicine at seventeen
Practiced on gladiators
First to apply medicine and biomechanics to exercise.
Opposed to professional athlete
Agreed with Greeks about “moderation in all things”
Women and Sport
Women’s role not nearly as documented as men’s role
for entertainment value; not taken seriouslySocial and political system was based on patriarchy and class stratificationAthletic competition was the domain of Roman men Women participated in swimming, dancing, ball games, and thermae
Women and Sport
“Romanized” Olympic Games had wrestling and running contests for womenArchaeological evidence that women competed as gladiators
Roman officials outlawed participation at certain times
Games and Spectacles
Religious holidays became elaborate festivals53 public holidays in 173 B.C.; nearly 200 by 300 A.D.
Politicians often funded spectacles to get voter support
Spectacles took place frequently to pacify the people Government believed bored citizens would revolt
Included gladiatorial fights, horse and chariot races, and various other forms of combat
Games and Spectacles: Arenas
Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum)Engineering marvel: scented water cooled spectatorsFood and presents thrown to poorSpace for 50,000 spectators
Typical agenda:Animal fights Men and women thrown to the animalsGladiator fights last and most popular
Mass combats also held Emperor Claudius (A.D. 52) flooded Colosseum and ordered 19,000 slaves onto ships
Flavian Amphitheater
Financing:Vespasian looted Temple of Jerusalem
Construction:Brought 12,000 Jewish slaves back to Rome to help construct
Flavian Amphitheater
Games and Spectacles
Circus Maximus: premier hippodrome in Rome
Chariot races, gladiator combats in front of 250 thousand spectators
More Christians were killed in the Circus Maximus than in the Flavian Amphitheater
Chariot Races
Games and Spectacles: Gladiators
Mostly criminals and slaves trained to fight
Utilitarian approach of pacifying the peopleSystem dealt with “criminals,” political enemiesSome free men volunteered: auctorati
Gladiators
Four major classes: Thracian, Samnite, Retiarius, MurmilloDressed as Roman enemies who fought to the deathMost popular events in the amphitheater
Gladiators
Took an oath to be “burnt with fire, shackled with chains, whipped with rods, and killed with steel” (p. 87)Pompeii: best-preserved gladiator training schools
Sport and Christianity
Christianity’s growth profoundly impacted sportRoman “sport” was condemned by Christians writers
Christians were often victims of the spectaclesChristians urged to avoid sport and games—but they did attend and gamble on events
Extent of Christian participation in sport and games is debated
Sport and Christianity
Christian Empire adopted popular chariot racing from the Romans
Greek athletic festivals and Roman spectacles ended with destruction of Rome in 410 A.D.
Greek Reaction to Roman Sport
Many Greeks opposed the introduction of Roman sport
Gladiatorial contests were staged in Greece by first century A.D.
Some emperors liked the Olympic Games and spent money to restore Greek athletic venues like Olympia