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Repertoire, Ensembles and
Instrumentation in gagaku Music
There are three major bodies of music and dance covered by the term gagaku:
1. Kuniburi-no-utamai: Accompanied vocal music of indigenous origin. Theyare based on primitive songs of ancient Japan such as Kagura-uta, azuma-asobi,
yamato-uta and, kume-uta. Instruments accompanying these songs are divided up into
four choirs:
Chorus Woodwind instruments:Hichiriki and kagurabue
o The kagurabue is replaced by the komabue in the accompaniment ofazuma asobi.
o It is replaced by the ryteki in the accompaniment ofyamato-uta andkume-uta.
String instrument: Wagon Percussion instrument: Shakbyshi
2. Kangen and bugaku: Respectively, instrumental music and accompanied
dance deriving from Asian mainland. The music is further sub-divided into two classes
according to the region of its origin: Tgaku refers to music of Chinese origin, itincludes repertoire for kangen and bugaku style while komagaku applies to music of
Korean origin and most of its repertoire is in bugaku style.
Instruments forkangen are divided up into three choirs:
Woodwind instruments: 3 ryteki, 3 hichiriki, 3 sh String instruments: 2 biwa, 2 koto Percussion instruments: 1 taiko, 1 kakko, 1 shko
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Instruments forbugaku are divided up into two choirs:
Woodwind instruments: 3 ryteki or more (orkomabue in komagaku pieces), 3or more hichiriki, 3 or more sh
Percussion instruments: 1 taiko, 1 kakko, 1 shko
3. Saibara and rei: Vocal music that developed at the Japanese court in the 9th
and 10th centuries. The text used for saibara is in Japanese while reis text is in
Chinese.
Instruments accompanying saibara are divided up into four choirs:
Chorus
Woodwind instruments:Ryteki, hichiriki, sh without harmony String instruments:Biwa and koto Percussion instrument: Shakbyshi
Instruments accompanying rei are divided up into three choirs:
Chorus Woodwind instruments:Ryteki, hichiriki, sh without harmony Percussion instrument: Shakbyshi
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Short introduction to the modal system
in kangen music
Although the Japanese modal system includes twelve chromatic tones, one of
the instruments of the kangen ensemble, the mouth organ (sh), can only produce nine
of the twelve chromatic tones. It is from these nine tones appearing in Figure 1 that the
theoretical and practical basis of the six main Japanese modes is formed.
Nine tones available on the mouth organ (sh)
Figure 1
The Japanese modal system is divided up into three groups of two modes: a
Shang-type mode (ryo scale, similar to a Mixolydian mode) and its relative, a Yu-type
mode (ritsu scale, similar to an Aeolian mode). Using the Western modal
denomination, the three modal systems can be described as:
Modal System I: D Mixolydian (Ichikotsu-ch) and A Aeolian (Oshiki-ch)
Modal System II: A Mixolydian (Sui-ch) and E Aeolian (Hy-j)
Modal System III: E Mixolydian (Taishiki-ch ) and B Aeolian (Banshiki-ch)
Thus only the following four pitches are used as fundamental tones: D, A, E, and
B, moreover they also act as pillar-tones in each of the six modes. Figure 2 shows the
three modal systems where the pillar-tones for each mode are indicated as half-note.
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Regarding the three missing tones: Eb, F, and Bb, if they occur at all, they
appear only as transient tones during the production of ornamental figures. Finally,
there is a seventh mode that is not part of that system called Sj (G mixolydian), it is
rarely used because the pipe producing the F natural is no longer available on the
contemporary sh.
Short introduction to the rhythmic cylces
in kangen music
Kangen phrase structures are either of 4 (hayayahyshi) or 8 measure(nobeyahyshi) long, with measures of either 4 (hayabyshi) or 8 (nobebyshi) beats,
although few are made of a combination of two adjacent measures of different length: 2
+ 4 (hayatadabyshi), or 2 + 3 (hayayatarabyshi) pulsations. Figures 1 and 2 show
respectively the possible phrase structures of four and eight measures. The most
important downbeat of the cycle is its half-point and it is indicated in Figures 1 and 2
with a >. This accent is articulated in the music as the only point where the kakko (two
sided drum) and shoko (small gong) meet on a downbeat with the taikos (large
suspended drum) strong accent: obachi.
Four possible phrase structures of four measures (Hayayahyshi)Figure 1
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Five possible phrase structures of eight measures (Nobeyahyshi)Figure 2
Figure 3 shows the unusual phrase structure of six measures (hayamuhyshi)
that subdivides its measures in an uneven fashion of 4 + 2 measures.
A phrase structure of six measures (4 + 2) (Hayamuhyshi)
Figure 3
It must be emphasized that while the obachi is structurally positioned at the
cycle's half-point, this is not how the musicians with whom we worked think about it.
Rather, some of the musicians conceive of it as the cycle's first downbeat, and they
consider the few measures of a piece that precede the very first obachi as a long up-
beat. On the other hand, other musicians from the same ensemble told us that they were
feeling the obachi as marking the first beat of the last measure of the cycle. These
different manners of conceiving of the obachi do not affect at all the music or itsinterpretation, rather, they reflect the divergences of conception between different
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schools of interpretation. In the litterature, we have found references to both ways of
thinking about the obachi that is why we decided to make a distinction between its
structural position and the way some musicians conceive of it. The next three Examples
show the different conceptions of the obachi for the same music.
Structural centered position of the obachi
Example 1
Conception of the obachi as marking the first measure of the cycle
Example 2
Conception of the obachi as marking the last measure of the cycle
Example 3
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Short introduction to the correlation
between timbre and form in kangen
music
Here are in bullet point-style references to some formal elements with their
specific timbral characteristics.
I. Jo-Ha-Ky
Jo-ha-ky is a primary and ubiquitous principle of formal construction in
Japanese arts. It frequently describes the musical development on all formal levels. It
can govern the structure of a musical program, the form of a piece, the development of a
section, musical phrase or even of an individual note. It can be roughly translated as: jo
= slow introduction, ha = faster build-up and kyu = fast conclusion. It is traditionally
understood as a constant but extremely gradual, sometimes almost imperceptible
acceleration of the music. On a highest formal level the different sections maybe clearly
delineated as representing one of the three but when applied at lower levels the principle
becomes more vague and implies mostly the slow change of tempo and a constant
transformation from relatively formless introduction through more defined development
to a fast rushing into a breakup.
Hence pieces are often grouped according to the following 4-pieces pattern:
- Netori : Piece infree rhythm where only the first chairs and the kakko play.
Its function is to establish the mood of the mode. The entrance of the instruments is
prescribed : Sh -> hichiriki -> ryteki -> kakko -> biwa -> koto
- Jo: This movement is also in free rhythm, but it differs from the netori because
all instruments participate, and being a movement rather than an introduction, it lasts
longer.
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- Ha: It is usually in nobebyshi (8 beats per measure). As explained under
Theory/Rhythm, this structure contains half of the number of obachi compared to the
hayabyshi structure. The obachi is among other things the point of synchronization of
the three percussion instruments and a reference point for timbral changes. Hence with
fewer points of synchronization, the nobebyshi has a slower rhythm of timbral
transformation.
- Ky: It is usually in hayabyshi (4 beats per measure). As explained under
Theory/Rhythm, this structure contains twice the number of obachi compared to the
nobebyshi structure. The obachi is among other things the point of synchronization of
the three percussion instruments and a reference point for timbral changes. Hence with
the increase of the number of points of synchronization, the hayabyshi has a fasterrhythm of timbral transformation.
II. Timbral Structure of Ha and Ky
- ndo: Both sections opens with a solo phrase by the ryteki called ndo. It is
followed by the entrance of the percussion instruments.
- Tsuku-dokoro: The entrances of the remaining two solo woodwind instruments
at or around the strong taiko's stroke is called tsuku-dokoro. This is followed in
increments of 2 measures by the biwa #1, koto #1, biwa #2, and finally koto #2.
- Tomede: This is a coda where only the first chairs play in free-rhythm and at a
slower tempo. The order of the exiting instruments is prescribed: WW instruments ->
Percussion instruments -> biwa, and finally the koto.
- Kuwae: Shortly before the tomede, the percussion pattern is accelerated to
twice its original speed. For example, a percussion instruments pattern of four
measures, could now be accelerated to every 2 measures. Typically, the beginning of the
kuwae underlines a noticeable change in the melody. Example 1 and 2 show one of the
most common rhythm pattern in 4 measure of 4 beat, hayayohyshi and its kuwae.
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Hayayohyshi
Example 1
Kuwae
Example 2
III. Formal Designs
1. Nokori-gaku: A form used when a piece is played 3 times:
1st time: Standard with all the instruments2nd time: No perc. only the 1st WW and String chairs play
3rd time:Hichiriki #1 + biwa #1 + koto #1.
2.Jut: A phrase that serves as transitional material leading back to a repetition
of previously presented phrases like the Section C inEtenraku: AABBCCAABB
3. Hanj: Half-point period, i.e. half-point of the piece. Pieces that use that
structure are often subdivided into: AB| CB, where B marks the half-point of the firstand second sections, and C the half-point of the piece.
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4. Kand
This is an added phrase before the beginning of a repetition:
||: .end || kando.. :||
5. Kaishizuke
Indicates the returning point for piece whose repetition is not startingfrom the beginning:
||..||: Kaishizuke.. :||
IV. Classifications
Tgaku (encompasses kangen and bugaku) is divided up into two categories :
Kogaku, meaning old music- and it accounts for less than one third of the repertoire,
while Shingaku, which means new music- encompasses more than two thirds of the
repertoire.
Another classifications is based on the length of the piece:
1. Taikyoku: Great pieces, with 8 movements, almost never played. Only the
very last piece of the cycle concludes on the tonic, all the others conclude on scaledegree 3. Moreover, the elaborated coda (tomede) is only played at the end of the last
piece, all the others cadence with the fuki-nagashi, a technique in which the wind
players hold that last pitch at volume for its full duration before letting the volume to
attenuate.
2. Chkyoku: Middle pieces of 2 longer movements. Typically, phrases begin
on beat 3 in measures of 4 beats, or on beat 5 for measures of 8 beats.
3. Shkyoku: Small pieces of 2 shorter movements, typically phrases begin on
the 1st beat of the measure.
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Classifications
Figure 6
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V. Melodic Structures (To be continued. )
Four characteristics that must be taken into considerations when considering the
overall perception of phrases:
Balancing against the underlying rhythm of symmetrical and
asymmetrical melodic phrase lengths.
Movement types:Jo, Ha orKy.
Contrast of different melodic contours.
Placement of ornamental figures
Ryteki
Description
It is a seven-holed transverse flute made of bamboo. It is approximately 40 cm
long (16 inches). The inside of the bamboo is hollowed out and lacquered, while the
outside is wrapped with strands of bark. The first three holes are assigned to the left
hands fingers and the last four to the right hand. The embouchure is similar to a
Western transverse flute. It is approximately 1.3 cm (0.5 inch) wide.
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Ryteki
Figure 1
SASAMOTO Takeshi SASAMOTO Takeshi
Ryuteki: Fingerings
Figure 2
Ryuteki: Embouchure
Figure 3
Tuning and Transposi tion
The ryteki sounds one octave higher than written, and it is tuned to an A-
430Hz.
Range and fingerings
Figure 4 shows that the range of the ryteki goes from the written C#4 to F#6.
The pitches shown in whole note are those playable by opening/closing the instruments
seven holes, while those in black are produced by half-holing or breath manipulation.
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Written range and finerings for the ryteki
Figure 4
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Although the low C#5 and D#5 (written C#4 and D#4) are playable, they are
never used in the music since the quality of their timbre is rather poor as illustrated in
Figure 5, which compares the spectra of the sound of the ryteki playingffa D#5 and
E5 (written D#4 and E4, respectively). It shows that the spectrum of the E5 (in red) is
richer, counting close to 9 partials compared with only 5 for the D#5 (in blue).
Moreover, the higher peaks of the E5 indicate that its sound is stronger than the D#5.
Consequently, the E5 (written E4) is considered to be the lowest pitch of the rytekis
register.
Ryuteki-
ds5-ff
Ryuteki-
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e5-ff
Spectra of the ryteki playingffa D#5 (in blue) and a E5 (in red)
Figure 5
The ryteki does not have an octave key, therefore, for any giving pitches of the
second and third octaves, the performer uses its first octaves fingering and over blows
in order to transpose it an octave or two higher. Figure 6 shows how over blowing
affects the sounds quality. The top to bottom spectra of Figure 6 are those of the ryteki
playingffan E5, E6, and E7 (written E4, E5, E6) respectively, and they are all produced
using the same fingering. The black arrows from the top to the middle spectra show that
when over blowing the E5 (in blue) to get the E6 (in red), a trace of the E5 remains
present in the sound of the E6.
The spectrum of the E6 (in red), which is the first pitch of the rytekis prime register,
shows that this register is richer in higher partials and more airy as suggested by the
floating partials 2, 3, and 4.
Finally the black and red arrows in the last spectrum of Figure 6, which represents the
sound of the ryteki playingffan E7 (in green), shows remnants of the E5 and E6 in the
sound of the E7 which is the first pitch of the rytekis high register. It is because of
these accumulated remnants that the higher register is unstable and can only be played
loud, in other words, more pressure is required for the E7 to overcome the presence of
the E5 and E6.
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Spectra of the sound of the ryteki playingff E5 (blue), E6 (red), and E7 (green)
(written E4, E5, and E6 respectively)
Figure 6
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Traditional performance practices
Articulation: Traditionally, tonguing is not used with Japanese wind instruments.Instead phrases are shaped by control of the airflow, while selected pitches are
accentuated by tapping the instruments holes with the fingers.
Osu: Decrescendo followed by a sudden re-attack of the same pitch on a strong
beat. The attack is not tongued but produced by an increase of the airflow.
Ateru: Same effect as Osu but on weak beats.
Osu and ateru can be performed on any pitches from the lower and
prime registers.
Osu Ateru
Example 1
Orute: When a melodic line involves a motion from B5 to A5 (written B4 to A4)
the B5 will chromatically slides to the A5, a motion called orute, there is no prescribed
material as to what precedes and follows it. Example 2 shows two separate cases.
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Orute
Example 2
Kakebuki: Refers to four prescribes melodic motions:
D6 on an upbeat leading to a downbeat on an E6 (written D5 to E5)
G5 on an upbeat leading to a downbeat on a D6 (written G4 to D5)
E6 on an upbeat leading to a downbeat on a G6 (written E5 to G5)
B6 on an upbeat leading back to a downbeat on a B6 (written B5 to B5)
Kakebuki D6-E6 Kakebuki G5-D6
Example 3a
Kakebuki E6-G6 Kakebuki B6-B6
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Example 3b
Tataku: This is the coloration of a sustained tone with the lower neighbor-tone.
The change of fingering between the two pitches usually involve the rapidly closing and
re-opening of a single hole, tapping the hole on the closing, thereby accentuating the
lower neighbor-tone. It can be performed on any pitches from the lower and prime
registers.
Ugoku: Is this opposite ofTataku in the sense that the melodic motion involves
the upper neighbor-tone. Once again, the fingering between the two pitches involves the
rapidly opening and re-closing of a single hole, thereby accentuating the returning pitch.
It can be performed on any pitches from the lower and prime registers.
UgokuTataku
Example 4
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Mawasu: This melodic motion usually entails a change of fingerings involving
two holes. A pitch slowly slides to its upper-neighbor tone opening one hole, and then
rapidly closing two holes to move to its lower-neighbor tone, tapping the holes and
thereby accentuating the last tone. It can be performed on any pitches from the lower
and prime registers.
Mawasu
Example 5
Example 6 shows the basic melody ofEtenraku's section B and C, and its
rhythmic accompaniment. Its purpose is to show in context how the ryteki uses its
various patterns to color the melodic tones. The phrase structure is of four measures of
four beats, and each section is composed of two phrases. The piece is in Hy-j mode
(E Aeolian) and the basic melody is centered on the pitches: E, B, and A, three of thefour fundamental pitches of the Japanese modal system. (For more information see
chapter Theory/Pitch).As shown in Exemple 6, the ryteki uses its various patterns to either color a
sustained-tone or connect two consecutive melodic tones, and in doing so it adds
rhythmic character to the basic melody. While the doubling of the basic melodic tones is
rarely disturbed, measure 13 shows the melodic tones B - C#, (doubled by the other
instruments) supported by the ryteki's part with C# and D, respectively. We speculate
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that the tension created by this clash might be helpful to 'move' the music from its
cadence in the preceding measure to the one coming in measures 15 and 16.
The excerpt is performed by the ensembleReigakusha.
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The basic melody ofEtenraku's section B and C and how it is articulated by the ryteki
Example 6
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New performance practices
Articulation: Depending on the performer abilities single- double- and triple-
tonguing, and staccato can be used.
Flutter tongue: This is the common technique used by flutist where a performer
flutters his/her tongue to make the characteristic "Frrrrr" sound. Performing an isolated
alveolar trill while playing a pitch produces the effect. This technique is playable
throughout the lower and prime register of the ryteki.
Tremolo: The ryteki does not traditionally use tremolo, but it can be utilized in
new music. The rule of thumb is to use tremolo between two pitches that do not involve
awkward fingerings and that do not cross over different registers. It is not playable in
the high register.
Bisbigliando: An effect produced when slightly transforming the color of a tone,
usually accomplished by using alternative fingerings for the same pitch. It can be played
on any pitches from the lower and prime registers. It is produced by either the use of
special fingerings or with the motion of the lips.
Harmonics: The ryteki already over blows at the octave, but it can also over
blows at the octave and a fifth bringing out a pitchs third harmonic. Its playability is
limited to the following four pitches, moreover the effect requires a lot of air, so it can
only be played loud. The sound excerpt of Example 7 is limited to the E5-B7 harmonic(written E4-B6).
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Harmonics
(harmonics E5-B7 only)
Example 7
Karu and meru: This is a glissando motion done by the lips, karu means to slide
up, while meru means to slide down. They can be performed over any pitches from the
lower and prime registers. The precise possible ambitus of the glissando needs to be
discussed with the performer.
Ugoku: The slight opening of the first hole (index of left hand) creates a
glissando a half-step higher. This is available throughout the range of the instrument
with the exception of the high register. Moreover, it requires a fingering with a closed
first hole of the left-hand, consequently, this effect is not available on C, C#, and D.
Karu & meru Ugoku
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Ugoku
Example 8
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Other woodwinds instruments
Traditionally, musicians from the kangen orchestra do perform any repertoire
from gagakus three main bodies of music and dance. Some different woodwind
instruments are used in these works, such as: kagurabue and komabue.
1. Kagurabue
Description
It is a six-holed transverse flute made of bamboo. It is approximately 45cm long (18 inches). With the exception of the mouth and finger holes, the
entire instrument is wrapped in birch or cherry bark and then lacquered. This
flute is used in the accompaniment ofKagura-uta, yamato-uta, and kume-uta
suite or .mikagura
From bottom to top: Kagurabue, ryteki, and komabue
Figure 1
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Tuning and Transposition
The kagurabue sounds one octave higher than written, and it is tuned to
an A-430Hz.
Range
It has a range of 2 octaves. The kagurabue does not have an octave-
hole, so over-blowing the pitches of the lower octave produces those of the
octave higher. The pitches shown in whole note are playable by opening/closing
the instruments six holes, while the ones shown in black are produced by half-
holing or breath manipulation.
Range of the kagurabue
Figure 2
2. Komabue
Description
It is a six-holed transverse flute made of bamboo. It is approximately 37
cm long (14.5 inches). This flute is used in Komagaku, music that originated
from Korea often played as a dance accompaniment. It is very similar to the
kagurabue, but it is much thinner.
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Komabue
Figure 3
Tuning and Transposition
The komabue sounds one octave higher than written, and it is tuned to
an A-430Hz.
Range
Its range slightly exceeds 2 octaves. The pitches shown in Figure 4 in
whole note are playable by opening/closing the instruments six holes, while the
ones shown in black are produced by half-holing or breath manipulation. Again,
over-blowing the pitches of the lower octave produces those of the 2nd and 3rd
octaves.
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Range of the komabue
Figure 4
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BiwaDescription
The biwa is a four stringed lute and it is approximately 106 cm long (42 inches).
Biwa Four fretsFigure 1
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NAKAMURA Kahoru
Biwas back is flat Biwas plectrum
Figure 2
Although shaped like its Western counterpart, its back is flat and it has a
shallower body. The short neck has four raised frets, each one specifically assigned to
one of the left hand finger. The strings are struck with a hand-held wooden plectrum.
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Tunings
The biwa sounds as written,
and it is tuned to an A-
430Hz. The strings are
numbered from the lowest
(first string) to the highest
(fourth string). The tuning of
the strings changes
according to the pieces
mode and since the biwas
pegs do not move smoothly,
retuning the instrument
requires time.
Biwas pegs
Figure 3
NAKAMURA Kahoru, the biwa player with whom we worked, told us that for a
concert including pieces of two different modes she tunes two biwas before the concert.
Figure 4 introduces the biwas six traditional tunings. The open strings are shown in the
first measure and the pitches assigned the left-hand fingers in the follwong four
measures. The interval between the pitches of the open string and first fret is a major
second, while the interval between pitches on two adjacent frets is a minor second.
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Biwas tunings
Figure 4
KAWASAKI Yoshihiro, one of the sound engineer with whom we worked
explained to us that the biwas shallow body is first and foremost a bouncing board that
sharply projects forward its sound. Hence the sound of the biwa is very strong at the
attack but it has almost no resonance, and in that sense, its contribution to the overall
sonority is more rhythmic than harmonic. In order to boost the volume of its sound the
biwa player rarely attacks a single string but rather arpeggios of 2, 3, or 4 pitches, with
one note per string. The stroking motion always starts from the 1st
string, sequentiallysweeping the others until it reaches the arpeggios last string. Figure 5shows examples
of harmonic structures of, 2, 3, and 4 pitches inIchikotsu-ch.
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Arpeggios of 2, 3 and 4 notes
Figure 5
Figure 6 shows the spectral analyses of the arpeggio read at the attack and one
second later. It helps illustrate how little resonance the biwa produces since already
after 1 second most of its sound energy is below the threshold of hearing.
At
the
attac
k
One
second
later
The biwas sound at the attack (top) at one second later (bottom)
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Figure 6
Typically, the lowest notes of the arpeggios are opened strings while the highest
one can either be a fingered pitch or an opened string. Exploiting the sound of the
opened strings increases the overall sounds volume, but it is possible to include a
fingered pitch among the lower grace-notes but that pitch should preferably be chosen
among those playable on the 4th fret. This is due to the fact that the space between the
strings in the first three frets is so short that a fingered 1 st fret on the 3rd string, for
example, would damp the following 4th string, as shown on Figure 7. Finally, it is not
custom to finger more than one pitch within a harmonic structure, so if a fingered pitch
were to be included among the grace-notes, then the last pitch would need to be an
opened string.
Little space between the strings on the first three frets causes obstruction whenattacking an upper string
whose immediate lower string is fingered in one of the first three frets.
Figure 7
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Traditional performance practices
Kakubachi: The performance of arpeggio with a downward motion of the
plectrum, it is always loud. Moreover, it always starts from the 1st string and stops on
either the 2nd, 3rd, or 4th string depending if the arpeggio contains 2, 3, or 4 pitches,
respectively.
Kaeshibachi: The performance of arpeggio with an up-ward motion of the
plectrum, it is always soft. The method of holding the plectrum is different when
performing kaeshibachi or kakubachi, consequently few seconds to allow the
repositioning of the hand is required when using the two techniques in sequence. It
always starts from the 4th
string and stops on either the 3rd
, 2nd
, or 1st
string depending ifthe arpeggio contains 2, 3, or 4 pitches, respectively.
Kakubachi in Ichikotsuch Kaeshibachi in Ichikotsuch
Example 1
Waribachi: Downward sweeping of the four strings, dividing the motion into
two groups of two notes. Each group can include either two open strings or one opened
and one fingered string. Typically, the duration of each group subdivides the measure
into two equal durations.
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Kakisukashi: This is a three or four-note arpeggio with two strings in unison.
Options are limited when considering that a fingered string between two open strings
must be fingered on the 4th fret to avoid damping.
Waribachi in Ichikotsuch Kakisukashi in Ichikotsuch
Example 2
Hazusu: This is a sequence of two pitches where the first one is attacked tied to
the second one which is not attacked. Typically, the second pitch is fingered on the
same string one or two frets lower than the first one. Traditionally, the duration of each
pitch subdivides the measure into two equal durations.
Tataku: This is similar to hazusu, except that this time, two non-struck pitches
follow the struck one. Traditionally, the 2nd pitch either acts as a lower neighbor-tone or
a descending passing tone. Typically, the three-note rhythm is either short-short-long or
long-short-short.
In both cases, the sound of the non-struck pitches is not hearable when perform
with the orchestra, but the gesture itself might help the biwa player keep time.
Considering that the metronome marking of this music rarely exceeds the quarter-note
at 54, and that the biwa plays mostly on the 1st beat of each measure, it is the authorsimpression that hazusu and/ortataku may help the biwa player keep time by providing
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material/action that cuts the duration of a measure in two, even if it cannot be heard.
The exception is when hazusu ortataku are performed on the 4th string, in this case, the
left hand fourth finger taps the string so that the un-attacked pitch or pitches can be
somewhat heard.
Hazusu in Ichikotsuch Tataku in Ichikotsuch
Example 3
Example 4 shows the basic melody ofEtenraku's section B and C, and its
rhythmic accompaniment. biwaIts purpose is to show in context how the uses its
various patterns to color some melodic tones. The phrase structure is of four measures
of four beats, and each section is composed of two phrases. The piece is in hy-j mode
(E Aeolian) and the basic melody is centered on the pitches: E, B, and A, three of the
four fundamental pitches of the Japanese modes. (For more information see chapter
Theory/ Pitch).
Example 4 also shows the biwa's standard one-measure motive. It is an arpeggio
always starting from the first string (the lowest) and swepping upwards to either the
second, third or fourth string. Typically, the lower strings of the arpeggio are opened, as
indicated with the '0' in Example 4, while the last string hit may either be opened or
stopped. As a point of clarification, the highest and last pitch of the biwa's arpeggio is
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considered as its melodic pitch. The sole stroke motion used in this example is
kakubachi hazusu tataku, but it also includes examples of and .
Example 4 shows that the biwa's melodic pitch doubles the basic melodic tone
on the downbeat of almost every measure, except in measure 4 where the melodic tone
'E' is supported with a 'D' in the biwa's part. We speculate that being half-way in the
section, the purpose of this clash may be to avoid a too strong feeling of cadence on the
'tonic E' since there is one more phrase to come before completing this section. Finally,
measure 5 shows a rare instance where a melodic tone (F# in this case) is doubled on
the second beat of the biwa's pattern.
The excerpt is performed by the ensembleReigakusha.
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The basic melody ofEtenraku's section B and C and how it is articulated by the biwa
Example 4
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New performance practices
Rubbing the strings: The plectrum is used to rub an opened string.
Example 5
Hitting the body of the instruments: The plectrum is used to hit the black
protective part in the front of the instrument. The sound is totally different depending on
where the instrument is hit, how the plectrum is held, and which part of the spectrum hit
the surface. The biwa player with whom we worked, NAKAMURA Kahoru,
improvised ten different realizations of this rhythm.
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Example 6
Harmonics: The 2nd rd, 3 , and 4th harmonics of each opened string can be
performed by attacking the string with either the plectrum or the finger, in both cases,
the overall sonority is quite soft.
Harmonics with fingers Harmonics with plectrum
Example 7
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Koto
Description
The koto is a thirteen-string zither of approximately 190 cm long and 25 cm
wide (75 inches long and 10 inches wide)
Koto
Figure 1
Tunings
The koto sounds as written, and it is tuned to an A-430Hz. The strings are
numbered from the lowest (first string, the outer one to the highest (thirteenth string, the
inner one and closest to the musician).
Tuning is accomplished by changing the position of the movable bridges under
the strings, which are plucked with plectra placed on the thumb, index, and middle
fingers of the musician's right hand.
The Yamada plectra (with rounded tip) are used in the performance ofgagaku
music conversely to the Ikuta plectra (squared tip) used when performing solo music,
among others. The Yamada plectra are ineffective to play tremolos. In the past, the left
hand used to pull and push on the strings thereby changing the pitch of the sounds
produced, but this technique is no more used in traditional repertoire.
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HIRAI Yuko
plectra The left hand does not control the strings' pitchYamadaFigure 2 Figure 3
Figure 4 introduces the koto's seven traditional tunings. It shows that there are
two possible ways to tune the 6th and 11th strings of the hyoj banshikichand modes:
C# or D for the former and G# or A for the latter. But in the end, these two strings willbe an octave apart, meaning that the chosen pitch apply to both strings.
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Koto's tuning
Figure 4
Although the sound of the koto resonates more than the biwa's, three
observations must be made about it:
1- The plucking position of the right fingers is as close as possible to the bridge
to ensure maximum volume.
2- There is a difference in the sound quality between the attack of the thumb andthe other two fingers. The thumb attacks the string by pushing it up while the two other
fingers attack the string by pushing it down, and because there is more strength in a
downward motion, the attack of the two fingers is stronger than the thumb's attack.
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Upward plucking motion of the thumbPosition of the right hand and the
downward plucking motion of the indexand middle finger
Figure 5 Figure 6
Figure 7 shows the spectra of a D4 played ffplucked with the middle finger (in
blue) and the thumb (in red). It shows that the sound quality of a pitch attack by the
middle finger is richer than when attacked by the thumb.
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Comparison of the sound quality of a D4 when attacked with the middle finger(in blue) and the thumb (in red)
Figure 7
3- As seen below under 'Traditional performance practics', most of the koto'smelodic patterns involve the octave, not only because it falls well under the hand since
this is the span covered by the thumb and the middle finger, but also because it provides
maximum resonance.
Traditional performance practices
The koto has two types of patterns: metrical and non-metrical patterns.
I. Metrical patterns
Most metrical patterns are two-measure long. There are two basic patterns that
fit this category: Shizugaki andHayagaki (The examples are in theIchikotsuch mode
(D mixolydian))
a. Shizugaki starts its rhythmic activity on the 2nd beat of the first measure
b.Hayagaki starts its rhythmic activity on the 1st beat of the first measure
Shizugaki Hayagaki
1 = L.H. Thumb, 2 = L.H. Index, 3 = L.H. Middle finger.
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Example 1
These patterns can be transposed on any pitches from the mode, but the
fingerings and the string sequences remain the same. Because of the modes'
idiosyncratic tunings such transpositions do not always generate the same intervallic
sequences, as illustrated in Example 2 which is a transposition of Example 1.
Shizugaki transposed transposedHayagakiExample 2
There are various techniques to embellish and vary these basic patterns, such as,
among others: use of grace notes, kozume, sawaru, and ren:
a. Grace-note: The pitch of the 2nd beat of the first measure of the shizugaki
pattern is emphasized in three ways: First, this pitch is accentuated with a strong attackof the middle finger, second, it is repeated one octave higher on the third beat, and third,
this last pitch which is the highest one in the melodic pattern, is preceded by a grace-
note that has the effect of accentuating it.
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Grace-note variation ofShizugaki
Example 3
b. Kozume : This is a special type of attack from the thumb flicking the string
from under. The resulting sound is softer than the usual thumb's attack from above.
When used with the shizugakipattern it appears on the 1st beat of the 2nd measure. When
used with the hayagaki pattern it can either appear on the 3rd beat of the first measure
(like in Example 1) or on the 1st beat of the 2nd measure (Example 4).
Shizugaki with withkozume Hayagaki kozume
Example 4
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c. Sawaru : This is a soft attack of the thumb of the 4 th beat on the first measure.
It is used with both patterns. The thumb attack is the standard one. Here is an example
from the workShukshi in Sj (G mixolydian) mode with the shizugakipattern.
Shizugakipattern with sawaru
Example from Shukshi Sjin mode
Example 5
Rend. : Glissando performed by the thumb, it can be used with both patterns. It
is most often used as a group of four thirty-second notes on the up-beat of the 2nd beat
of the 1st measure leading to the 3rd beat as shown in the example.
Hayagaki with ren
Example 6
Musubutee. : This is a three measure pattern used only in three works: Bairo,
Somakusha, and Manzairaku. The first measure of the pattern introduces a special
technique of the thumb called kaeshizume.
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Kaeshizumef. : This is a sequence of attacks from under the strings by the
thumb. This technique is not exclusive to the Musubute pattern, it can be used with the
shizugaki and hayagakipatterns, in which case it appears as two eighth-notes on the 4th
beat of the 1st measure.
Musubute (kaeshizume is used in the first measure of this example)
Excerpt fromBairo Hyjoin modeExample 7
Example 8 shows the basic melody ofEtenraku's section B and C, and itsrhythmic accompaniment. Its purpose is to show in
context how the koto uses its various patterns to color a melody. The phrasestructure is of four measures of four beats, and each
section is composed of two phrases. The piece is in Hy-j mode (E Aeolian)and the basic melody is centered on the pitches E, B,
and A, three of the four fundamental pitches of the Japanese modal system. (Formore information see the chapter: Theory/Pitch).
Example 8 also shows the koto's standard two-measure motive, this one based
exclusively on shizugaki + kozume. It is used todouble some melodic tones. As a point of clarification, the melodic tone
supported in the first measure of the koto's pattern appearson the second beat of the measure. The pitch in the second measure of the koto'spattern either doubles the melodic tone in
rhythmic phase as in measure 6 and 12, or it can anticipate it as in measure 2, orfollow it as in measure 14.
Note in the measure 4 how the melodic tone 'E' is supported by a 'D' in the koto's
part. We speculate that being half-way in thesection, the purpose of this clash may be to avoid a too strong feeling of cadence
on the 'tonic E' since one more phrase is neededto complete this section.
The excerpt is performed by the ensembleReigakusha.
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The basic melody ofEtenraku's section B and C and how it is articulated by the koto
Example 8
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II.Non-metrical patterns
Typical unmeasured sections in gagaku music include among others the netori
and the "coda" (the end of piece) of most works. The netori is a very short piece played
in free rhythm just before the performance ofKangen. It allows the instruments to tune
to the sh and adjust to the mode. The koto has two patterns that it uses exclusively in
these sections.
Sugagaki : This pattern can be played in the coda or in the netori of thea.
Taishikich mode. Its melodic shape can be transposed on any pitches of the mode. It
has several rhythmic variations including one where the four pitches all have the samedurations.
Sugagaki
Example 9
b.Tsumu : This is a pattern used exclusively in the netori. Moreover over it is
exclusive to the modes that have scale degree 5 and 1 on their 5th and 7th strings,
respectively. Consequently it is only used in the netori of the following modes: Hy-j,
Taishiki-ch, Banshiki-ch, Sui-ch, and Oshiki-ch. The 5th and 7th strings are
plucked together by the thumb and middle finger with the hand positioned slightly away
from the bridge producing a rather soft sound. Most probably the function oftsumu is to
help with the tuning process of the netori since the koto's sound is the most resonating
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of the two string instruments, and that this pattern emphasizes the two most important
pitches of a mode: its tonic and dominant.
Tsumu in Oshiki-ch
Example 10
Tsumu is always part of an unmeasured melodic/harmonic line. Example 10
shows a rhythmic and melodic approximation of a koto part for a netori in Oshiki-ch.
Koto part for a netori inOshiki-ch.
Example 11
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Another string instrument
Traditionally, musicians from the kangen orchestra do perform any repertoire
from gagakus three main bodies of music and dance. A different string instrument is
also used in these works, the wagon.
Wagon
Description
This is a six-string koto of trapezoidal shape. It is approximately 190 cm
long and 15 cm wide at its head and 24 cm wide at its tail (75 inches long and 6
inches wide at its head and 9.5 inches wide at its tail). It is used primarily for the
accompaniment ofkuniburi-no-utamai.
Wagon
Figure 1
Tunings
The wagon sounds as written, and it is tuned to an A-430Hz. The strings
are numbered from the lowest (first string, the outer one to the highest (sixth
string, the inner one). Like the koto it has movable bridges (not shown in Figure
1) under the strings that allows for two different tunings shown in Figure 2.The
player holds a small plectrum in the right hand and plays rapid arpeggios across
the strings. The left hand either pluck single strings or dampens five of the
strings so that only one if left ringing after the production of an arpeggio.
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Two tunings of the wagon
Figure 2
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The percussion section
TaikoDescription
The percussion section for tgaku (kangen bugakuand ) is made up of three
instruments: shko, taiko, kakkoand . The taiko is a large suspended drum of about 55
cm in diameter (22 inches) with heads of oxhide. It is hit with wood mallets covered
with leather or rubber.
Mallets for the taikoTaiko
Figure 1
The taiko has two types of stroke: the female stroke called mebachi is a soft
stroke with the left hand just below the drumheads center; the male stroke called
obachi is a loud attack of the right hand in the drumheads center.
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Female stroke: mebachi Male stroke: obachi
Example 1
Kakko
Description
This is a small two-headed barrel drum about 30 cm in length and 15 cm in
diameter (12 inches in length and 6 inches in diameter). The two heads of deerskin
cover a circular frame of about 23 cm in diameter (9 inches). It is struck with wooden
sticks on both sides.
Kakko Kakkos sticks
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Figure 1
MIYAMARU Naoko
The kakko is struck on both sides
Figure 2
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The kakko has three types of strokes: a single stroke with the right stick called
sei; a slow accelerando played with one stick called katarai; and a faster roll played
with both hands called morarai.
Katarai (2nd measure) Murorai (4th measure)
Example 1
Other percussion instruments
Traditionally, musicians from the kangen orchestra do perform any repertoirefrom gagakus three main bodies of music and dance. Some different percussion
instruments are used in these works, such as: san-no-tsuzumi and shakubyshi.
Percussion instruments
1. San-no-tsuzumi
Description
The kakko is replaced with the san-no-tsuzumi in the performance of komagaku
(see Repertoire for details) . This is a double-headed hour-glass drum of approximately
45 cm in length and with heads of 42 cm in diameter (18 inches long with heads of 16.5
inches of diameter). It is played on a single head with a wooden stick. The san-no-
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tsuzumis material is simple limited to a single stroke by itself or preceded by a
ricochet.
San-no-tsuzumi
Wooden stick used to hit the san-no-tsuzumi
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Traditional patterns
Example 1 shows two traditional patterns of 2 measures.
-Traditional pattern #2San-no-tsuzumi -Traditional pattern
#1
San-no-tsuzumi
Example 1
2. Shakubyshi
Description
The only percussion instrument used in all in kuniburi-no-utamai as well
as saibara is the clapper shakubyshi. It is made of two flat pieces of wood of
about 36 cm in length (14 inches). The side of one is used to hit the face of the
other piece in a single stroke.
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MIYAMARU Naoko
Shakubyshi Hitting method
Figure 2
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Orchestration
Introduction
The standard instrumentation of the kangen orchestra includes sixteen
instruments:
hichiriki,Nine woodwind insturments: three three ryteki, and three sh.
koto biwa.Four string instruments: two and two
Three percussion instruments: one shko kakko, one , and one taiko.
It is possible to perform kangen music in a chamber setting, in which case, the
instrumentation varies between: ten (WW:1,1,1, String: 2, 2, Percussion: 1,1,1), five
(WW: 1,1,1, String: 1,1), and three (WW: 1,1,1) instruments.
The eight different instruments of the kangen orchestra are divided into threechoirs: woodwinds, strings, and percussion. Each choir has a prescribed function that is
never altered. The hichiriki and ryteki from the woodwind choir present the melody.
The three instruments of the percussion choir collaborate to create a single rhythmic
pattern, which marks off time units. Finally, the two plucked string instruments: the
koto and the biwa, and the remaining woodwind instrument the sh create a bridge
between the woodwind and percussion instruments by coloring key unpitched
percussive attacks with pitched motives and harmony related to the melody.
Orchestration (cont.)
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Mixing the Woodwind instruments
The sole function of the ryteki and hichiriki is to present the melody, the mostimportant element of the music. The two instruments typically voiced in octave, play in
heterophony. On the other hand, the sole function of the sh is to provide the harmonic
support, a function it fulfills in combination with the two string instruments. The lowest
note of the shs aitake is considered to be its melodic tone. Figure 2 shows the
correspondence between the written pitches of the three-woodwind instruments. It
demonstrates that for the most part, the shs aitakes fill up the octave space between
the hichiriki and the ryteki.
Correspondence between the pitches of the three-woodwind instruments
Figure 2
Although the ryteki and hichiriki are united in their function and voiced in
octave that is filled up with a harmonic structure, they do not fuse into a single sonority.
In fact, the sound of the three-woodwind instruments usually creates a stratified texture
where each instrument is clearly distinguishable. Moreover, the overall dynamics of the
woodwind instrument is invariably loud contributing to create an overall
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monochromatic color, suggesting that the beauty of kangen music may lie beyond its
overall sonority. Sections 1 and 2 aim at explaining why the sound of the three-
woodwind instruments do not non-blend and why their dynamics is constantly loud.
1. Sound fusion
Our ability to hear separate parts is increased when instruments are not
rhythmically synchronized, hence the traditional presentation of the melody by the
ryteki and hichiriki in heterophony diminishes their blending potential. Moreover, an
examination of the acoustical properties of the three-woodwind instruments suggests
that an important reason for their non-blending quality is intrinsic to the instruments
themselves.
Indeed, fusion is facilitated when the sound of the instruments to be mixed is
homogeneous, but already the three different types of embouchure of the woodwind
instruments work against sonic fusion. Also the characteristically constant microtonal
transformations of the hichirikis sound prevent any possible fusion, as demonstrated
with Figure 3. The spectra of the hichiriki (in blue) and ryteki (in red) playingffa D5and D6, respectively, have been analyzed over a time-lap of about 2.5 seconds. The
larger peaks of the hichiriki indicate that its sound fluctuates substantially during this
time-lap. It also explains why the peaks of the two instruments do not align well in spite
of the fact that they are in octave. Hence, Figure 3 shows that the acoustical properties
of the two instruments do not favor their fusion since two tones blend better when more
of their partials coincide.
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Spectra of the hichiriki (in blue) and ryteki (in red) playing ffa D5 andD6, respectively.
Figure 3
2. Dynamics
The overall steady loud dynamics of the woodwind instruments is the outcome
of a domino effect between the three instruments. The explanation of this sequence of
events is divided up into three steps. It starts with an investigation of the effect of
dynamics on the spectral envelope.
Step 1: The effect of dynamics on the Japanese woodwind instruments isdifferent from their Western counterparts. Typically, the effect of dynamics on Western
instruments is twofold involving a change of volume and a displacement on the
frequency scale of the sounds main energy. For instance, a decrescendo is characterized
by a reduction in volume and a switch of energy towards the lower partials, as
illustrated with the spectra on the left hand-side of Figure 4, which represents the sound
of the clarinet playing a D5,ff(in blue), mf (in red), andpp (in green), respectively. On
the other hand, the spectra on the right hand-side of Figure 4 are the shsalso playing aD5 at the same three dynamics. While the reduction in volume is noticeable when
comparing its spectra from the ff (in blue) to pp (in green), the energy displacement
towards the lower partials is much less accentuated, it appears rather that the spectral
envelop keeps more or less its shape and that the change of volume is proportionally
spread over the entire envelop. Consequently, the transformation of the shs sound
over a change of dynamics is much more discrete, hence less perceptible.
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Change of the clarinets spectralenvelop as it plays a D5, ff, mf, pp,
respectively.
Change of the shs spectral envelopas it plays a D5, ff, mf, pp,
respectively.
Figure 4
Figure 5 shows the transformation of the spectral envelops over the same three
dynamics for the ryteki and hichiriki playing a D6 and D5, respectively. It
demonstrates the rytekis response to a dynamic change is similar to the shs but that
the hichirikis is comparable to the clarinets response. The importance of this
acoustical phenomenon will be further commented on in Step #3.
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Change of the rytekis spectralenvelop as it plays a D6, ff, mf, pp,
respectively.
Change of the hichirikis spectralenvelop as it plays a D5, ff, mf, pp,
respectively.
Figure 5
Step 2: Because the hichiriki and ryteki work together to present the melody, it
is important to look at how dynamics affect their combined sounds. Figure 6 shows the
spectra of the hichiriki (in blue) and ryteki (in red) playing ff a D5 and D6,
respectively. The last spectrum shows the combined two sounds and it reveals that the
ryteki must matched the hichirikis dynamics to avoid being masked.
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Spectra of the hichiriki (in blue) and ryteki (in red) playing ffa D5 and D6respectively, and their combination.
Figure 6
Step 3: Figure 7 shows the spectra of the hichiriki (in blue) and ryteki (in
green) playing respectively a written D4 and D5, and the sh (in red) playing its aitake
h, which is based on D5: pp on the left-hand side andffon the right-hand side. It also
shows the combination of the three sounds. The importance of the phenomenon
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described under Step #1 comes to bear when comparing the pp and ff sounds of the
hichiriki (in blue) with the sh (in red).
This comparison suggests that a move fromff to pp has a much stronger effect
on the sound of the hichiriki than on the sound of the sh, to thepoint that the former
could potentially be masked by the latter as they move towards a softer dynamics.
Hence, to avoid being masked by the sh, the hichiriki must keep its dynamics on the
loud side, and as explained in Step #2, the ryteki must matched the hichiriki dynamic
level to avoid being masked by it.
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Spectra of the hichiriki (in blue),Spectra of the hichiriki (in blue),
sh (in red) and ryteki (in green)sh (in red) and ryteki (in green)
and their combination,and their combination,
playing the written pitches ffplaying the written pitches ppFigure 7
3. The beauty ofkangen music
Although the overall steady loud dynamic ofkangen music is obvious, it would
be a mistake to conclude that this music has no dynamic shape. As a matter of fact, the
transformation of dynamics in kangen music has a direct impact on the sophisticated
and refined timbral shifts of the music. Typically, the shs part moves in waves of
crescendo and decrescendo. The sound of the sh is not much sensitive to dynamic
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changes, so these dynamic-waves are in fact produced by the addition and subtraction of
pitches, called te-utsuri (see the chapter: Woodwinds/Sho). Based on the phenomenon
described in Step #3, we can predict that this pitch expansion and contraction will
influence the overall timbre. We can indeed expect the sound of the hichiriki to come
forward as the number of pitches of the sh decreases, and to slightly fade away as the
number of pitches increases. This timbral transformation is clearly perceptible on the
next sound example from Sandaien Ichigu Jo-Section A performed by the ensemble
Reigakusha.
Sound example: Sandaien Ichigu Jo-Section A (no score)
These intricate dynamics/timbral waves are clearly audible because of the
stratified sound of the woodwind instruments that facilitates the perception of such
minute timbral changes, but also because they coincide with the phrase structure.
Theoretically, the Japanese melody divides the phrase structure into two symmetric
parts. The first half of the phrase is characterized by melodic motion that is primarily
conjunct, wave-like, and contained within the range of an octave. Moreover, the speed
is essentially slow since the rhythmic subdivision of the melodies rarely goes beyond
the eight-notes, with a metronome marking usually under quater-note = 54. Typically,
this melody is then followed by a sustained-tone beginning at the phrases half-point, in
phase with the meeting point of the three percussion instruments. Example 2 shows the
melody of the first phrase ofEtenrakus Section A. In measures 1-2 the melodic motion
of the ryteki and hichiriki represents the foreground, while the shs two aitakes are
background material, conversely to measures 3-4 where the single aitake as the
woodwind instruments sustained-tone moves to the background. Note that sustained-
tones in kangen music also have foreground quality since they are always ornamented
has shown in Example 2 with the D acting as lower-neighbor tone to the E. This
example is an excerpt from a recording by the ensembleReigakusha.
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Etenraku: Simplified version of the 1stphrase of Section A (measure 9-12),Woodwind and Percussion instruments only
Example 2
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Orchestration (cont.)
Mixing the String instruments
The sole function of the string instrument with the sh is to supply the harmonic
support. The two-string instruments work in collaboration to create the string pattern
that act as bridge between the woodwind and percussion instruments, coloring key
unpitched percussive attacks with pitched motives and harmony related to the melody.
The string section has its own internal hierarchy where the biwa main function is
to color the downbeat of every measure with an arpeggio. As such it connects with the
shko the percussion instrument whose function is also to articulate the downbeat of
every measure. On the other hand, the kotos pattern usually spread out over two
measures, slowly spells out the biwas harmony while reinforcing the main melodic
tone. As such, it connects with the two melodic instruments: the hichiriki and the
ryteki. Example 3 illustrates this process. The hichiriki and the ryteki introduce D
has the melodic tone in the first measure, as shown with the arrows. That pitch is
reinforced on the same beat by the sh and the biwa.Note that traditionally the lowest
pitch of the sh and the highest on the biwas are considered their principal melodic
tones. The biwas tones E and D are then reiterated in the kotos line with an
emphasis being put on the D which is the lowest and highest note of the spread out
harmony, as shown with the arrows. The recorded example comes from the beginning
of the work, the koto only enters in the 3rd measure. This example is an excerpt from a
recording by the ensembleReigakusha.
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Etenraku: Simplified version of the 1st phrase of Section A (measure 9-12)
Example 3
Although the biwa and the koto are united in their function, their sound never
fuse. In fact, the sound of the two-string instruments usually creates a stratified texture
where each of the two sounds is clearly distinguishable. There are two factors that workagainst their fusion: First, a minimum of resonance is required to get some fusion
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between two sounds, but the sound of the biwa does not resonate much beyond one
second; Secondly, our ability to hear separate parts increases when instruments are not
synchronized rhythmically, which is the case of the two string instruments with the
biwas activity focused mainly on the downbeat of every measure while the kotos main
rhythmic activity focused on the 2nd and 3rd beats of the first measure when using the
shizugaki pattern or on the 1st nd, 2 and 3rd beats of the same measure when using the
hayagakipattern.
1. The beauty ofkangen music
The string instruments pattern adds another level of transformation to the
overall timbral structure of the music. The melodic first half of the cycle favors thewoodwind instruments and as the melodic instruments come to a point of rest on the
second half of the cycle, it switches to the rhythmically active string instruments as
illustrated in Example 4, which shows the first phrase of Section A.
Etenraku: Simplified version of the 1st phrase of Section A (measure 49-52),String and Woodwind instruments only.
Example 4
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Orchestration (cont.)
Mixing the three percussion instruments
The orchestras three percussion instruments work in collaboration to create a
single rhythmic pattern that provides the composition with a regular metric outline that
supports the melody. It has its own internal hierarchy where the shko main function is
to articulate the downbeat of every measure, the kakkos role is to control the
accelerandos that lead to some selected downbeats, while the function of the taiko is to
articulate the most important downbeat of the entire phrase: its half-point called obachi.
As a matter of fact, this is the only beat where the three percussion instruments meet.Example 1 shows the basic rhythmic pattern used in the phrase structure of 4 measures
with 4 pulsations per measure. (It must be emphasized that while the obachi is
structurally positioned at the cycle's half-point, this is not how the musicians with whom
we worked think about it. Rather, some described it as the marker of the cycle's first
measure, while others have indicated that they think of it as a marker of the last measure
of the cycle. That is why in this research, we are making a distinction between the
obachi's structural position and the way some musicians conceive of it.)
Four-measure/four-beat pattern
Example 1
The taikos part is easy with only two attacks per cycle, and it is also difficultbecause the performer cannot afford loosing count, since one of the two attacks is the
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cycles most important one. Hence the performance of the taiko includes hand gestures
that add a ceremonial tone to the performance while helping the performer to keep up
with counting. Thus, after the half-point attack the players left arm makes a circular
motion and brings his/her left hand to rest on his/her left thigh, at which point the right
arm performs a similar gesture and brings his/her right hand to rest on his/her right
thigh. Then the left hand gets in place to perform the mebachi followed by the right
hand that stands ready to perform the obachi, at which point the arms pattern starts
over again.
Although the three percussion instruments are united in producing a single
rhythmic pattern, their different function and timbre prevent them from merging into a
single sonority. As shown in Example 1, the two most active instruments are the shkoand the kakko. The reason why their superposed sound remain clearly distinguishable is
related to the fact that the former is an idiophone and the latter a membranophone, and
because their sound occupies two separate areas on the frequency scale as demonstrated
in Figure 1, which shows that the energetic pattern of shkos sound (in blue) starts
around 3930 Hz, while the kakkos (in red) is located between 350-1100 Hz.
Comparison between the frequency areas occupied by the sounds of the kakko(in red) and the shko (in blue)
Figure 1
Hence the different timbre of the percussion instruments helps articulate the
phrase structure at three different speed levels. The first level of articulation is the
fastest one and it comes from the high and piercing attack of the shko that usually
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marks off the downbeat of every measure. The second level of articulation is the
intermediate one, and it comes from the kakkos whose rolls emphasize selected
downbeats, usually one every two measures. Finally, the last level of articulation is the
slowest one, and it comes from the taikos obachi, which accentuates the most
important downbeat of the entire cycle: its mid-point.
As demonstrated in the other chapters under 'Orchestration', timbral
transformations and phrase structure go hand-in-hand. Hence, the macro rhythm created
by the percussion instruments provides the listener with a temporal canvas against
which one can appreciate the transformations of timbre.
Orchestration (cont.)
Mixing the three choirs
As shown in Figure 8 the seating arrangement for the kangen orchestra is:
Woodwind players sit in the back with the ryteki players on the left, hichirikis in the
middle, and the sh players on the right. For each instrument, the seating arrangement
of the 3 performers forms a triangle with two players sitting on the back row, and thefirst chair in front of them. The string players sit in front of the woodwind players with
the two koto players on the left and the two biwa players on the right. In both cases, the
first chairs are the ones sitting closer to the middle of the stage. Finally the three
percussionists occupy the front row with the shko on the left, the taiko in the middle,
and lastly the kakko on the right. There is no conductor. The 16 musicians synchronize
via the melody. The typical training for a musician of kangen music starts by learning
one of the three-woodwind instruments for seven to ten years. Then, the musicians addto their training the study of either a string or a percussion instruments as well as dance
or singing. Therefore, all musicians know the melody and how their part fits in
relationship with it.
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Reigakusha ensemble
orchestraKangen
Figure 8
For example, during one of our sessions with the musicians from theReigakusha
ensemble, we noticed as the ensemble was changing repertoire from a kangen to a
bugaku work, the sh player ISHIKAWA Ko switching for the taiko and the hichiriki
player NAKAMURA Hitomi leaving her instrument behind to put on an extremely
colorful costume and masterfully perform a dance as if this was the only thing she had
done all of her life.
1. Form and instrumental textures
The orchestration of the introduction and coda sections of every kangen piece is
prescribed and static for the rest of the work. The first and the last sections act
respectively as a gradual fade-in and fade-out, and only the first chairs play in these
sections. Moreover, the instruments entrance in the introduction follows a strictly
preset order: the ryteki enters first, followed by the percussion instruments, the sh,which enters quasi- simultaneously with the hichiriki and finally the biwa and the koto.
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After the equivalent of about a phrase-length of solo playing, each first chair is joined in
by its respective peers. Hence, the entrance of the second koto completes the tutti that is
invariably maintained until the coda. At that point, the instruments disappear following
another preset order. The percussion instruments stop first, followed by the woodwind
instruments, and then the biwa and koto.
2. Register
The de facto separation of the choirs based on their acoustical properties and
different functions is emphasized by their separate registers, where the string and
woodwind instruments occupies two separate ranges: the lower register for the former
and the higher one for the latter.
3. The beauty ofkangen music
The relationship between the musics timbral transformations and its phrase
structure has been established. Examples from Etenraku have been used to support our
points because this is one of the most standard works of the repertoire. Example 5, an
excerpt from Seigaiha, is introduced to show that phasing interplays between phrase
structure and timbral transformations adds one more dimension to the music.
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's first phrase of Section B (measure 17-24)Simplified version ofSeigaiha
Example 5
Seigaiha's phrase structure is eight-measure long, with four beats per measure.
That structure is established with Section As two phrases where we find the expected
four measures of melodic motion with an overall color favoring the woodwind
instruments, coming to a sustained-tone at the phrases mid-point in phase with the
taikos obachi, where the overall color switches to a mixture of sh and string
instruments.
But the synchronization between the musics phrase structure and its timbral
transformations is broken in the first phrase of Seigaihas Section B, as shown inExample 5. The 4+4 measure pattern has switched to a 2+4+2 with the sustained-tone
on F# starting two measures before the taikos obachi, setting a marvelous feel of
ambiguity, which is maintained in the second phrase of Section B where an eight-
measure melodic motion is introduced without a sustained-tone. Finally, the phasing
between the two parties is re-established with the first phrase of Section C. (These last
two phrases are not shown).
The 2nd phrase (measure 8-16) of Konju-no-Ha provides another example of a
method of out-phasing the phrase structure and the sound transformations. The phrase
cycle is four-measure with four beats per measure, as shown in Example 6.
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Konju-no-Ha: 2nd phrase (measures 9-16)
Example 6
The melodic line of this phrase does not create the standard 4 + 4 where each
four measures would further be divided in 2 + 2, instead, the lines merges the two
groups of four measures into a 6 + 2, consequently, there is no change of timbre that
corresponds with the first taikos obachi. Moreover, the sustained-tone of the last two
measures is in fact out-phased, starting two beats earlier than the taikos obachi.
Our purpose with these last two examples was not to start an exhaustive list of
out-phasing techniques, rather we wanted to make two points: First, we wanted to give
the reader a sense of how alive this music is, an impression that he/she may not have
gotten from our square presentations of the various techniques covered in this section.
Second, we wanted to prepare the listeners to expect the unexpected as he/she listens to
kangen music and to go beyond its overall static sonority, because it has so much beauty
to offer already beyond its first curtain.
4. Timbre and time
Like its Western counterpart kangen orchestral music is composed of
superposed layers of sound but while Western music layers usually blend, layers ofJapanese orchestral music do not. The listener can at all times easily differentiate the
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sound of instruments across choirs as well as within each choir. The intricate and
refined interaction between the eight kangen instruments is clearly perceptible at every
moment. This provides a complex and dynamic experience even if on a larger scale
other elements appear slow or static. The richness of kangen music is not based on a
high level dramatic progression but on the inner life of the ever-elusive moment.
Although this research has focused exclusively on orchestration in kangen
music, it must be emphasize that its temporal qualities are also fascinating, so much so
that this is in fact material for a research in itself. But for the time being, we refer the
reader to an article we have written on the correlation between timbre and time in
kangen music.Japanese Traditional Orchestral Music: The Correlation between Time
and Timbre http://www.jaroslawkapuscinski.com/pdf/japanese-, it can be found at:traditional-orchestral-music.pdf .
Voice
There are three types of vocal music performed at the Imperial court:
Saibara: Accompanied vocal court music, it draws from traditional folk
music. The text is short and simple with a earthy tone, often describing scenes
of life.
Rei: Performed with or without accompaniment, rei is more a recitation
than a song, in spite of the fact that it is often referred to as 'graceful songs'.The text usually consists of a pair of seven-word lines from a familiar Chinese
poem rendered in a combination of J apanese and Chinese.
: Often labeled as 'God's songs',Kagura-uta kagura-uta is the repertoire
of sacred vocal music associated with the mikagura (court dance related to the
shinto cult). It is composed of 26 chants including, among others, Niwabi,
Achime, Karakami, Hayakarakami, Komomakura, Sazanami, Senzai, Hayauti,
Hoshi, Asakura, Sonokoma ...
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In all three cases, the melodies are built from the succession of melodic
patterns, each one characterized with its own shape.
1. Melodic patterns used in rei and kagura-uta songs
Tsuki
A long note followed by a short glissando to its upper neighbor-tone
rapidly returning to the initial pitch. This pattern is never repeated in asequence.
Tsuki
Example 1
Oshi
A long note followed by a short glissando to its lower neighbor-tone
rapidly returning to the initial pitch.This pattern is never repeated in asequence.
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Oshi
Example 2
Pattern with no name
According to the singer with whom we worked, ISHIKAWA Ko, this
pattern essentially came about as an ornamentation, hence, it does not have a
specific name. Its contour involves a sustained-tone that comes down a tone
and immediately jump up a fourth followed by an ascending second.
Pattern with no name
Example 3
Mawasaki-ushi
A sustained-tone followed by two fast descending thirds before jumping
up a fourth, ending a tone lower than the initial pitch.
Mawasaki-ushi
Example 4
Ori-ushi
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A sustained-tone followed by a short accelerando with two descending
thirds leading to a melismatic motion that closes on a pitch a fourth lower than
the initial tone.
Ori-ushi
Example 5
Yuri
A sustained-tone is pulsated three times by its lower neighbor-tone, this
motion always starts slowly and then accelerated.
Yuri
Example 6
Yuri-nagashi
A sustained-tone is pulsated four times by its lower neighbor-tone, this
motion always starts slowly and then accelerated before slowing down again. It
is only used at the end of a piece.
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Yuri-nagashi
Example 7
Kurikoe
A sustained-tone followed by a glissando up a minor sixth, after resting
on that tone another glissando goes down a fourth.
Kurikoe
Example 8
2. Melodic patterns used in saibara songs
Osu
A sustained-tone pulsated with one accentuated lower neighbor-tone.
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Osu
Example 9
Yoyu
Similar to yuri except that the neighboring motion is limited to two instead
of three.
Yoyu
Example 10
Irifushi
The saibara's equivalent for yuri.
Irifushi
Exampl